Descriptive and CausalComparative Research

Tom W. Kimbrell Advanced Research Arkansas State University

Research Designs
Five Types of Designs Descriptive Causal-Comparative Correlational True Experimental Quasi-Experimental

I keep six honest serving men, (they taught me all I knew), their names are what, and why, and when, and how, and where and who.
--Rudyard Kipling

Descriptive Research
Definition Describes characteristics of a population or phenomenon The who, what, when, where, and how of a situation

Descriptive Research
Characteristics and Uses No controlling of variables Some understanding of the problem Current status of subject during certain time period

Descriptive Research
Characteristics and Uses Develop or redefine educational methods Test hypothesis or answer questions

Descriptive Research
Examples of Questions

How many teachers hold favorable attitudes toward phonics instruction? What are the reactions of school principals to the frequency of school shootings?

Descriptive Research
Statistics
Measures of central tendency
Mean
Mode

Median

Descriptive Research
Statistics
Measures of Variability
Range Quartile

Scores Variances Standard Deviation

Descriptive Research
Statistical Uses
GPA

and ACT Scores in relationship to college remediation rates NAEP Reports on reading, math, and science instruction

Descriptive Research

Two Types Point in Time Over Time

Descriptive Research
Point in Time
One

time snapshot of what is occurring

Examples: Opinion Polls of attitudes of conditions & Behaviors of people in a particular setting

Descriptive Research
Over Time (Two Types)
Longitudinal

Studies Cross-Sectional

Descriptive Research
Longitudinal Studies
Three designs Trend Cohort Panel
Study

changes or continuity in samples characteristics at different points in time

Descriptive Research
Trend Studies
New

sample at each data collection period from certain population that may change Example: NAEPs Reading Study at different grade levels over a period of several years

Descriptive Research
Cohort Studies
New

sample selected at each collection period from a population that remains constant Example: Work status of elementary teachers receiving California teaching certificates in 1992

Descriptive Research
Panel Studies
Same

participants each year from the same initial group Example:National study of 12th grade students into adulthood that found response to study declined over time

Descriptive Research
Panel Studies
Problems Associated

Note changes in individuals and investigate and explore why Self-fulfilling expectations with identification process, biased over time, sensitive small changes in population

Descriptive Research
Cross-Sectional
Data

collected at one point in time, but from groups that are in differing stages of development or age Example: Student attitudes toward math from 7th to 12th grade taken during a two week period

Causal-Comparative Research
Definition
Ex post facto - looks at causes after the fact Seeks to discover possible cause and effects of a behavioral pattern or personal characteristic Focuses on relationships between variables

Causal-Comparative Research
Definitions

Variable that causes other variable to change is the independent variable Independent variable cannot be manipulated (impossible or not ethical)

Examples: gender, age, social economic status

Causal-Comparative Research
Definitions

Variable that is effected by the other variable is the dependent variable Keyword difference (by grouping) would be a tip-off of an ex post facto study

Causal-Comparative Research
Uses and Purposes

Simplest quantitative approach to relationship study Allows researchers to find relationships and the degree of interaction between groups in an organized and scientific manner

Causal-Comparative Research
Uses and Purposes

Goal is to find some type of event, treatment, or program that becomes the cause Outcome or effect is what we want to study and know about

Outcome is the research problem

Causal-Comparative Research
Participant and Variable Givens

Exact knowledge of variables required Independent and dependent variables Comparisons of pre-defined groups No manipulation of variables allowed No random assignment of individuals or groups Degree of causal-effect is uncertain

Causal-Comparative Research
Advantages

Allows cause-effect relationship study when subject manipulation is impossible or very difficult Allows for study of many relationships within a given population at one time

Causal-Comparative Research
Problem

Degree at which a researcher can determine the causal-effect with any measure of certainty In relationship study of X and Y, may reveal X causes Y, Y causes X, or another variable Z cause both X and Y.

