Chapter 8 Outline

Feminism -an intellectual, consciousness-raising movement based on the idea that women and men should be accorded equal opportunities and respect. The movement of feminisms chief goal- getting people to understand that gender is an organizing principle of life. Gender structures social relations on unequal ground, thus power is fundamentally at play when we talk about gender differences. Sex - the natural or biological differences that distinguish males from females sexuality --refers to desire, sexual preference, sexual identity, and behavior gender-- a social construct that consists of a set of social arrangements that are built around sex.

The study of gender involves-- looking very closely at the relationship between nature and nurture and not assuming that one overshadows the other or that there is a clear line separating the two.

It is common to think that-- there are only two sexesmale and femaleand that all people fall into one group or the other, and indeed this is a way of imposing order in a chaotic world. But there is evidence to suggest that we need to embrace a more expansive definition of sex, one that goes beyond two rigid and distinct categories.

The Ancient Greeks thought --that there was one body, the male body, and that the female body was its inversion. This notion endured until the mid-eighteenth century. Essentialism and biological determinism-- assign gender and explain gender differences purely in terms of natural or biological attributes. We can expand our understanding of gender differences by-- examining other cultures to see how they construct gender and by looking back in history to see how ideas about gender have changed.

Some theorists claim that there is a ____________ in society todayan ideal notion of a man that is so dominant, people arent even really aware of it. However, the notion of the ideal man has changed over time, once again proving that gender is not a rigid, unchanging category-- hegemonic masculinity

Gender roles --- sets of behavioral norms assumed to accompany ones status as a male or female. However, there is much evidence showing that gender roles have more to do with social status than biology

A structural functionalist approach to studying gender ---assumes that gender differences exist to fulfill necessary functions in society, but it doesnt allow for the possibility that other structures could fulfill the same function or for the fact that structures change throughout history.

Psychoanalytic theories about gender ---focus on individualistic explanations for gender differences as opposed to societal ones. Inherent in these theories is the notion that natural differences exist between men and women that dictate how they behave. Socialist feminists--- argue that all social relations, including relations between workers and the owners of the means of production, stem from unequal gender relations.

Social constructionists--- argue that gender is a process in which people participate with every social interaction. Black feminists ---have pointed out that gender doesnt function in a vacuum and that gender studies must take into account that no single category of women or men exists. Indeed some women are not only more privileged than other women but are even more privileged

than some men. postmodern theorists--- question the whole notion of woman as a separate, stable category and question the value and appropriateness of Western scholars applying their cultural logic to the study of non-Western societies.

Middle-range theories--- may be the most useful in addressing the complicated subject of gender because they connect peoples day-to-day experiences to larger social forces. Much like gender differences, sexual practices-- vary across time and place, which supports the notion that sexuality is as much a social construct as gender is. Some feminists see sexuality--as an expression of the unequal distribution of power between men and women and argue that women dont really choose heterosexuality but have it imposed on them by a male-dominated society.

Homosexual--refers to the social identity of a person who has sexual attraction to and/or relations with people of the same sex, is a concept or identity that emerged in the midnineteenth century. Michel Foucault--- relates the emergence of the homosexual identity to the development of states and scientific disciplines and a desire in both arenas to monitor and categorize people and behavior. Foucault also introduced the notion that self-surveillance is a form of social control.

Studies show that gender inequality--- is rampant in schools. Boy and girls are treated differently by teachers and different expectations exist for their behavior and performance. The textbooks and other materials used in schools often reinforce gender stereotypes. While women are a significant part of the workforce today--they still face many challenges in the working world, including unequal pay, sexual harassment, sexism, tracking to certain kinds of jobs, the feminization of jobs, the glass ceiling, and more.

When women do obtain positions that are typically dominated by men--- they face enormous pressure. There is a sense that all women will be judged based on their performance, and they are often caught in a Catch-22 with regard to their behavior. If they act just like a man, they are seen as unfeminine and somehow unattractive; if they exhibit more feminine qualities,

they are seen as not tough enough. Men working in female-dominated fields--- dont seem to face the same scrutiny and challenges. In fact, studies show that such men advance more quickly (via the glass escalator) than their female counterparts.

Opting out ---refers to a perceived trend among mostly middle-class women of leaving the workforce to be full-time wives and mothers, in large part because of frustrations with the many obstacles they face on the job and the sense that they can find fulfillment in the home.