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1 Meaning of research

The word research has been defined diversely by different authors: -as an art of scientific investigation to the state of nature or phenomenon -as a movement of knowledge from known to unknown -as a search for knowledgeetc. 1

 Let us examine some persuasive definitions:

According to Hertz (1957): Research is the application of human intelligence in a systematic manner to a problem whose solution isnt immediately available

According to Clifford Woody: Research comprise defining and redefining problems; formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting , organizing and evaluating data; making deduction and reaching at conclusion to determine whether they fit the formulated hypothesis.
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 Klopsteg (1945) gives the most comprehension definition.

Research is original and creative intellectual activity carried out in the laboratory, the library, or in the field which endeavors to discover new facts and to apprise and interpret them properly in the light of previous knowledge.
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With constantly increasing understanding, it revises previously accepted conclusions, theories and laws, and makes new applications of its findings. Whether it seeks to extend knowledge for its own sake or to achieve results with specific economic or social value, its reason de`etre is its contribution to human welfare.

1.2 Types of Researches

Like its definition research has been also classified variously by different authors. For better understanding it is important to use the following criteria:

(a) based on the output of research: (i) Fundamental (also called academic, basic or pure) it aims at investigating or searching for new principles and laws it is mainly concerned with generalization and formulation of theory
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(ii) Applied research

it aims at finding solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an industry.

(b) Based on the purpose of research: (i) Exploratory research general assessment of the problematic issue to get insight (ii) descriptive research description of the state of phenomena or affairs as it exists
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(iii) analytical research analysis of the underlying factors Cause-effect analysis of variables (iv) predictive research development of theories and models Prediction of r/ships among variables
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(c) Based on the approach adopted : (i) Quantitative research applicable for phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity or numerical value (ii) Qualitative research applicable for phenomena that can not be expressed inters of quantity
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(d) Based on the time required to accomplish a research:

(i) one time research: it is limited to a single time period

(ii) longitudinal (ongoing ) research: it is carried out over several time periods
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(e) Based on the environment in which research is carried out: field research library research laboratory research simulation research

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1.2 Scientific thinking and the thought process sources of knowledge range from untested opinions to highly systematic style of thinking Scientific knowledge is obtained through inductive and deductive reasoning
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 Science is a method of inquiry; a way of learning and knowing things about the world
The vital interest of science is not what to know but how to know

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 Science deals with phenomena that are observable by anyone Knowledge is cumulative and an inherited body of information and understanding is the jumping-off point for the development of more knowledge

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Rationalism

E
B
Ide

C
D A
Existentialism

Emp.

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(i) Empiricism: observations and Propositions based on experience and derives from such experience by methods of inductive logic including mathematics and statistics (ii) Rationalism: reasoning is the primary source of knowledge (knowledge can be deduced from known laws or basic truths of nature) (iii) Existentialism (informal process) (iv) Idealism: highly interpretative ideas subjective extraction of knowledge based on individual perception; 18 belief

(a)untested opinion: it is a form 0f knowing that people cling to despite contrary evidence (b) Self-evident truth: limited observation (c) persons of authority: authorities serve as important sources of knowledge

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(d) the literary style: it is based on cases

(e) postulation: it is used to devise theorems that represent logical proofs (f) scientific method : the best aspects the logic of the rational approach with the observation aspects the empirical orientation

People undertake research to search and know things in a systematic way, thereby increasing their knowledge
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Scientific method Research methodologies and techniques are mostly different from one discipline to another or can be different from research to research. The scientific method as a philosophy is common to all. As Karl Pearson put it, the scientific method is one and the same in all sciences and the method is the methods of all logically trained minds.
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Steps in Scientific method

The steps in scientific method which are common to all researches: 1. Observation: the first and initial step in the scientific method is a minute and careful observation of the subject matter of research 2. Recording: the next step to observation is a careful recording of all information obtained 3. Classification: the classification implies systematically arranging the subject matter on a logical basis
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1. Generalization: the extension of general laws on the basis of the pattern exhibited by the classified material 2. Verification: the scientific method does not stop only at formulation of laws. The general principle must be also verified
Forms of Scientific Methods 1. Induction: the movement of knowledge from particular facts to general rue or principle 2. Deduction: the movement of knowledge from general rule to a particular case 23

3. Historical: the backward movement of knowledge to trace the cause of a phenomenon 4. Comparative : analysis and comparison of two contemporary phenomena 5. Structural: a study of what a thing; what are its outline and significant feature 6. Functional: in contrast to structural method. Functional method studies the processes 24

