Restoration Ecology and the Conservation of Biodiversity

Basic principles of ecology have practical use for solutions to human problems NRES 420 Restoration Ecology

Objectives
Human transformation of landscape created need Illinois a state in great need Restoration ecology & conservation biology Blending science into practice Important ecological principles for restoration Practice of restoration

Landscape Transformation
1870s
Advent of clay drainage tile systems Decreased rail transportation costs Legislation to create drainage districts 1903 First flight 1956 Interstate Highway System

1800

1840

1880

1920

1960

2000

1836 Steel plow invented

1869 Transcontinental railroad

1923 First commercial hybrid maize

1970s Environmental protection legislation

1850 Swamp & Overflowed Lands Act

1893 First gasoline automobile

1862 Homestead Act

1999 Executive Order 13112 (invasive species)

Early Settlement 1800 1820

Start of Agriculture 1840 1860 1880

Prairie Drainage 1900

Diversified Farming 1920 1940 1960

Monoculture 1980

Elk Bison Black Bear Mountain Lion Gray Wolf

CHANGES IN MAJOR LANDSCAPE ELEMENTS IN ILLINOIS SINCE 1800 AND IMPACTS ON SELECTED MAMMALS

Fisher Deer Beaver Bobcat Otter Coyote

Hectares (millions) in Illinois

8.0 6.4

Dry Prairie Wet Prairie / Marsh

Forests Pasture

4.8
3.2 1.6

0
1800 1820 1840 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980

Year

Habitat Lss

Fragmentation
FOREST PARCELS BY AREA CATEGORY NUMBER OF HIGH QUALITY PRAIRIES REMAINING IN ILLINOIS CLASSIFIED BY SIZE CATEGORY
>240

120

Area Category (ha)

40-240

Number of Sites

20-40

80

4-20

40

0.4-4

<0.4

100 0-0.5 0.5-2 2-4 4-8 8-20 20-40 >40

1,000

10,000

100,000

1,000,000

Prairie Size (ha)

Number of Parcels

Invasive Species
Non-Natives in the Illinois Flora* % of Illinois Flora
30

20

10

0 1846 1950 1986 2004

*2004: 961 non-native of 3,074 taxa 97 of 173 families (56%) lack nonnative taxa

Spread of Alliaria petiolata

Illinois in Need
Clearly a need
Remaining habitat:
0.01% prairie 9.9% wetland 31.4% forest

U.S. Rank:
Indiana 48 Illinois 49 Iowa 50

Restoration Ecology
Using research to better understand ecological processes within highly disturbed ecosystems in order to enhance their complexity and long-term persistence

POPULATION ECOLOGY

COMMUNITY ECOLOGY

RESTORATION ECOLOGY

ECOSYSTEM ECOLOGY

LANDSCAPE ECOLOGY

Improving the Ecology of a Disturbed Area by:

increase diversity in highly disturbed system reintroduce ecosystem function reestablish characteristic species and community structure/function

may have to start restoration from scratch

van Diggelen, Grootjans & Harris (2001)

Ecosystem function

What are the goals of restoration?

Ecosystem structure
A. D. Bradshaw, Reclamation of Land and Ecology of Ecosystems

Restoration Ecology
Applying ecological principles within a social context to revitalize habitats and conserve species

POLICY

POPULATION ECOLOGY

COMMUNITY ECOLOGY

SOCIETY

ECOLOGICAL RESTORATION

ECONOMICS

ECOSYSTEM ECOLOGY

LANDSCAPE ECOLOGY

POLITICS

Ecology Theory Relevant to Restoration

Population Ecology Vulnerability of small populations Genetic depression, swamping Metapopulation theory + MVP size Community Ecology Species-area relationships Island biogeography theory Problems with fragmented habitats Intermediate disturbance hypothesis Succession & community assembly Diversity-stability theory; community structure Landscape Ecology Ecosystem Ecology

What aspects of Population Ecology are relevant to Restoration Ecology?

Species survival depends on

maintaining minimum viable population levels (>500). maintaining genetic diversity. using locally adapted genotypes. having a metapopulation structure with strong source subpopulations to rescue sink ones.

COMMUNITY ECOLOGY: How is the Species-Area curve relevant?

S = c + z log A

S = c Az log S = log c + z log A

Figure 1

How is Island Biogeography Theory relevant?

Immigration Extinction

Small

Large

Near

Number of Species
Far

Figure 2

Patch relationships: What is take-home message?

