TUTORIAL AES 120, Paris, May 2006 HEADPHONE FUNDAMENTALS Carl Poldy Philips Sound Solutions Vienna, Austria

June 21, 2006

ii

Contents
1 Introduction 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Overview Of Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SPL in Freeeld of a Loudspeaker (LS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SPL in a Pressure Chamber (Simplied HP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Types of Headphones and Leakages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 3 4 5 7 7 8 8 9

2 Headphones Compared With Loudspeakers 2.1 2.2 Pressure Chamber & Freeeld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Harmonic Distortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.3 Less Harmonic Distortion for Headphone than Loudspeaker . . . . Modulation Of Membrane Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Eect of Headphone Size on Leakage Audibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 2.3.1 Dipole Cancellation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2.4

What the Ear-Canal Does . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 2.4.1 Functional Transfer Functions! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

2.5

The Ear Spectrum For Frontal Sound Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 2.5.1 2.5.2 A Tentative Assumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 The Above Assumption Was Illogical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2.6 2.7 2.8

More Reliable Stereo Image For Headphones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Is the Ear Just a Pressure Detector? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Audiometry With Headphones and Loudspeakers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 21

3 An In-Ear Headphone 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5

Bass Tube Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 The Main Frequency Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Earcanal Inuence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 How the Bass Tube Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Sharp Sound-Colour Of Far-eld Leakage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 iii

iv 4 Reference Points For Response Measurements 4.1 4.2

CONTENTS 29

ERP and DRP: Ear and Drum Reference Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Articial Ear IEC711 Combined With Earcanal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 33

A Behind The Ear Canal Entrance

A.1 Tube Transfer Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 A.2 Eardrum Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 A.3 Lumped Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 B Harmonic Distortion 37

B.1 Two Superstitions Exposed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 B.1.1 K2 K4 K6 etc Not Always Unsymmetrical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 B.1.2 Apparent DC Value Can Be a Phantom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 B.2 Simulating Non-linear Distortions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 C Some Curious Observations 43

C.1 Bl Distortion In Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 C.2 The Egg Does Come Before the Chicken. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 C.2.1 Potential and Motional Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 C.2.2 Does Intention Produce Action? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 C.2.3 Passive Transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 C.2.4 Pure Transduction Two-ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 C.2.5 Piezoelectric Transducer Two-port . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 C.2.6 There Is No Magnetic World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 C.3 Phase Delay in a Pressure Chamber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

Chapter 1

Introduction
1.1 Overview Of Concepts

In Figure 1 on p. 2 the concepts on the left trigger in the mind the associations on the right. One point, not obvious to all, is that the magnitude of acceleration a for sinusoidal signals can easily be derived from velocity v by multiplying by (= 2f ), and from displacement x by multiplying by 2 . (For AC signals we normally use RMS values.) We can only hope here to cover a few aspects of headphones. Whether the ones chosen are of interest, depends on your point of viewwhether you are a headphone user, or somebody nearby. Here we look at the physics relevant to both groups. There is also a third point of viewthe protection of the headphone user from sound leaking in from the surroundings. This function of hearing protectors can also inuence headphone designsuch as uid lled cushions etc. For such aspects, and others, I refer the reader to the recent AES tutorial by MR Avis and LJ Kelly [1].

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

CONCEPT
Constant SPL in pressure chamber Constant SPL in real headphone HP Constant SPL in LS Working range of Headphone

CHARACTERISTICS
Constant displacement x Constant velocity x (sometimes) 2 Constant acceleration x (Newtons law) Driver resonance within WR: Resistance- or stiffness controlled Above resonance: mass controlled Flat Imitates Free- or Diffuse-field Odd harmonics 3 5 7 etc f Symmetrical time signal. x Even harmonics 2 4 6 etc f Unsymmetrical time signal possible. Infinite peaks at 3kHz 9kHz 15kHz for transfer function p2/p1 if terminated hard Damping of these peaks down to about 12dB Good for two-port analysis Problematic for analysis

Working range of LS Ideal Response of LS Ideal Response of HP Symmetrical Distortion e.g. Stiffness Bl profile F Bl x Unsymmetrical Distortion coil

EARCANAL

EARDRUM DRP Drum Reference Point in front of eardrum ERP Ear Reference Point in concha

Figure 1: Some LS- and Headphone-relevant concepts.

1.2. SPL IN FREEFIELD OF A LOUDSPEAKER (LS)

1.2

SPL in Freeeld of a Loudspeaker (LS)

For a simple monopole radiator the Sound Pressure Level (SP L1 ) at a distance is proportional to the volume acceleration of the radiating surface. As shown in Figure 2, if we consider the low-frequency behaviour of a LS2 with closed rear cavity at low frequencies, its SP L appears at large distances to come from such a monopole radiator, which is omnidirectional. Mounting the LS in an innite bae reduces the full space to an innite half space. The pressure is then double that shown in Figure 2. For progressively higher frequencies there is increased directionality. O-axis SP L is reduced, but for a baed circular radiator the on-axis still obeys the expression shown here (p should be doubled of course).

p [Pa]

Air density [ kg /m 3 ]

d [m]

Volume acceleration [ m3 / s2 ]

Displacement x [m]

1,2 S .. x p= 4 d
Figure 2: SP L at distance d from a monopole radiator. For a bae the pressure p is doubled. All signals are AC and therefore RMS values. The magnitude of the acceleration x = 2 x, where = 2f .

SP L is usually expressed on a logarithmic scale dBSP L referred to the threshold of hearing. It has been agreed to dene the threshold SP L (0 dB) at 20P a. 2 The abbreviations LS and HP are for loudspeaker(s) and headphone(s) respectively.

p=

1,2 VolAcc 4 d
Normal acceleration [ m / s 2 ]

VolAcc = S v

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

1.3

SPL in a Pressure Chamber (Simplied HP)

The equivalent of Figure 2 for a pressure chamber is Figure 3.

AC pressure p [Pa]

SPL distributed homogeneously

d [m]

Vol [m3] S
Displacement x [m]

p=

1
Vol[m ] ( 1,4100000 )
3

(Sx)

acoust. Capacitor C
Figure 3: SP L in pressure chamber, as for a simplied leak-free headphone at low frequencies for small piston displacement x. All signals are AC and therefore RMS values. An overview of R L C values for lumped elements is given in Figure 34 on p. 35.

One may wonder how a homogeneous distribution of pressure is possible. Does sound propagate here at the speed of light or even faster3 ? To see what all this looks like also at higher frequencies, where standing waves are expected, see Figure 54 on p. 51.

3 We are usually concerned with sine wave responses. Then we are interested in amplitude response and sometimes phase response and phase delay). Since, by denition, sine signals exist for ever causality is not violated. If we were concerned with energy propagation of impulses then we would of course expect causality to be respected. But then instead of phase delay we have signal delay, which equals group delay (-d/d) only if the system is an all-pass.

Ratio of specific heats of air Cp/Cv = 1,4

DC air pressure 100000 Pa

Volume displacement [m3] ( current / j )

1.4. TYPES OF HEADPHONES AND LEAKAGES

1.4

Types of Headphones and Leakages

There are many dierent types of headphones4 , ranging from small in-ear headphones (p. 21) to supra-aural and circum-aural headphones (Figure 4). Some are designed to be sealed. Doing this with uid-lled cushions can give a reliable response even at low frequencies. But usually uncontrolled leaks make themselves felt (a). They can go directly to the outside, through hair and/or through porous cushions or through uncontrolled porosity in squashed foam (b and p. 21). Others are led in a controlled way to the outside: (c) or via the vented rear cavity (d). Normally leaks are desirable

Figure 4: The various types of supra-aural and circum-aural headphone[2]. and a deliberate part of the acoustical design. As a result of controlled leaks the SP L in the cavity becomes more stable with respect to any additional chance leaksthe two are like resistances in parallelwhichever is lower will dominate. The working principle of headphones tends to be of the pressure chamber type. Membrane movement is largely stiness controlled C or resistance controlled (damping R), but usually a combination of C and R. This is unlike loudspeakers, which are predominantly mass controlled L: Newtons Law giving frequency-independent acceleration (Figure 1 on p. 2). See Figure 34 on p. 35 for an overview of the analogies used here. There are of course exceptions. For example some high delity headphones have more of the characteristics of a loudspeaker. This type has been designed as an acoustic dipole radiating the ear from close quarters, but not touching it.
4

We shall conne this treatment to systems with the most common electro-dynamic transducers.