Theory its components and connections The ultimate goal of science is the development of theories to explain the lawful relationships that exist in a particular field. Progress in science often involves major shifts in theories and assumptions-known as paradigm shifts-rather than a steady accumulation of knowledge

Components of theories
concepts: concepts are abstract ideas generalized from particular facts They are generally accepted collection of meanings or characteristics associated with certain events, objects, conditions, situations and behaviors
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 classification and categorization of objects or events that have common characteristics beyond any single observation create concepts Each discipline develops concepts of its own which enable to have common understanding among experts or specialists Concepts are basic to all thought and communication, yet in everyday use we pay little attention to the problem encountered in their use In research context concepts play a fundamental role : for designing hypothesis; devising measurement.
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Constructs: As used in research constructs are highly abstract concepts; they are not directly tied with reality but are derived on the basis of other concepts they are normally ideas or images specifically invented for a specific research or theory building purpose Example: satisfied customer; attractive market; motivated employeeetc Constructs are used to communicate the combination of meanings presented by concepts
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Definitions: the blurring meaning of concepts can destroy a research study's value. So as to mitigate this problem definitions are used Conceptual definition: concepts are defined with the help of other concepts and constructs Operational definitions: a definition stated in terms of specific testing or measurement criteria
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Variables: a symbol to which we assign numerals or values Independent and dependent : IVs Presumed cause Stimulus Predicted from.. Antecedent Manipulated DVs presumed effect response Predicted to consequence measured outcome
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Models: representation of a system that is constructed to study some aspect of that system or the system as a whole Models differ from theories in that a theories role is explanation whereas a model's role is representation
Theory and research It is important for researchers to recognize the pervasiveness and value of theory A theory is a set of systematically related concepts, definitions, and propositions that are advanced to explain and predict 30 phenomena

theory narrows the range of facts we need to study Theory links one study with others Theory suggests which research approaches are likely to yield the greatest meaning Theory suggests a system for the researcher to impose on data in order to classify them in the most meaningful way Theory is also used to predict further 31 facts that should be found

Formulating a research problem A research problem in general refers to some difficulty which a researcher faces(experiences) in the context of either theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for it.
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In order to say a research problem does exist, the following conditions should be fulfilled: 1. There should be an individual (group or organization) I to whom the problem can be attributed. The individual or organization occupied an environment, say N which is defined by values of the uncontrolled variables 2. There must be at least two courses of actions; say C1 and C2 can be taken to solve the problem. 3. There must be at least two outcomes; O1 and O2 of the courses of actions of which one should preferred to the 33 other.

4. The courses of action available must have some chance of obtaining the objective, but they can not provide the same chance otherwise the choice would not matter. 5. Environment in which the problem pertains In research process the first step happens to be identifying and properly defining a research problem. the problem identified initially may be stated in broad general way and then gradually the ambiguity will be resolved - identifying a research problem is always exploratory and reiterative phase.
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the classic way in academic research is to consider the literature on the area of interest and identify the gaps since these will indicate original areas to research The principal components in the formulation of a research problem: The originating questions (what one wants to know) The rationale (why one wants to have the questions answered) 35 The specific questions

The following checklist may be useful to evaluate a research problem: - Research-ability (with regard given time, resources, and availability of data) - Interesting (so as to sustain attention, whether it contributes to the researcher's career goal - Significance (whether the expected results from the study are of interest to others)
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Novelty (Whether the study fill a void, replicate, extend or develop new ideas in the literature) Techniques of defining a problem 1. Systematic immersion in the subject matter 2. Surveying the available literature the relevant theory in the field Reports, records and other literature in the concerned area Review research works undertaken on related problems 37

3. Developing idea through discussion (experience survey) 4. Rephrasing the research problem (reformulation) Potential sources of a research problem
Theory of ones own interest: in the researcher must have knowledge of a particular theory Daily problems: everyday constantly create something worthy of investigation this case thorough problems new and
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Technological changes: various impacts of technological changes

Unexplored Areas: In disciplines where relatively exhaustive investigation is not yet made; problems can be both abstract and applied of interest Discussion with people (experience survey) 39

Research Proposal
It discusses openly the problem for research; how the research will be executed; and resources required for producing the proposed results Characteristics A proposal is a straight forward document (clear, precise, and economical) It is not a literally production Organization and outline are absolutely essential
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Importance of research proposal

It is used as: A plan * organized patterns of activities to be undertaken * the general approach of investigation * methods to be adopted for gathering and analyzing data

A contractual document * between researcher and sponsor * between researcher and advisor, department A means of communication
* between researcher and sponsor * between researcher and advisor, department
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Elements of research proposal

