zakaun book

INTRODUCTION TO THERMODYNAMICS  System can be an open (control volume) or closed system (control mass).  Boundary can be fixed or movable  Example: (i) Closed system with fixed boundary (ii) Closed system with movable boundary (iii) Open system with fixed boundary (iv) Open system with movable boundary PROCESS  Any changes that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to another are called a process. Process Constant Isothermal Isobaric Isochoric Adiabatic No heat transfer ENERGY Energy can exist in numerous forms such as thermal, mechanical, kinetic, potential, electric, magnetic, chemical and nuclear, and their sum constitutes the total energy, E. The magnetic, electric and surface tension effects are significant in some specialized cases only and are usually ignored.  Total energy of a system = E or (kJ/kg)  Total energy can be categorized into 2 groups: [1] Macroscopic: is a form of energy that system posses with respect to some outside reference frame, e.g. - Kinetic energy (KE) - Potential energy (PE) (kJ) or (kJ/kg) (kJ) or (kJ/kg) [2] Microscopic: degree of molecular activity independent of outside reference frame, e.g. a) Internal energy (U) – closed system Internal energy is defined as the sum of all the microscopic forms of energy of a system. It is related to the molecular structure and the degree of molecular activity. As mentioned earlier, the magnetic, electric and surface tension effects are significant in some specialized cases only and are usually ignored. In the absence of such effects, the total energy of a system consists of the kinetic, potential and internal energies and is expressed as or b) Enthalpy (H) – open system Unlike closed systems, open systems involve mass flow across their boundaries, and some energy is required to push the mass into or out of the control volume. This energy is known as the flow energy. To push the entire fluid element into control volume, a force, F must act through a distance, L. Thus, the work done in pushing the fluid element across the boundary (i.e. the flow energy) is The combination of the internal energy and flow energy ( is frequently encountered in the analysis of control volume, therefore, for the sake of simplicity and convenience, this combination is defined as a new property, Hence, total energy of flowing fluid is given by or IDEAL GAS RELATION  where P = absolute pressure V = volume m = mass T = absolute temperature R = gas constant (kJ/kg K) = 0.287 kJ/kg K for air  The gas constant is different for each gas and is determined from: where = universal gas constant = 8.314 kJ/kmol.K (same for all substance) = molar mass / molecular weight = mass of one mole of a substance in gram.  Mass of product, where N = mole number  For fixed mass, constant. SPECIFIC HEATS  Energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a substance by one degree.  For incomplete substance i.e. solid and liquid, the value of  For gas, energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a substance by one degree at constant volume is called constant volume specific heat, whereas energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a substance by one degree at constant pressure is called constant pressure specific heat, .  Internal energy and enthalpy changes ( and )  A special relationship between and for ideal gases can be obtained by differentiating the relation , which yields  Since , and  At this point, we introduce another ideal-gas property called specific heat ratio, , defined as BOUNDARY WORK Boundary work, (i) Constant volume process (Ex 3-5) (ii) Constant pressure process (Ex 3-6) or (iii) Constant temperature process (isothermal) (Ex 3-7) and (Nov 2005) ISENTROPIC PROCESS  Entropy – change relations for ideal gases under constant specific heat assumption.  ________________ (A) _________________ (B)  For isentropic process: _______________ (C)  Under similar manner, from eqn (B) : _____________ (D)  Substitute eqn. (D) into (C) and simplifying : ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS  When a body is brought into contact with another body that is at a different temperature, heat is transferred from the body at higher temperature to the one at lower temperature until both bodies attain the same temperature.  At that point, the heat transfer stops, and the two bodies are said to have reached thermal equilibrium.