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Chapter 2

Headphones Compared With Loudspeakers

2.1 Pressure Chamber & Freeeld

Normally we want SP L to be frequency-independent1 . It is then of interest to ask what happens to the membrane displacement x as frequency increases. It is helpful to write for SP L or p the expression: p = constant x f n . (2.1)

For a simple cavity constant SP L requires that n = 0. The membrane is like a piston pumping on a pressure chamber (Figure 3 on p. 4). The relation between pressure p and total cavity volume (V ol) comes from the adiabatic law p V ol = const where = Cp /Cv , the ratio of specic heats at constant pressure and constant volume. For small compressional displacements xS there is a small increase of pressure p which does not depend on how fast the piston moves, as long as it is fast enough for adiabatic compression. This is normally the case for sound vibrations2 . But if we want the same from a LS, we must set n = 2, because p acceleration (Figure 2 on p. 3). Fortunately Newtons Law (F orce = BlI = mass acceleration) is quite obliging, and the LS engineer need make no special eort to full this condition. This requires that displacement x must decrease with frequency. To get a real feel for this let us imagine for a LS that n=1 instead of n=2, which is untrue, but one step in the right direction. This would mean pressure is proportional to velocity. For n=1 the gradient in the zero crossings (Figure 5 on p. 8, red curves) reveals the constant velocity, and we see at a glance that the displacement would drop by 6 dB/octave. We
1 Even though the ideal response of a headphone is not at (e.g. freeeld or diuse-eld calibrated headphone), for simplicity we shall assume atness here. This is because such deliberate departures from at response are more in the nature of local details within a conned frequency range, rather than a global phenomenon like a slope of x dB/octave over the whole audio range. 2 The term adiabatic means no heat is exchanged with the surroundings. For a LS cabinet lled with cotton wool heat exchange does occur between the air and the bres at low frequencies. Then we have isothermal compression and Boyles Law applies: (p V ol = const). The p vs V ol curve is then less steep. The cavity is then acoustically softer. This makes it seem larger than it really is. One should not confuse the cavity volume V ol with the momentary volume displacement of the piston xS.

CHAPTER 2. HEADPHONES COMPARED WITH LOUDSPEAKERS

need no mathematics to grasp this. In reality n = 2 and displacement drops faster: 12 dB/octave, which agrees with observation: For low frequencies of double bass the large membrane displacements are visible.
DISPLACEMENT = const * PRESSURE / FREQ^n PRESSURE CHAMBER: Pressure = const * DISPLACEMENT Just imagine it: Pressure = const * VELOCITY LS: Pressure = const * ACCELERATION ASSUME CONSTANT PRESSURE FOR ALL FREQUENCIES n=0 n=1 n=2

100 Hz
DISPLACEMENT

200 Hz
TIME

400 Hz 800 Hz

PRESSURE CHAMBER

n=0
100 Hz 200 Hz
TIME

DISPLACEMENT

400 Hz 800 Hz

velocity constant (applies to nothing)

n=1
100 Hz

DISPLACEMENT

200 Hz
TIME

400 Hz 800 Hz

LOUDSPEAKER (acceleration constant)

n=2

Figure 5: Constant SP L for a pressure chamber with n = 0; for a LS with n = 2.

2.2
2.2.1

Harmonic Distortion
Less Harmonic Distortion for Headphone than Loudspeaker

To supply the same output SP L a LS coil generally has to perform more excursion than that of a headphone. This applies especially at low frequencies since the coil

2.2. HARMONIC DISTORTION

displacement rises with 12dB/octave while lowering frequency in the working range well above resonance, as we already saw (Section 2.1). This brings the LS into the non-linear region of any distortion mechanisms much faster.

2.2.2

Modulation Of Membrane Area

The volume of air moved is proportional to eective membrane area S and displacement x. In LSs the modulation of S by x is usually unimportant, because the spring Cms is conned to the small pleat region at the edge of an otherwise sti conical membrane. In headphones, which usually have torus-shaped membranes, the compliant spring is distributed over a larger region between the coil and the edge of the membrane (Figure 6). S is reduced for coil displacement x to the right, and increased to the left.

Effective area

Figure 6: How coil displacement modulates eective membrane area.

The eective area for moving air is a dierential quantity: for any given DC displacement we need to ask how much air is moved by a superposed small AC displacement. For DC displacement to the right, the stretched outer part of the membrane contributes less. To demonstrate how this inuences the harmonic distortion we simulate a pressure chamber headphone with a mechanical resonance of 300Hz, pumping on a 50cm3 cavity. The circuit is shown in Figure 9 on p. 11. The small-signal AC response is shown in Figure 7 on p. 10. The cavity shifts the resonance up above 300Hz only slightly, because the large cavity does not pose much of a hindrance to coil displacement. The membrane spring is the one that counts.

10

CHAPTER 2. HEADPHONES COMPARED WITH LOUDSPEAKERS

150.0u AA54_28b_ONLY_AREA_AC.CIR

100.0u RMS DISPLACEMENT 50.0u

0.0u

10 v(Displacement) (V)

100 F (Hz)

1K

10K

140.0 120.0 100.0 80.0 60.0 40.0 10 dB(v(Pa_Cavity))+94 100 F (Hz) 1K 10K dB SPL

Figure 7: Small signal AC simulation of circuit of Figure 9.

The transient response is shown in Figure 10 on p. 11. The area was modulated using the macro of Figure 8.
X .PARAMETERS(area0,coeff1,coeff2,coeff3) Voltage controlled voltage source area YY+ Output is the momentary value of either 1) Bl [Tm], 2) Spring force [N] or 3) eff. Area of membrane

Voltage Input is coil displacement [m] .define mu (v(x)*1e6)

.define area ( area0 + coeff1*mu + coeff2*mu^2 + coeff3*mu^3 )

Figure 8: The macro NL Area of Figure 9 for modulating the eective membrane area.

The area is expressed as a polynomial of the coil displacement in microns, not SI units3 : area = area0 + coef f 1 mu + coef f 2 mu2 + coef f 3 mu3 The linear component is area0 [m2 ]. We choose here only one nonlinear coecient coef f 1 = 1 106 , all others being set to 0. This value is chosen unrealistically large here because we want to see things happening. In Figure 10 on p. 11 (lowest curve) we see the area of 1cm2 modulated by 50%. We observe the following points: The coil displaces more to the right than to the left (lowest curve). This is conrmed by the displacement time signal (top curve, black) being shifted up; and by the FFT (middle curve, black) having a small positive DC value. This is because the cavity is less of a hindrance to the coil movement when the area is smaller. The SP L is much more distorted: It shows smaller positive values in the compression phase where the area is small. The DC value of its time signal does the opposite of that seen in the displacement: negative DC value in FFT.
3

It is often advisable to replace the SI unit m by m to avoid numerical inaccuracies in the simulation.

2.2. HARMONIC DISTORTION

coeff3=0 coeff2=0 coeff1=-1u area0=1e-4 (1cm2) Area Displacement
X Y+ Y-

11

.define Fres_mech 300 .define Cms 3m .define Mms (1/(twopi^2*Cms*Fres_mech^2)) Mms=93.816u Bl 0.5
(Tm)

NL Area charge sensor Cms

Ac 1 N mech

in volt=0.3 Hz=F1 (V,Hz) Rdc 8

+ electr

+ mech

Mms

50m Rmech

Pa_Cavity VOL m3

.define F1 30

IDEALTRA_nonlin

m3=50u

Figure 9: The circuit for modulating the eective membrane area.

