Investigation of the Impact on Vegetative Growth of Saharan Desert Dust

Author name: Nihal YCEKUTLU

Faculty of Science, Department of Chemistry, Hacettepe University, Beytepe, Ankara/TURKEY
Corresponding Author: nihal.yuce@gmail.com Corresponding Author: nihal.yuce@gmail.com
Abstract
Saharan dust deposition has an important impact on climatic processes, nutrient cycles, soil formation and sediment cycles. Through long-range transport of dust, the Sahara desert supplies essential minerals to the receiving environment. During my thesis studies, the impact of various growth media on development of some bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and durum wheat (Triticum durum L.) cultivars have been investigated. As a four different nutrient media, Hewitt nutrient solution (Hewitt, 1966), illuminated and non-illuminated Saharan desert soil solutions and distilled water have been utilized. Seedling length, leaf area and photosynthetic pigments have been determined. The results of this study indicate that, wheat varieties fed by irradiated Saharan soil solution gave comparable results to Hewitt nutrient solution. Experiments are done under both light and dark so as to simulate and differentiate between daytime and nighttime atmospheric processing. These properties have been tested on the certified cotton cultivar by using illuminated and non-illuminated Saharan desert soil solutions. In scope of this study, the effect on the vegetative growth of plants of Sahara dust have been investigated and physical, chemical and mineralogical composition for its role in crop production have been analyzed. As a result, this event occurs in nature is explained by reactions. Key Words: Saharan desert soil, natural fertilizers, Fe 2+ / Fe 3+ photoreduction, vegetative growth, fulvic and humic acids. Photosynthesis: Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants, eucaryotic algae, cyanobacteria, and certain other prokaryotes convert light energy into chemical energy. In higher green plants and algae, the overall process can be summarized by the equation: light energy 6CO2 + 12H2O -----------------> C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O chloroplasts Photosynthesis in plants is dependent upon capturing light energy in the pigment chlorophyll and in particular chlorophyll a (Fig. 3). This chlorophyll resides mostly in the chloroplasts and gives leaves their green color. Sahara desert soil; sandy-loamy texture, slightly alkaline, salt-free, moderately calcareous, very little amount of organic matter due to the poor in total nitrogen, phosphorus less, Fe, Cu, Zn and Mn were determined according to the results of the analysis is adequate. According to obtained results, the Sahara desert of wheat plant grown in soil solutions in any nutrient deficiency or toxicity, to be determined.

Discussion
Saharan dust has an important impact on climatic processes, nutrient cycles, soil formation and sediment cycles (Goudie and Middleton, 2001). In desert regions, dust is dispersed from different sources. These include alluvial deposits on dry flood plains wadis, playas, etc. In addition to wind stress, dust production is influenced by vegetation, soil structure, and moisture content of the soil, texture, mineral content and surface roughness (Goossens and Offer, 1988). The first test have been performed by Ycekutlu (2004) on the certified wheat cultivars monocotyledons by using Hewitt nutrient solution and deionized water used as two extreme control solutions and illuminated and non illuminated Saharan desert solutions as (Fig. 4).

Fig. 3. Absorption spectrum of chlorophyll and carotenoids (Available from: http://www.nicerweb.com/bio1151/Locked/media/lab/photo/key1151.html)

Hewitt Nutrient Solution

Illuminated Saharan Desert Soil Solutions

Introduction
One -1.5 billion tons of dust are thrown from the Saharan desert and scattered to the atmosphere each year. Dust storms are significantly meteorological events that affect the East Mediterranean region (Fig. 1). At a global scale, the Sahara desert is the most important source of mineral aerosols. Aerosols can be introduced into the atmosphere either directly (primary aerosols) or as a product of gaseous reactions in the atmosphere (secondary aerosols) and they play a significant role in the climate forcing (IPCC, 2001).

The Hill Reaction: 4Fe3+ + 2H2O light (hu ) chloroplasts/thylakoids

4Fe2+ + 4H+ + O2 (Hill Reaksiyonu)