The preliminaries 1. Title: the most widely read part of a proposal 2. Table of contents 3. Abstract (executive summary; synopsis) - It enables readers to get the essentials of the proposal without reading the entire proposal
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The main parts 4. Introduction * it starts with clear articulation of statements to make the reader interested * it associates the problem with larger field (historical perspective) * background of the problem * the impact of the research (potential beneficiaries) * the rationale of the study
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* If the research is designed within a particular theoretical framework line of inquiry) the theory should be introduced and discussed * In quantitative studies, one uses theory deductively and places it toward the beginning of the plan of the study The objective is to test or verify theory In this case, the theory becomes framework for the entire study, an organizing model for the research questions or hypothesis for the data collection procedure
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 In quantitative inquiry, the use of theory depends on the nature of the investigation In case of studies aiming at grounded theory for example, theory and theoretical tenets emerge from findings * Much qualitative inquiry however, also aims to test or verify theory, hence in this cases the theoretical framework, as in quantitative efforts should be identified and discussed early.
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5. Statement of the problem * the problem statement describes what the problem is all about with due emphasis on core nature of the problem * it describes the context for the study and general analysis approach * it explains the problem within the framework of the theory that undergrids the study * key issues related to the problem
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6. Objective of the study * the objective statements should provide a specific and accurate synopsis of the overall purpose of the study * it should be specific, measurable, achievable and realistic * identifying the specific method of inquiry to be used * identifying the unit of analysis in the study
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7. significance of the study * the importance of research: how the research will refine, revise or extend knowledge - substantive, theoretical or methodological significance * its implication in extension of the frontiers of knowledge * its implication to practice (how will results of the study be implemented and what innovations will come out) * what suggestions for subsequent research arise from the findings
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8. Delimitation of the study * it is about breadth and width of the study * the general problem should be reduced in a manageable size * it is done to solve the problem using the available financial, labor and time resources * in fact there should be balance between manageability and representativeness
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9. Limitation of the study

* it identifies potential weaknesses of the study -weakness of methodology (sampling technique, techniques of analysis) - threats of internal validity that may have been impossible to avoid - lack of reference materials - lack of cooperation
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10. Review of the related literature * this part provides the background and context for the research problem * it should indicate the need for the research and the writer is knowledgeable about the area * demonstrating to the readers that the researcher has a comprehensive grasp of the field * delineating the jumping-off place for the study (how will the study refine, revise or extend what is now 51 known?)

Importance of reviewing the related literature * it can reveal investigative ideas * it can suggest methods and techniques dealing with problematic situations (it relates a study to the larger, ongoing dialogue in the literature about the topic) * it can reveal sources of data * it can introduce significant research personalities * it can make the research in associative and historical perspective
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11. Research Methodology * the methods and procedure section really the heart of the research proposal * indicating the methodological steps the project will take to answer every question or to test every hypothesis illustrated in the sections * all research is plagued by presence of confounded variables ( these should be minimized by various kinds of controls)
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* sampling design the key reason for being concerned with sampling is that of validity-the extent to which the interpretations of the results of the study follow from the study itself and the extent to which results may be generalized to other situations External validity: the extent to which findings of the study can be generalized to situations other than those observed in the study
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 Probability versus non-probability sampling Internal validity: the extent to which the outcomes of a study result from the variables that were manipulated, measured, and selected rather than other variables In fact the key issue in sampling is representative-ness Research design: instrumentation and general approach of carrying out the research
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Data sources and collection methods outline for collecting the data Data analysis: indicating briefly any analytic tools to be used for analysis and providing well-thought rationale for the decision to use the approach of analysis selected 12. Definition of used terminologies nominal definition: statements assigned to a term such as its dictionary definition operational definition: specifications of dictionary definitions of a term into observable and measurable characteristics
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13. Organization of the study * the problem and its approach * review of the related literature * data presentation and analysis * summary, conclusion and recommendation 14.Time and cost budget it should be presented in the form sponsor requests research proposal, questionnaire design, field interviews, editing and coding, data analysis, report generation 57

15. Bibliography * Harvard style, APA, MLA, Turbian styles * either of these is right, but once one style is selected, it is important to keep consistency * if it is reference, only cited in the text are included * if a broader spectrum of evidence than immediately available the reference list may be called bibliography
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17. appendix: the need for complete documentation generally dictates the inclusion of appropriate appendices in proposals * verbatim instructions to participants * original scales or questionnaires * interview protocols * sample of informed consent forms * official letters of permission to conduct research * detail formulas, charts, maps 59