Figure 10: The transient response of Figure 9 at 30Hz.

One can expect this form of acoustic distortion never to appear on its own. It will always go hand in hand with a genuine mechanical distortion of the restoring force of the membrane spring. But physically, area modulation is an entirely dierent mechanism, only indirectly connected with non-linearity in the F vs x curve of the mechanical spring. Area modulation has its greatest inuence when the coil diameter is small compared with the outer diameter of the torus membrane. It can be measured by combining Thiele-Small measurements in the mechanical domain (mass method using blue-tackBl) with those in the acoustical domain (inertance or acoustical mass method using a hollow tube or a cavityBl/S). The ratio of the results

12

CHAPTER 2. HEADPHONES COMPARED WITH LOUDSPEAKERS

gives the value of S. Each pair of measurements needs to be done with a dierent stationary displacement of the coil. It can be shifted by an electrical DC current (danger of heating) or static air pressure. Section B.2 on p. 41 describes how the other distortion mechanisms can be simulated.

2.3

Eect of Headphone Size on Leakage Audibility

Experience of headphones at a distance demonstrates that large ones are noisier. To see in principle why this is so, or indeed whether it need necessarily be so, we shall drastically simplify the system, and change only one thingthe cavity volume. Comparing two realistic fully developed headphones of dierent size would not help understandingwe already know which will have more audible leakage. The design principles for dierent sizes are so dierent that we would be none the wiser after such a comparison.
Rdc 15
(V,Hz)

Bl 0.3
(Tm)

Mms=8.443u
+ mech

.define Cms 3m

+ electr

ac. 1 N mech

.define Fres_mech 1000 .define Mms (1/(twopi^2*Cms*Fres_mech^2))

(AREAm2,DISTm,deg)

Nvalue=1m FRONT Pa_VOL VOL

BACK

RadiatorBaffledPascal AREAm2=999 DISTm=1 angledegrees=0

Figure 11: The schematic for investigating the inuence of size on audibility of leakage.

Figure 11 shows the schematic for such a comparison. In Figure 12 on p. 13 we shall step the diameter from 20mm to 80mm, which increases the cavity volume, at the same time increasing the depth proportionally4 . For simplicity we consider a closed headphone with only one leak, this being at the rear. The radiation impedance is neglected, by making the radiator area innite: 999m2 (Figure 34 on p. 35 shows how the radiation impedance depends on area). Taking into account the radiation impedance would only dampen the resonance peak, which is not the issue here. The results would remain essentially the same. The area of the membrane is also kept constant (N value of the ideal transformer). If we had increased this proportionally with the volume, the SP L in the cavity would have decreased. But the ratio (lower part of Figure 12 on p. 13) would still increase with size.

But this is just a formality. We could just as well have increased the volume directly.

deg

Pa_FAR

volume=100.531u .define volume (area*length)

m3

.define diam 80m .define area (piover4*diam^2) area=5.027m .define length (diam/4) length=20m

2.3. EFFECT OF HEADPHONE SIZE ON LEAKAGE AUDIBILITY

140.0 120.0 100.0 80.0 60.0 40.0 20.0 0.0 200 dB(v(Pa_VOL))+94 20mm 1K dB(v(Pa_FAR))+94 F (Hz) 10K 20K dB SPL 80mm 80mm AA16_4ZB_LEAKAGE_VS_VOL_ANALYSIS.CIR DIAM=20m...80m 20mm

13

20.0 0.0 -20.0 -40.0 -60.0 -80.0 -100.0 200 dB(v(Pa_FAR)/v(Pa_VOL)) 20mm 1K F (Hz) 10K 20K RATIO 80mm diameter increase

Figure 12: The larger the headphone the greater the audibility of leakage at a distance.

In the results (Figure 12) the curve in the lower picture dB(RAT IO) is of interest: dB(v(P a F AR)/v(P a V OL)). Summing up, we can say the following: Headphone Cavity: With increased cavity size, the increase in far-eld SP L comes just from the volume increase. The reason is that the combined system spring becomes more compliant, thus allowing more displacement x[mm] for larger volumes. This is because in the working range of frequencies a headphone tends to be stiness controlled (Figure 1 on p. 2). The membrane area is unimportant. Rear Cavity of LS Box: A LS also becomes louder with increase in box volume. But this is not because of the volume itself. The membrane area is the signicant parameter. Increasing the box volume only shifts the resonance down, extending the frequency range. Since the working range of a LS is above resonance, where it is mass controlled (inertia) the cavity size does not signicantly inuence the strength of the output signal.

2.3.1

Dipole Cancellation

In the above we had only one leak, for simplicity. As we shall see for the small in-ear headphone (Figure 21 on p. 24) the resultant leak is a vector sum of front and back leaks. The small headphone is essentially a dipole radiator: air current in at the back almost equals air current out of the front. This becomes increasingly true the lower the frequency is. If we add a front cavity or increase the size of any front cavity already present, part of the air current from the front of the membrane goes into compressing this air cushion, which reduces the air current out of the front leak. This unbalances the two dipole components, and there is less cancellation of the far-eld sound. This contributes an additional mechanism to make large headphones noisier.

14

CHAPTER 2. HEADPHONES COMPARED WITH LOUDSPEAKERS

2.4

What the Ear-Canal Does

The earcanal is essentially a two-port tube (Figure 31 on p. 33). The transfer function p2 /p1 of any two-port can in principle depend only on the two-port itself and the output impedance (in this case that of the eardrum). The circuit for the earcanal transfer function is shown in Figure 13 on p. 15. Figure 14 shows the results. For hard termination we get innite peaks due to standing waves for which the earcanal length equals /4, 3/4 etc. The eardrum impedance brings these down to about 12dB. Generally it would be a good question to ask Of what is this really a transfer function? The output is clearly just in front of the eardrum. But where is input? Is it a physical point at the entrance? Or are we dealing with a functional transfer function?

2.4.1

Functional Transfer Functions!

An example is the freeeld transfer function of the head and ear. When doing freeeld measurements on real or articial heads one often wants to know the transfer function of a system whose input is no longer physically present, because it has already been disturbed (diraction) by the thing being measured. The output is clearly normally at the eardrum. But the input could be dened as the SP L at that point in space at the centre of the head, before the head had been put there. Resuming the inquiry about the ear-canal, we have a similar problem dening our earcanal input. Do we mean a point just behind the entrance, within the earcanal? If so, there is no problem and this is simply a physical transfer function. Or do we mean a point on the hard surface (where head diraction eects are already taken into account) before the ear canal was opened5 ? There are two stages to this problem which should be dealt with separately and in sequence: Step1 Diraction Eects without openings. These yield a pressure source po on the surface of interest. If it is a head, then with plugged ear canal6 . Step2 Radiation impedance of the opening Now the surface is no longer hard, and the pressure source po develops an internal impedance Zint , whose value is the radiation impedance Zrad of the opening. Zrad depends mainly on the radiating area. Figure 34 on p. 35 (lowest compartment) shows a simplied formula for this Zrad . The real part of a radiation impedance represents a loss of energy no less real than that from the viscosity losses in an acoustic resistance. The energy lost by radiation need not heat anything. It simply does not return to the opening. When simulating a headphone response we need not explicitly deal with Step1. The whole circuit to the left of the point labelled out1 (Figure 20 on p. 24) is implicitly a sound source with internal impedance depending on the details of the headphone. For a small headphone even step2 can be ignored, because the earcanal opening is not really radiating at all. So there is no energy loss through any supposed real part of an impedance. Lumped elements can be used (as in Figure 20 on p. 24). One of
I do not mean ERP. That has its own problems, which are of a dierent nature (Figure 28 on p. 30). Or even better: The surface could be prepared with a rudimentary earcanal of depth 3mm. Then we have the luxury of ERPx being prepared in advance for plane waves.
6 5