Causal-Comparative Research
Example: Study of 477 high school students and the effect on their academic achievement due to part-time employment Third variable came into playextracurricular activities

Causal-Comparative Research
Study Design Problem Statement Defined Group Comparison Group (two approaches) Data Collection Techniques Data Analysis

Causal-Comparative Research
Problem Statement Speculation from observations, previous research, or studied theory Address and test alternative hypothesis occurring between two groups or variables (strong inference)

Causal-Comparative Research
Problem Statement Example Study speculated that junior high students ability to become literate in science might depend upon their teachers verbal and written instructional methods

Causal-Comparative Research
Defined Group Group must be defined and possess the characteristic to be studied Definition must be precise for understanding and interpretation of findings

Causal-Comparative Research
Defined Group Example Science literacy study defined one teacher population as being high context-enriched in their instruction and the other as low context-enriched

Causal-Comparative Research
Comparison Groups

Select group not possessing or not to the same degree, the defined characteristic Usually has similar characteristics with exception of the variable that is the focus of the study

Causal-Comparative Research
Comparison Groups

Initial study may reveal that the two groups differ significantly on another variable Two techniques maybe used to create new subgroups to eliminate the third variable Matching and Extreme Grouping

Causal-Comparative Research
Comparison Groups Matching Example Each high-context-use teacher matched to low-context-use teacher with similar years experience

Causal-Comparative Research
Comparison Groups Extreme Groups Example
100 teachers classes studied in regards to references of science context. Students score each teacher and the 10 scoring highest and the 10 scoring lowest make up the two study groups.

Causal-Comparative Research
Data Collection Observational data Interview information Questionnaire data Standardized test scores

Causal-Comparative Research
Data Collection
Multitude

of measurements can ensure that the research is assessing all relationships that may exist between the presumed cause and the presumed effect

Causal-Comparative Research
Data Collection
Example Science literacy study researchers administered several instruments to students to measure many student learning outcomes, looking at content, knowledge of subject, processes in science, and historical development

Causal-Comparative Research
Data Analysis
Computation of descriptive statistics
Group Mean and Standard Deviation

Data tested for statistical significance

Variance, median, rank scores as well as categorical frequencies

Causal-Comparative Research
Data Analysis
Example Teacher's use of context-enriched statements assigned percentage of time in teaching scores, students scores were measured scores on attitude and aptitude instruments with the mean and standard deviation computed for each set of student-teacher scores

Causal-Comparative Research
Various Significance Test t Test for Difference Between Means
Test significance of difference in two sample means Assume scores form an interval or ratio scale, normal distribution, and score variance for population is equal t test for independent means used if matching variable is not available

Causal-Comparative Research
Various Significance Test
t Test for Single Mean
Test to see if single mean of sample

differs significantly form the

specified population mean

Causal-Comparative Research
Various Significance Test
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
When more than two groups are studied Keeps researcher from doing many t test Compares the amount of between-group variance in individual scores with the amount of variance within group scores

Causal-Comparative Research
Various Significance Test
t Test for Multiple Comparisons
Test of significance of the differences between two population means Done after ANOVA to show significant difference between group scores and individual scores

Causal-Comparative Research
Parametric Test Assumptions about population parameters, the shape or variance of the population scores
Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA)

Causal-Comparative Research
Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA)

Used to determine whether a difference between two groups on a particular variable can be explained by another difference between the two Used to control the initial difference Effect is to make two groups equal with respect to one or more control variables

Causal-Comparative Research
Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) Used to determine if groups differ on more than one dependent variable Takes two scores on each dependent variable and creates one score - vector- to represent each subjects scores on all dependent variables Mean of the vector scores is a single score called a centroid

Causal-Comparative Research
Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) Spaces represented by the vectors differ significantly

Used to conceptualize and analysis nature of the interrelated characteristics and if they differ

Causal-Comparative Research
Nonparametric Test
Test

of statistical significance that does not rely on any assumptions about the shape or variance of the population scores
Chi-square (2) Mann-Whitney U Test Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test

Causal-Comparative Research
Chi-square (2) Determines if data in form of frequently counts are distributed differently from different samples phi and contingency coefficients can be computed to estimate magnitude of relationship of variables in a chisquare table

Causal-Comparative Research
Mann-Whitney U Test

Determines whether distribution of scores of two independent samples are significant If U is significant, bulk of scores in one population Used when it is assumed that homogeneity of sample variances underlying the t test is grossly violated

Causal-Comparative Research
Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test

Determines whether distribution of scores of two samples differ significantly from one another when scores of samples are correlated Analogous with the t test for correlated means except no assumptions of shape of the distribution or homogeneity of variance

Causal-Comparative vs. Correlational

Neither

experimental Does not involve manipulation of a treatment variable Relationships are studied in both Correlational-focus on magnitude and direction of relationship Causal-Comparative-focus on difference between two groups