Hill (1937) found that when isolated chloroplasts from ground up leaves of stellaria media placed in cell extracts, produced oxygen from H2O in illuminated stage. He also noticed that cell extracts can be replaced by salts of iron like ferric oxalate. The substances when added to illuminated isolated chloroplasts in the absence of CO2, acted as hydrogen acceptors i.e oxidants. These substances are called Hill oxidants (Available from: http://www.photosynthesisinfo.com/hillreaction/). A general description of iron redox cycling in the presence of humic substances and light must include both iron redox reactions of dissolved Fe species and those taking place on the surface of the iron oxide particles as well as the transfer of iron species from the surface to the solution and vice versa. In addition, large undifferentiated molecules, such as humic acids (Voelker et al., 1997) as well as small organic molecules may specifically facilitate Fe dissolution from dust into the ocean. Humic Compounds in Soil Fertility: One of the used organic-mineral fertilizers is the humic acid. Humic matter is formed through the chemical and biological humification of plant and animal matter and through the biological activities of microorganisms (Anonymous, 2010). The effects of humic substances on plant growth depend on the source and concentration, as well as on the molecular fraction weight of humus. Lower molecular size fraction easily reaches the plasma lemma of plant cells, determining a positive effect on plant growth, as well as a later effect at the level of plasma membrane, that is, the nutrient uptake, especially nitrate. The effects seen on the intermediary metabolism are less understood, but it seems that humic substances may influence both respiration and photosynthesis (Nardi et al., 2002). Humic Like Substances (HULIS): Humic like substances have been identified as a major fraction of the organic component of atmospheric aerosols (Dinar et al., 2006). Atmospheric aerosol play important roles in numerous atmospheric processes such as cloud formation, modification of cloud properties, heterogeneous chemistry, and visibility degradation, all of which affect climate forcing and air quality (IPPC, 2001; Kaufman et al., 2005). Several studies have focused on the effect of organic aerosol on cloud droplet nucleation [where aerosol particles act as cloud condensation nuclei (CCN)] and on particles' hygroscopic growth (Facchini et al., 1999; Brooks et al., 2004; Gysel et al., 2004).

Fig. 4. 10x16 cm perlit containing pots, the experiments were performed in randomized desing. 4 application x 3 replicates x 5 cultivars (Ycekutlu, 2004) M.Sc.

Fig. 1. Dust over the Eastern Meditterranean Sea on September 29, 2011. MODIS on NASA's Te r r a s a t t e l l i t e . ( Av a i l a b l e f r o m : http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/NaturalHazar ds/view.php?id=52359)

Fig. 2. John Martin's "Iron Hypothesis", in its simplest form, can be sketched as above. Schematics diagrams by published works (Sholkovitz et al., 1998a, b). (Available from: http://www.whoi.edu/science/MCG/dept/faciliti es/sea_aer/maintextpg.html)

The biogeochemical impact of desert dust also remains a matter of discussion regarding its contribution for different macro and micro nutrient elements to terrestrial and marine systems (Fig. 2) and especially its potential fertilizing role for remote oceanic areas by supplying micronutrients as phosphorus and iron (Jickells and Spokes, 2000). Dust originating from the Saharan Desert could initiate a series of reactions upon contact with cloud water and results in the 2+ formation of reduced iron (Fe ), oxalate and various basic amino acids (Saydam and enyuva, 2002). Microorganisms rather their by products such as basic amino acids, Fe2+, oxalate generated during the transportation of Saharan dust in the atmosphere where sun light and water from cloud was easily accessible and the microorganisms began multiplying (Mace et al., 2003). Iron is the most abundant transition metal in the atmosphere and can play a significant role in cloudwater chemistry where its reactivity is closely related to the partitioning between Fe(II) and Fe(III) (Parazols et al., 2003). It has been shown that Saharan soil may have the potential of producing bioavailable iron when illuminated with visible light and also it has some essential macro and micro nutrient elements (Saydam and Senyuva, 2002). In this study designed experiments to characterize it and to observed its action in simulated environmental applications. During my thesis studies, Sahara dust have been investigated for its role in crop production, so physical, chemical and mineralogical composition have been analyzed, as well as humic acid and fulvic acid were made extracted by Ycekutlu (2011) at Soil and Water Resources Research Institute. Saharan soil sample was analyzed by XRD technique the dominant mineral was quartz, feldspar, calcite, gypsum and clay followed respectively (Ycekutlu, 2004). Finally, the significance of seedling length, leaf area and photosynthetic pigments content on vegetative growth productivity in the controlled climate chamber has been discussed. Investigation of Some Events That Occur in Nature Photochemical Cycling: The light-induced redox cycling of iron did not lead to the release of iron and decomposition of H2O2 primarily localized on the clay surface. This work implies that iron-bearing clays could be a sink of H2O2 in the environmental system. The Haber-Weiss cycle (eqs 1-4) is one primary H2O2 decomposition route catalyzed by iron species, where tFe(II) and tFe(III) represent the Fe(II)/Fe(III) species in solid or solution phase. In the presence of natural ligands (oxalate, humic acid, et al.), however, iron is likely to be released from the oxide surface, increasing the contribution of solution phase reaction to the loss of H2O2 (Voelker at al. 1997; Faust and Hoffmann, 1984).