2.4. WHAT THE EAR-CANAL DOES

15

these is the end correction (Figure 34 on p. 35), which is actually the reactive part of the radiation impedance. But for circum-aural devices such as hearing protectors the radiation impedance above 500Hz approaches that of the unoccluded ear [9]. Presumably this applies to headphones too. For the unoccluded ear the rst approximation at low and mid frequencies is the simple end correction (reactance jL, no R). Now we are in a position to digest the red curve of Figure 14. As already noted, the main eect of the eardrum is to dampen the resonances. When we introduce the radiation impedance the resonance shifts to lower frequencies because of the mass loading of the input. The radiation impedance has been integrated into the two-port. This might be done if one is interested in freeeld eects. Therefore, if the resonance is not exactly as expected for a certain tube, before looking for errors in tube length one should ask whether the radiation impedance has been included or not.
TUBE
nonlossy

HARD

volt=1
(V,Hz)

.define diam 7.4m diam=diam .define area (piover4*diam^2) earcanal area=43.008u

TUBE
nonlossy

length=24m

(L, D, N)

DRUM
EARDRUMzwislocki

volt=1
Groundnormally
(V,Hz)

RadiatorBaffled AREAm2=area
(AREAm2)

length=24m diam=diam DRUM_and_RADIMP TUBE

nonlossy

(L, D, N)

volt=1
(V,Hz)

EARDRUMzwislocki

length=24m diam=diam

(L, D, N)

Figure 13: The circuit for earcanal TF. Radiation Z is normally earthed, but not here.

50.

AA22EARCANALTRANSFERFUNCTION_ANALYSIS.CIR

40.

30.

20.

10.

0.

-10.

200 db(v(HARD))

db(v(DRUM))

1K db(v(DRUM_and_RADIMP)) F (Hz)

10K

20K

Figure 14: Earcanal transfer functions (for Figure 13): hard drum (black); with drum (blue); with drum showing eect of radiation impedance (red).

16

CHAPTER 2. HEADPHONES COMPARED WITH LOUDSPEAKERS

2.5

The Ear Spectrum For Frontal Sound Source

Here we consider only the so-called monaural head-related transfer function for frontal incidence7 . By this I mean we acknowledge the dierences of individual ear geometry from person to person, but assume for the moment that the ears of any individual are identical. The characteristic features for a typical human ear are as drawn in Figure 15. The dips at 1kHz and 10kHz arise from the comb ltering eects of the shoulder and
~20dB
EARDRUM

~10dB
EARCANAL ENTRANCE

0dB 1kHz 3kHz 10kHz

SHOULDER DIP 1kHz

EAR CONCHA DIP 10kHz

Figure 15: Typical diraction features for frontal sound source. concha respectivelyrst minimum in each case. The 10dB mountain around 3kHz is due to the concave nature of the pinna region around the earcanal entrance. Diraction with multiple reection in craters always give rise to a global amplication of the incoming sound. The pinna including concha gives approximately 10dB amplication. Superposed on this is the 10dB amplication due to the /4 resonance in the earcanal (as we saw in Figure 14 on p. 15). The result is a heavy colouration with a 20dB peak at about 3kHz. The individual has learnt to hear with his own ears and has got used to associating certain spectral characteristics with each visible direction8 .
We also neglect here second-order localisation eects which rely on such things as familiarity with the sound source, head movement and other temporal phenomena such as sound-source movement. We concentrate here on the rst order eect which works for short high-frequency impulsive sounds, which need not be known to the listener. He can localise these even without head movementindeed for short sounds there is no time for conrming rst impressions by head movements. And as we know from experience these spontaneous rst impressions are normally correct. 8 For invisible directions the individual has no means of learning the spectral characteristics and
7

2.5. THE EAR SPECTRUM FOR FRONTAL SOUND SOURCE

17

2.5.1

A Tentative Assumption

We shall assume for the moment the absolute spectrum (such as Figure 15 on p. 16) of an individual to be the cue for frontal localisation. Irrespective of the correctness of this assumption, sharp colouration for a frontal sound source must be expected. If it is indeed localised frontally (Gestalt recognition) this colouration will not disturb himassociation model of Theile[5]9 . Otherwise the 20dB peak (free-eld standard for headphones) is too sharp. Then a milder spectrum is needed, as for the diuse eld headphone standard (dashed line in Figure 1 on p. 2). Interestingly, the 3/4 earcanal resonance coincides approximately with the 10dB dip at 10kHz. This is the region for hissing sounds S. Thus there is a good chance of such sounds being heard despite the inherent attenuationfragment of red curve around 10kHz in Figure 15 on p. 16. (The Creator forgot to patent this clever idea!)

2.5.2

The Above Assumption Was Illogical

If the absolute monaural spectrum were the cue for localisation this would work reliably only if all sources radiate with at frequency spectra. In reality sound sources have inherent colouration, which is present in the SP L spectra at any point in the transmission chain on the way to the eardrum. The brain has no means of knowing whether such linear distortions happened at the pinna or before. Indeed it could well be a property of the source. Since we can assume the clever Creator did not make such errors of logic, the essential cue for frontal localisation cannot be the absolute spectrum. No research is needed to establish this. Indeed, own attempts at equalising a rear LS to approximate the frontal spectrum of one of the ears were unsuccessful in achieving frontal localisation. So, what is there left? The interaural dierences are unique for each individual and could not be a characteristic of the sound source. Faithfully reproducing these individual differences resulted in clear frontal localisation via headphones using DSP. This succeeded for two tested individuals (no statistics were needed). Exaggerating the dierences as in Figure 16 on p. 18 enhanced frontal localisation. The fact that localisation can be improved in this way, departing from a faithful reproduction of the dierences, agrees with the following surprising fact, which has often been reported: For some people, frontal localisation is better achieved, not with their own spectra, but with those of some other individual. Presumably that other individual had similar interaural dierences, but exaggerated. Whats more, interchanging the L and R spectra destroyed the frontal localisation even without exaggerating the dierences. This is spectacular, because the original interaural dierences were not largeless than 4dB. Therefore such interchange of L and R cannot result in any appreciable sound colour change in either ear. Auto-suggestion can be ruled out because the two subjective impressions: frontal- and in-head-localisation, were clear and unique even without knowing whether L and R were exchanged.
associating them with known directions. These sounds are all dumped into the bin which we could label with various names such as In Head Localisation, Rear Localisation, Elevation Eect. In the case of the elevation eect the incorrectly localised phantom source comes from a visible direction, but the spectral errors are small enough not to result in totally wrong localisation such as inversion to the rear. 9 The brain treats itself to an inverse lter, the inverse of that depicted in Figure 15 on p. 16, thereby ironing out the 20dB peak. so it is not subjectively perceived too strongly.

18

CHAPTER 2. HEADPHONES COMPARED WITH LOUDSPEAKERS

(a) Left and right ear spectra: as measured for frontal sound source

(b) Left and right ear spectra: differences exaggerated for improved frontal localisation

Figure 16: (a) Possible individual ear spectra for frontal source. (b) How to exaggerate the dierences to enhance frontal localisation without changing the sound colour. Via headphones such exaggeration above 2kHz can be very eective. This agrees with the fact that some people experience better frontal localisation using the ear spectra of another individual than with their own. By analogy, the benet of exaggeration applies also to stereo photography: To obtain a spectacular 3D impression of a landscape the eective eye distance needs to be exaggerated to several metres.