Figure 3
(From Forman, 1995)

Ecological Disturbance: What are its dimensions? How relate to restoration?

1 2

Figure 4
(D.T. Krohne, General Ecology)

Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis: at which level does disturbance aid restoration?

Competitive exclusion Disturbance Rate

Small species pool

Figure 5

Selected Natural & Anthropogenic Disturbances: reversible vs. permanent change?

Natural Events**

Anthropogenic Events**
Residential development Road, trail, railroad line Telephone line, electrical power line Dam, water diversion, canal Commercial development Modern agriculture Mining Logging Grazing

Fire Disease epidemic Flood Herbivory Drought Hurricane, tornado, windstorm Avalanche, landslide Volcanic eruption Ice storm

** Entries

in italics connote reversible disturbances; others represent long-term or permanent conversion of habitat.

Succession
an orderly change in relative abundances of dominant species in a community following a disturbance until a stable community (climaxlike predisturbance) results
1 succession begins on mineral soils 2 succession begins on soils with seeds

Succession: Species-Species Interactions

How do these interactions influence community development? Facilitation early species make environment less
suitable for themselves, but more suitable for later species -- nurse crops

- Tolerance - early species make environment less suitable

for recruitment of similar early species, but they neither help nor hinder later species

- Inhibition - early species make environment inhospitable

to later-arriving species Early prairie reconstructions overly dominated by warm season grasses

Community Assembly
development of the ecological community is determined by random variation in species' colonization of a disturbed area & subsequent species interactions

Which orientation to follow? Succession vs. Community Assembly

Succession Deterministic Internal interactions & environment determine outcome Assembly Stochastic Supply of propagules determines outcome Multiple stable assemblies

How can succession be managed to aid restoration?

General causes
Site availability Species availability

Contributing processes
Disturbance Dispersal Propagules Resources

Modifying factors
Size, severity, time, dispersion Landscape configuration, dispersal agents Land use, time since last disturbance Soil, topography, site history Germination requirements, assimilation rates, growth rates, genetic differentiation Allocation, reproductive timing & mode Climate, site history, prior occupants Competition, herbivory, resource availability Soil chemistry, microbes, neighboring species Climate, predators, plant defenses & vigor, community patchiness

Species performance

Ecophysiology Life history Stress Competition Allelopathy Herbivory

Restoration: Managing Succession

Designed Disturbance Managing Succession Controlled Colonization Controlled Species Performance

Managing Succession: in Practice

Designed Disturbance Controlled Colonization Controlled Species Performance Burning Bulldozing, Scraping, Topsoil Mixing Cabling Chopping, Clipping Flooding & draining Herbicide application Plowing Solarization (thermal shock) Soil compaction Burning Broadcast seeding, Drill seeding, Direct planting Cutting Grazing Fertilization, Herbicide spraying Irrigation, Water level change Topsoiling & live soiling Rotovating Scraping Soil fabrics Burning Cabling Grazing, Excluding grazers Fertilization, Reducing soil fertility Herbicide application Mowing, Selective cutting Irrigation, Water level change

How can community structure influence stability of restored community?

Top-down control of trophic abundances Cascade effects: indirect effects extended through multiple levels Can have chain of extinctions if highly dependent Keystone organisms must be preserved Non-redundant species, key species that maintain stability/diversity

How can Diversity Complexity Stability be enhanced?

An increase in the structural diversity of vegetation increases species diversity. Full restoration of native plant communities sustains diverse wildlife populations. A high diversity of plant species assures a year-round food supply for the greatest diversity of wildlife

Landscape Ecology
How does the landscape context of the restoration influence everything discussed earlier?

Spatial Principles

Large areas sustain more species than small areas. Many small patches in an area will help sustain regional diversity. Patch shape is as important as size. Fragmentation of habitats, communities, and ecosystems reduces diversity. Isolated patches sustain fewer species than closely associated patches. Species diversity in patches connected by corridors > than for disconnected patches. A heterogeneous mosaic of community types sustains more species & is more likely to support rare species than a single homogeneous community. Ecotones between natural communities support a variety of species from both communities & species specific to the ecotone.

Minimum Dynamic Area in Restoration Design

Largest patch size Patch longevity Disturbance frequency Habitat requirements

Ecosystem Ecology: how is it relevant?

Interactions between the biotic & abiotic components of the ecosystem