In addition to base cations (Ca, Mg, K) and other important nutrients (e.g., nitrogen and phosphorus), depletion of some other nutrients (e.g., Mn and Zn) is regarded as one of the detrimental consequences of acidifying deposition on ecosystems (Galloway, 1995). Finally, the biogeochemical implications of saharan soil dissolved mineral on vegetation growth have been investigated. Therefore mineral interactions of the elements in Saharan desert soil solution need to be researched. Recent guidance publications on soil management from Defra (Defra, 2006) group soils as follows: sandy or light silty, medium, heavy, chalk and limestone soils and peaty, reflecting some of the parameters listed. These are the same groups used for recommending fertiliser applications to agricultural and horticultural crops (MAFF, 2000). Biological processes can be important for the development and maintenance of soil texture and structure. A report prepared for English Nature by Ian Bradley et al. (2006), eight key soil parameters that are of importance for plants and the kind of vegetation that can develop in a particular situation are: soil texture and structure (the nutrient status, soil chemistry, pH, depth), organic matter (moisture, porosity, permeability and soil fauna). Agri-environment schemes have management options for habitat re-creation and restoration (Rural Development Service Technical Advice Note 31, 2005). Key Points - Standard soil sampling methodology and analysis is essential. - Low soil phosphorus status is critical when trying to achieve botanical diversity. - Soil nitrogen status is important on land undergoing reversion from arable to grassland. - Knowledge of inherent soil type and soil pH will assist with determining an appropriate seed mix or target vegetation type. The impact of Saharan Desert dust transport and natural emissions on air quality monitoring and its impact on vegetative development, determination of environmental activities, mineral nutrition and natural fertilizers of plants, distribution and accumulation of bacteria, fungi spores and microorganisms at the select plot region are observed (Ycekutlu and Ycekutlu, 2009, 2010). This research methodology was described in seven key elements by Ycekutlu (2011).

Materials and Methods

Saharan Desert Soil: Saharan desert raw soil samples taken from southern Tunisia, near Tozeur has been used. In laboratory the raw soil samples dried, sieved (30 mesh) and homogenized. Some physical and chemical analyzes of a homogeneous soil of the Sahara desert, Soil and Water Resources, Central Research Institute, Ankara, Turkey were conducted. Analyses were carried out using methods Handbook of Soil and Water Analysis Laboratory (Tzner, 1990). Adequacy of the analysis results were determined the reference values (Gne et al., 2004).

References
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Results
Some physical and chemical analyzes of soil of the Sahara desert in Table 1 are given. Physical and chemical analysis results, the desert soil properties were determined by comparing with reference values. Table 1. Some physical and chemical analysis of the Sahara soil *
PHYSICAL ANALYSIS The analysis results Texture With water saturation (%) Electrical conductivity (EC, dS/m) CHEMICAL ANALYSIS With water saturation pH Total salt (%) Lime (CaCO3) (%) 7.82 (slightly alkaline) 0.034 (unsalted) 13.16 (medium) 0.28 (very few) 0.01 0.16 5.98 Loamy sand 31 1.69 Reference values ** 6.5-7.5 0.35-0.65 5 - 15 3-4

Light irradiation and the presence of natural organic matters (NOM) could facilitate this process (Voelker at al.): The decomposition of H2O2 can be promoted by factors that assist conversion from Fe(III) to Fe(II). The reaction of (photo) produced Fe(II) with H2O2 has been reported to be an important source of . OH in systems composed of ferrihydrite/fulvic acid or iron loaded humic acid (Paciolla et al. 1999; Southworth et al. 2003). In recently works, it was found that quinones and dyes could reduce ferric ions and Fe(III) loaded on resins, accelerating significantly the decomposition of H2O2 and the removal of organic pollutants under visible irradiation (Chen et al. 2002; Wu, et al. 1999).

Organic Matter (%) Total Nitrogen (%) Organic Carbon (%) Total Humik Asit

Some plant-available macro-elements (ppm) Phosphorus Potassium 7.73 ( Low) 200.23( sufficient) 15.72 99.58

Some micro plant-available elements (ppm) Fe (DTPA) Cu (DTPA) 6.64 ( sufficient) 1.22 ( sufficient) 0.82 ( sufficient) 18.48 ( sufficient) >4.5 >0.2 0.5-2.4 14-50

Clay minerals are widespread layer type aluminosilicates in the environment that are found on the earth's surface and in atmospheric aerosols in the stratosphere (Shichi and Takagi, 2000).

Zn (DTPA) Mn (DTPA)

* Soil and Water Resources Research Institute, ANKARA **Tzner,1990 and Lindsay et al., 1978.

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