The author knows of a person with practically identical ears and consequently identical ear spectra for frontal incidence. This person had the distinguishing feature that he was unable to localise frontally in the median plane under any conditions, even for real free-eld sources.

2.6

More Reliable Stereo Image For Headphones

Consider the soloist at centre stage. This is inherently a mono component of the stereo signal. For a pair of loudspeakers at 60 degrees the image, though in the median plane, is usually raised above where the phantom image should be (elevation eect). For a real frontal sound source correct localisation is determined by the spectra of the transfer functions from free-eld to the ears. Irrespective of whether the source is a single LS or a real musical instrument, these ear signals are automatically correctly localised, because the listener is using his own ears. In the electro-acoustic situation (LS or HP) we have the task of simulating these signals as well as possible. If we have done the necessary measurements for an individual, we can assume we know how his ear signals should look. Armed with this information there is a chance for correct frontal localisation in the electro-acoustical situation. The chances are as follows: HPs: very goodwe are in control: (L signalL ear); (R signalR ear) LSs: modest (L signalL ear); (R signalR ear); (L signalR ear); (R signalL ear)

2.7. IS THE EAR JUST A PRESSURE DETECTOR?

19

For LSs in the usual stereo set-up the ear signals come from 60 degrees left and right, not 0 degrees. There might be a good chance if there existed a mechanism for frontal localisation for perfectly symmetrical ears and head (the tentative assumption of Section 2.5.1 on p. 17). This is because the shadowing and diraction eects for all persons do have something in common. But frontal localisation of impulses relies on interaural dierences in the ear spectra (Section 2.5.2 on p. 17 and Figure 16 on p. 18). These are chance phenomena of ear geometry. Moreover if these dierences are known for 0 degrees, there is no reason whatsoever for expecting the same for a pair of LSs at 60 degrees, even if we were justied in neglecting the cross-feed components (L signalR ear) and (R signalL ear). Of course the cross-feed components make the situation even hazier. Thus we have the following ironical situation: A LS (because of its genuine free-eld acoustics) could provide perfect frontal localisation, but in the usual stereo set-up does not do so because the angle is wrong. If we know the ideal ear spectra for an individual, we have in headphones (even with their non-free-eld acoustics) a tool for making use of this knowledge directly, to achieve frontal localisation. The result can be exaggerated to be even better than with LS in freeeld.

2.7

Is the Ear Just a Pressure Detector?

One similar aspect of LSs and HPs is that the subjective sound impression for both comes from the SP L in the ear signals alone. Otherwise headphones would not have the localisation advantage over LS mentioned in Section 2.6. How the ear signals are producedpressure chamber or freeeld of a propagating waveis unimportant. But we cannot say this without reservations (see also Section 2.8): Listeners tend to listen at higher SP L for HPs than for LSs to get the same subjective loudness. Many such phenomena have been reported in the literature (see references at the end of chapter 14 in [2]). We could put these under the collective term Missing 6dB, a ghost which has been repeatedly put to rest, apparently for ever (possible measurement errors revealed), and repeatedly dug up again.

2.8

Audiometry With Headphones and Loudspeakers

Not only the subjective impression (the closed-in feeling), but also the hearing threshold, are not quite the same. They are inuenced by secondary characteristics superimposed on the above pressure-detector mechanism. For example the hearing threshold in audiometry using a HP is higher than when using a LS. This comes from masking of the signals due to physiological noise, such as that from blood ow turbulences. The ear SP L of such body noises (and bone conduction), is raised in the case of headphones by the occlusion eect. This amplies the SP L below 2kHz by up to 20dB ([2] p.651). This can easily be experienced by humming a low tone while closing one ear with a nger tip.

20

CHAPTER 2. HEADPHONES COMPARED WITH LOUDSPEAKERS

Chapter 3

An In-Ear Headphone

Resistive: R Small holes

Inductive: L Mass of air plug

Figure 17: The essential components of a small headphone shown schematically. Foam cover usually deactivates half the output holes. Red: bass tube, thick black line: cable. This is the most popular and most common type of headphone today (Figure 17). Here we consider the following aspects: How the bass tube can be implemented in a design-friendly way. What other leaks there are, and do we just tolerate them for practical reasons or do we need them. Why the leak signal for people standing nearby sounds sharp. 21

22

CHAPTER 3. AN IN-EAR HEADPHONE

3.1

Bass Tube Design

The length of the bass tube shown schematically in Figure 17 on p. 21 is not exaggerated. To have an eective bass tube we need: A large L/R ratio of acoustic mass L to resistive damping R, so that L can compete with R even at low frequencies. This condition demands a large absolute value of d, the diameter1 . But for a short tube of correct diameter the absolute value of L would be too low. The same applies to the bass-reex LS. In many products the bass tube is incorporated in the vertical portion of Figure 17 on p. 21, competing with the cable for space, and limiting design freedom. Since impedance of sound constrictions depends mainly on length and diameternot so much on the shapea curved tube is as good as a straight one. The circumference of the transducer is large enough to accommodate the bass tube (Figure 18).

Figure 18: The bass tube on the circumference of the capsule.

To see why, refer to Figure 34 on p. 35: L d2 , whereas R d4 .

3.2. THE MAIN FREQUENCY RESPONSE

23

3.2

The Main Frequency Response

Figure 20 on p. 24 shows the circuit for those parts of a small headphone which are outside the transducer. All was simplied to the bare essentials. Only one cavity is included, the rear one, all the others not being essential to the understanding. To avoid cluttering the diagram the contents of the transducer are put into a macro fed by ThieleSmall parameters (Figure 19), which also has no cavity. For a desired vacuum resonance 255Hz and mass Mms , the membrane compliance Cms is automatically adjusted for a given mass Mms .
.PARAMETERS(Fres_mech,Mms,Amem,Blvalue,Rms,Rdc) .define Cms (1/(Mms*twopi^2*Fres_mech^2)) mass Mms resistance Rms
Force [N]

displacement
charge sensor
out in charge

compliance Cms

EL1 EL2

Rdc

(Tm)

+ electr

+ mech

N mech

v [m/s] N=Amem v [m3/s]

Secondary Primary

AK1 BACK of membrane

deltaP [N/m2]

acoust. 1

AK2 FRONT of membrane

Figure 19: The Thiele-Small Macro for the small transducer.

3.3

Earcanal Inuence

The articial ear is described in Section 4.2 on p. 31. Figure 21 on p. 24 shows the eect of the earcanal. Here we concentrate on the upper two curves. The response is calculated at the earcanal entrance (out1) and at the far end DRP of the IEC711 coupler (out2drum). We see the characteristic resonances (Figure 14 on p. 15) of the earcanal at 3.5kHz etc (/4, 3/4 etc.). The next thing we shall consider is the bass boost.

Blvalue

v [m/s]

24
(AREAm2,DISTm)

CHAPTER 3. AN IN-EAR HEADPHONE

back holes 400e5 1k volt=0.126
(V,Hz)

(AREAm2,DISTm)

far_front AREA=0.5e-4 DIST=distance out1 foam 4e5 0 switch LS 10 front holes 100
ear IEC711 canal

AREA=888 DIST=distance far_backholes bass tube 200e5 20k

(AREAm2,DISTm)

out2drum

DRP

ERP

IEC_711_with_ear_canal_noEC

far_SUM

AREA=888 DIST=distance far_basstube

Vol_back Fres_mech=255 m3=0.15u Mms=17.5u Blvalue=0.46 Rdc=14.4 Rms=0 Amem=0.8e-4

m3 ThieleSmall_LS

.define distance 30m

Figure 20: The equivalent circuit of a small in-ear headphone.

Figure 21: Frequency responses for small in-ear headphone. Upper two black curves: at ear canal entrance (dotted line); at output DRP of IEC711 (full line).

3.4. HOW THE BASS TUBE WORKS

25

3.4

How the Bass Tube Works

110. 100. 90. 80. 70. 60. 50. 40. 30. 20. 20 100 db(v(out2drum))+94 db(v(far_basstube))+94 db(v(far_sum))+94 F (Hz) 1K db(v(far_backholes))+94 10K 20K db(v(far_front))+94 AA14MINIBASSTUBE_ANALYSIS.CIR SWITCH=0...90T

Figure 22: Bass tube normal (upper curve) and closed (lower curve).

130. 120. 110. 100. 90. 80. 70. 60. 50. 40. 30.

AA15MINIBACKHOLES_ANALYSIS.CIR SWITCH=0...90T

20 100 db(v(out2drum))+94 db(v(far_basstube))+94 db(v(far_sum))+94 F (Hz)

1K db(v(far_backholes))+94

10K 20K db(v(far_front))+94

Figure 23: Back holes open (normal) and closed (sharp dip at 1kHz).

Figure 22 shows what happens when the bass tube is closed. There are also other rear leaks. Switching them o must make a purer bass tube. Figure 23 shows that this is not desirable. The sharp minimum indicates that the coil hardly moves (lower curve, LS.displacement) at 1kHz where the bass tube is allowed to act undiluted.

26

CHAPTER 3. AN IN-EAR HEADPHONE

It is as if the compliant rear cavity were replaced by an innitely hard wall intimately in contact with the rear surface of the membrane. This comes from the parallel resonance of the cavity compliance (condenser Cvol ) and bass tube (Lbasstube ), as shown in Figure 24.

bass tube 19k

(AREAm2,DISTm,deg)
deg

Vol_back m3=0.15u m3 .define Cvol (.15u/(1.4*atmospressure)) Cvol=1.071p atmospressure=100K Pa

4kHz Resonance

Mode2
19k Mms Cvol dominates stiffness Cvol/2 Cvol/2 Cmem

1kHz DIP

19k Coil and membrane stand still Cvol 19k Mms infinite impedance

Helmholtz resonance

200Hz bass boost

Mode1
Cvol no compression of air cushion

soft membrane dominates stiffness Cmem

Figure 24: When the rear holes are closed the Helmholtz resonance (1kHz) of bass tube with rear cavity presents an innite impedance for membrane motion (sharp dip in Figure 23 on p. 25). This resonance is in the middle between two other resonance modes. The R of the basstube is here omitted for simplicity. Of course the imagined partition for 4kHz divides the cavity into equal halves Cvol/2 and Cvol/2 only for equal masses. Normally they are unequal.

Also we have a peak at 4kHz. This is the second bassreex resonance, where the currents of q1 and q2 into the rear cavity (Figure 25 on p. 27) are in phase (Figure 26 on p. 27). The basstube and membrane both pump into the rear cavity with the same phase above 1kHz. At the resonance 4kHz we can imagine an immovable partition dividing

3.4. HOW THE BASS TUBE WORKS

27

the cavity spring into two smaller and stier parts: one for the bass tube and one for the membrane. Since they are each stier than the undivided cavity stiness the resonance must be higher than the main Helmholtz resonance at 1kHz. The bass boost around 200Hz has nothing to do with the cavity. The equivalent of Figure 23 on p. 25, but without any cavity is shown in Figure 27 on p. 28.
back holes 400e5 1k
(AREAm2,DISTm)

0 switch volt=0.126 q1
current

far_front
AREAm2=0.5e-4 DISTm=distance

q2
current

(V,Hz)

out

out

in

in

far_SUM

Figure 25: The circuit for revealing the phases of currents q1 and q2 into the rear cavity.

Figure 26: The phase dierence of the currents q1 and q2 in Figure 25.

(AREAm2,DISTm)

(AREAm2,DISTm)

AREAm2=999 DISTm=distance

out1 foam 4e5 10 front holes 100

ear IEC711 canal

out2drum

far_backholes bass tube 200e5 20k

current sensor current sensor

DRP

ERP

AREAm2=999 DISTm=distance

m3

far_basstube

Vol_back m3=0.15u

LS ThieleSmall_LS Fres_mech=255 Mms=17.5u Blvalue=0.46 Rdc=14.4 Rms=0 Amem=0.8e-4

IEC_711_with_ear_canal_noEC

.define distance 30m

28

CHAPTER 3. AN IN-EAR HEADPHONE

AA16_4MINIBASSTUBE_ANALYSISNOCAVITY.CIR SWITCHBACKHOLES2=0...1.1T SWITCHBACKHOLES=0...1.1T

130. 120. 110. 100. 90. 80. 70. 60.

REAR CAVITY REMOVED 50. 40. 30. 20 100 1K db(v(out2drum))+94 db(v(out2drum_nocavity))+94 F (Hz) 10K 20K

Figure 27: Like Figure 23 on p. 25, but cavity deactivated. Unlike in a bass reex LS, the bass tube still works.

3.5

Sharp Sound-Colour Of Far-eld Leakage

Each opening except the bass tube radiates into the surroundings with a bass decit (Figure 21 on p. 24). This fact alone would explain why a headphone sounds sharp to bystanders. But the signal at the summation node SUM is even sharper. The individual components are vectorially added. We must remember that the air in front and behind the membrane cannot experience much compression at mid and low frequencies where the reactance L of all acoustic masses L resembles a short circuit. Thus the total current in at the back must almost equal that out of the front. Since their inuences at a distance are in anti-phase, we get progressive cancellation as the frequency is lowered. The headphone is a dipole radiator.

Chapter 4

Reference Points For Response Measurements

4.1 ERP and DRP: Ear and Drum Reference Points

Tracing the transmission chain from a sound source to the inner ear the last point for normal analysis1 is DRP (Drum Reference Point) 3mm in front of the eardrum (Figure 28 on p. 30). What the brain receives is of course a spectral impression of the signal at DRP . So obviously this is the one we should be primarily interested in. But some measurements refer to ERP (Ear Reference Point) in the concha. Results involving ERP can be problematic, depending on what you want to do with them. If you are interested in SP L at ERP , you can measure it and you have what you want. But there are standardised tabular data for (dBSP L ERP dBSP L DRP ), which are intended for transforming from one to the other. The implicit assumption is that this transfer function (TF) is uniqueindependent of diraction eects to the left of the input. This only applies if the stretch of air between these two points is a genuine two-port, which is true for ERP x DRP , but not for ERP DRP (Figure 28).

1 Normal here means the SP L [P a] is proportional to other stages before this point. Behind the eardrum we have movements of bone levers and nerve impulses. These cannot be treated as signals in linear two-ports. For example, even for a sinusoidal sound signal the nerve impulses are spikes of impulse probability, ring rhythmically once per period with the zero-crossings of the acoustic signal. Between these spikes nothing happens. Thus there is nothing sinusoidal about them.

29

30

CHAPTER 4. REFERENCE POINTS FOR RESPONSE MEASUREMENTS

qERP ambiguous

?
ERPx

( SBIG = S / cos ) ( vSMALL = v cos )

DRP

vSMALL

ERP

q2 q2 = vSMALL SBIG

q1 and q2 are equal. qERP velocity v [m/s] ambiguous

ERPx ERP DRP

Unambiguous two-port

q1 [m3/s] q1 = v S

Figure 28: The transfer function from ERP to DRP is not unique.

For a genuine two-port the current at the input depends only on the two-port itself and its output load. In general, we might be able to dene the pressure p at the input of a system. But this is not always sucient for dening the current. If the input is 3mm just behind the earcanal entrance (ERP x) the current is also dened because the input impedance of everything to the right is unique. It is easier to deal with ERP x and DRP , because the region around them is inherently one-dimensional and of small cross-section. But that around ERP comprises the concha and pinna etc. with a 3-dimensional geometry2 . Dening the current q means choosing a small area element Snormal or Sbig , through which the current is supposed to ow, and integrating the particle velocity v over this area: q = v dS. Figure 28 shows why the concept of volume current q is unique only inside the earcanal. The value of q must be independent of the exact choice of angle for the area S. Within the earcanal this is fullled for all reasonably small values of .
For measurements involving circum-aural headphones, ERP is surrounded by the headphone cavity. For free-eld measurements the head and shoulders are part of the surroundings of ERP and inuence the transfer function.
2

4.2. ARTIFICIAL EAR IEC711 COMBINED WITH EARCANAL

31

4.2

Articial Ear IEC711 Combined With Earcanal

In the simulation circuit of Figure 20 on p. 24 we saw a macro of the IEC711 coupler combined with an earcanal. The content of this is shown in Figure 29. Obviously the short stretch 10mm cannot represent a real earcanal. Part of the IEC711 already contains several tubes in series, representing the second half of the earcanal and eardrum impedance. The equivalent circuit using lumped elements can be much improved above about 2kHz by introducing transmission lines for the tube sections (Figure 30).
EAR CANAL TUBE in
nonlossy

IEC711
ear drum in

DRP ERP
ERP

(L, D, N)

DRP

length=10m diam=7.4m N=1

Figure 29: A short stretch of earcanal combined with the IEC711 coupler.

IEC711
TUBE length=2.7m diam=7.4m HOLE N=1 D1 D D2 IN
(L, D, N)
nonlossy L

TUBE length=4.7m diam=7.4m N=1

(L, D, N)
nonlossy

TUBE length=0.6m diam=7.4m N=1

(L, D, N)
nonlossy

TUBE length=4m diam=7.4m N=1

(L, D, N)
nonlossy

DRP ERP
table2

(L,D,N,D1,D2)

Ra5 506e5 Ma5 94e2 Ca5 1.9p

Ra7 311e5*1.2

length=0.2m diam=1m N=19 D1=7.4m D2=7.4m

Ma7 9.838e2*0.8 Ca7 2.1p

Figure 30: The improved simulation of the IEC711 coupler.

The Head And Torso Simulator HATS comprises a Silicone rubber pinna and earcanal terminated by the eardrum impedance. This is suitable for headphone measurements. But if one wants to compare measurements with computer simulations, one needs a realistic equivalent circuit for the articial ear. The manufacturer of the IEC711 supplied an equivalent circuit consisting of lumped elements R, L (for constrictions) and C (for cavities). But the IEC711 consists also of several tube sections for which lumped elements are inaccurate. Figure 30 shows an improved circuit using transmission line two-ports as described in Figure 31 on p. 33.

32

CHAPTER 4. REFERENCE POINTS FOR RESPONSE MEASUREMENTS

Appendix A

Behind The Ear Canal Entrance

A.1 Tube Transfer Function
S [m2] p1 q1 length [m] p2 q2

p1

q1

A11 A21

A12 A22

q2

p2

Figure 31: The chain matrix nomenclature for a tube as a two-port.

p1 q1

cos(k l) j Zw sin(k l) p 2 (j/Zw ) sin(k l) cos(k l) q2

(A.1)

p1 = cos(k l) p2 + j Zw sin(k l) q2 q1 = (j/Zw ) sin(k l) p2 + cos(k l) q2

(A.2) (A.3)

The input and output currents (Figure 31) are both to the right, as is convenient for combining such chain matrices. These equations apply to a non-lossy tube. The parameters are k = /c where = 2f ; l = tube length; Zw = c/S, where is air density and c the speed of sound propagation. For a hard eardrum the transfer function of the earcanal would be p2 /p1 = 1/cos(k l) (setting q2 = 0 in equ. A.2). This would show an innite peak where cos(k l) = 0. The frequency of this peak is 3500 Hz1 . In reality the peak is only about 12dB because the eardrum impedance is not innite.
This means k l = /2. Since k = 2f /c, we get 2f l/c = /2 giving f = c/(4l). c=340000mm/s and l=24mm we get f = 340000/(4 24) = 3500Hz.
1

Setting

33

34

APPENDIX A. BEHIND THE EAR CANAL ENTRANCE

A.2

Eardrum Impedance

Figure 32 shows a highly simplied equivalent circuit of the eardrum impedance using lumped elements. Its frequency response is shown in Figure 33, where it is compared with that from the model of Zwislocki [3], where ossicle eects, such as the decoupling of the malleus from the eardrum, are taken into account.

Eardrum impedance simplified as RLC circuit a 300e5 Resistance_acoustic 1000 6.5p Mass_acoustic Compliance_acoustic

Figure 32: Very simplied equivalent circuit for eardrum impedance.

Figure 33: The real and imaginary parts of the eadrum impedance. The results of the circuit of Figure 32 compared with those from Zwislockis circuit [3].

A.3. LUMPED ELEMENTS

35

A.3

Lumped Elements

Figure 34 shows the equivalent circuits of acoustical constrictions, cavities, the resonant core of a LS, and a simplied radiation impedance.
Flow velocity profile Equivalent Circuit

HOLE

f <fo

   

8 l

R
d 2

 !

SLIT

d<<b b

f <fo

V = Volume

V
m S
2

V 1,4 10 5

MEMBRANE PLUS COIL S = area , m = mass f res = resonance

0
c0

S2 4 2 m f res2

The acoustic elements, their electrical equivalent circuits, and R, L, C values expressed in terms of mechanical dimensions: l, b, d [m], S [m2], V [m3], frequency f [Hz]. Effective total length of a constriction in flow direction is l. For a circular hole the total effective length l equals the geometrical length l0 plus the end correction 0.85d. The viscosity coefficient under normal conditions is = 1.86 10-5 kg/(ms). It is proportional to pressure and roughly proportional to absolute temperature [K]. Air density is = 1.2kg/m3. Speed of sound c0 = 340m/s. Specific heat ratio = 1.4 for air. Patmos = 105 Pascal. The impedance analogy is used, where sound pressure [Pa] is equivalent to voltage [V], and volume velocity [m3/s] is equivalent to current [A]. The equivalences for L, R, and C are 1H 1kg/m4, 1 1kg/(m4s), 1F 1m4s2/kg.

Figure 34: The electro-acoustical equivalent circuits of lumped elements.

S = area

408 = S

0,58

Radiating piston (approx.)

0,85

vw v x

y y

CAVITY compliance

b d3

d d

f f0

1,2 l bd

t s u

h g g i

f 0 = 36 d2 4 = 1 ,78 10 2 d

f >fo

f f 0 4 l 2,23 10

12 l b d3

l
bd

R R

2,23 10 4 l b d3

1,44 l bd

b a c

V U U W

12 l b d3

6 l 5 bd

FG F

1,53 l d2

P I I Q

4 4

8 7 7 9

3, 16 10 4 d2

d2

d 2

D C E

2 1 3

f0 =

64

f >fo

f 4 f0 d 2 7,58 10 4 l f = f0 d4

8 l

 

7,58 10 4 l d4

2,04 l d2

l
2

"# " $

& % % '

d 2

4 3

l
2

Patmos

36

APPENDIX A. BEHIND THE EAR CANAL ENTRANCE

Appendix B

Harmonic Distortion
B.1
B.1.1

Two Superstitions Exposed

K2 K4 K6 etc Not Always Unsymmetrical

Many of us have come to believe the rule of thumb: (1) Even harmonics K2 K4 K6 etc1 cause unsymmetrical time signals; (2) Odd harmonics K3 K5 K7 etc cause symmetrical time signals. Indeed the circuit of Figure 35 with Nharm=3 gives a symmetrical time signal (Figure 36 on p. 38), as expected. IHD means Individual Harmonic Distortion referred to F1 in %.
in in2 .define Nharm 3
(V,Hz)

(V,Hz)

SineVoltHzPha Hz=F1 .define F1 1k volt=1 deg=0

sum

SUBJECT HERE IS: 1 K2 NOT NECESSARILY UNSYMMETRICAL (Nharm=2) 2 DC NOT NECESSARILY VISIBLE IN TIME SIGNAL

SineVoltHzPha Hz=(F1*Nharm) volt=.25 deg=180 Battery_for_DC_value 0

Figure 35: Circuit for revealing two superstitions.

Now let us set Nharm=2. We get an unsymmetrical time signal (Figure 37 on p. 38) as expected. But if we set the phase to 90 degrees (Figure 38 on p. 39) we are not so sure. The question of symmetry or non-symmetry in the displacement direction is only meaningful if the signal looks the same when the time axis is reversed. Otherwise we optically can get a sawtooth waveform and we cannot know from its shape whether even or odd harmonics are responsible.
This is German nomenclature (K stands for Klirrfaktor). For example, K2 is 2nd-order harmonic distortion, expressed in % or dB relative to the fundamental.
1

37

38

APPENDIX B. HARMONIC DISTORTION

1.00 0.00 -1.00 0.0m 2.0m v(in) (V) v(in2) (V)

5_SYMM_DC_K3SYMM.CIR

4.0m t (Secs)

6.0m

8.0m

10.0m

2.00 0.00 -2.00 0.0m v(sum) (V) 2.0m 4.0m t (Secs) 1.2 0.6 0.0 0.0K 1.0K HARM(v(sum)) 2.0K F (Hz) 45.0 22.5 0.0 0.0K 1.0K IHD(harm(v(sum)),F1) (%) 2.0K F (Hz) 3.0K 4.0K 5.0K 3.0K 4.0K 5.0K 6.0m 8.0m 10.0m

Figure 36: Time signal with K3 is symmetrical, as expected.

1.00 0.00 -1.00 0.0m 2.0m v(in) (V) v(in2) (V)

6_SYMM_DC_K2UNSYMM.CIR

4.0m t (Secs)

6.0m

8.0m

10.0m

2.00 0.00 -2.00 0.0m v(sum) (V) 2.0m 4.0m t (Secs) 1.2 0.6 0.0 0.0K 1.0K HARM(v(sum)) 2.0K F (Hz) 45.00 22.50 0.00 0.0K 1.0K IHD(harm(v(sum)),F1) (%) 2.0K F (Hz) 3.0K 4.0K 5.0K 3.0K 4.0K 5.0K 6.0m 8.0m 10.0m

Figure 37: Time signal with K2 (phase=180 deg) is unsymmetrical, as expected.

B.1. TWO SUPERSTITIONS EXPOSED

1.00 0.00 -1.00 0.00m 2.00m v(in) (V) v(in2) (V) 4.00m t (Secs) 2.00 0.00 -2.00 0.00m v(sum) (V) 2.00m 4.00m t (Secs) 1.2 0.6 0.0 0.0K 1.0K HARM(v(sum)) 2.0K F (Hz) 45.0 22.5 0.0 0.0K 1.0K IHD(harm(v(sum)),F1) (%) 2.0K F (Hz) 3.0K 4.0K 3.0K 4.0K 6.00m 8.00m 6.00m 8.00m 7_SYMM_DC_K2NOTREALLYUNSYMM.CIR

39

10.00m

10.00m

5.0K

5.0K

Figure 38: Time signal with K2 (phase=90 deg) is not really unsymmetrical.

As hinted in Figure 1 on p. 2, if the time signal shows symmetrical distortion we can say the distortion mechanism had no even harmonics. But if the distorted time signal is unsymmetrical we can say there must be at least one even harmonic component (unsymmetrical distortion mechanism such as spring harder in one direction than the other). But such deductive statements can only be made if the signal is reversible: in other words, reversing time does not change the signal shape. By contrast, in the case of a saw-tooth type of distortion signal (e.g. faster ramp up and slower drop) no deductions of the above type can be made from a qualitative inspection of signal form alone.

B.1.2

Apparent DC Value Can Be a Phantom

Now, still for Nharm=2 let us set the phase back to 180 deg and look at the FFT instead of IHD, so we get the sign of each component. This can have negative values. A pure real negative value means phase=180 deg, which is one of the two possible phase values for DC. We get Figure 39 on p. 40. Using the battery with a real DC value of -0.5V shifts the time signal down further (Figure 40 on p. 40). Now there is a visible negative DC value, which is not a phantom.

40

APPENDIX B. HARMONIC DISTORTION

1.0 0.5 0.0 -0.5 -1.0

8_SYMM_DC_K2AGAINFFTDC0.CIR

0.0m 2.0m v(in) (V) v(in2) (V)

4.0m t (Secs)

6.0m

8.0m

10.0m

2.0 1.0 0.0 -1.0 -2.0

0.0m v(sum) (V)

2.0m

4.0m t (Secs)

6.0m

8.0m

10.0m

300.0 150.0 0.0 -150.0 -300.0

0.0K 1.0K (FFT(v(sum)))

2.0K F

3.0K

4.0K

5.0K

Figure 39: K2 again. Phantom DC value due to unsymmetry not really there (look at FFT: lowest curve).

1.0 0.5 0.0 -0.5 -1.0

9_SYMM_DC_K2AGAINFFTDCMP5.CIR

0.0m 2.0m v(in) (V) v(in2) (V)

4.0m t (Secs)

6.0m

8.0m

10.0m

2.0 1.0 0.0 -1.0 -2.0

0.0m v(sum) (V)

2.0m

4.0m t (Secs)

6.0m

8.0m

10.0m

300.0 150.0 0.0 -150.0 -300.0

0.0K 1.0K (FFT(v(sum)))

2.0K F

3.0K

4.0K

5.0K

Figure 40: With real DC value (-0.5V) in battery it is no longer a phantom.

B.2. SIMULATING NON-LINEAR DISTORTIONS

41

B.2

Simulating Non-linear Distortions

The same approach as shown in Figure 9 on p. 11 for area modulation can be followed for the other causes of non-linearity: non-linear membrane stiness (F vs x) non-at Bl prole (Bl vs x). For a Bl prole combining two Fermi functions (a concept used in semiconductor- and solid-state physics) is useful for describing a hump (lowest curve in Figure 45 on p. 45). This is better than a polynomial because it is guaranteed never to go negative: .dene xstep1 (xmid-xwidth/2) .dene xstep2 (xmid+xwidth/2) .dene Fermi1 (1/(exp((x-xstep1)/smoothness1)+1)) .dene Fermi2 (1/(exp((x-xstep2)/smoothness2)+1)) .dene stepup (-Fermi1+1) .dene stepdown (Fermi2) .dene hump (stepup*stepdown) The coil position at rest can easily be adjusted relative to the hump. The spring can be described by a polynomial (which will go haywire at large amplitudes): F orce = (1/Cms ) x + coef f 2 x2 + coef f 3 x3 + coef f 4 x4 + coef f 5 x5 The linear component is 1/Cms , where Cms is the compliance. Note the opposite sign of the charges for the charge sensor and the place where the Cms capacitor was, before nonlinear elements were introduced. The charge sensor is essentially a piece of wire, which does not disturb the circuit. The shift in charge to the right represents displacement of the coil to the right. This charges the imaginary capacitor with an excess positive charge on the left plate (purple). The voltage across this bridge, supplied by the output of the two-port N L Compliance, works against the restoring force of the spring. Figure 41 shows how all three mechanisms can be combined in a single circuit.
coeff3=0 coeff2=-1 Cms=Cms

Force
X Y+

.define Fres_mech 300 .define Cms 3m .define Mms (1/(twopi^2*Cms*Fres_mech^2)) Mms=93.816u .define F1 30 volt=0.3 Hz=F1 Bl_NONLIN Rdc 8 electr
A B+

coeff3=0 Ycoeff2=0 coeff1=-1u area0=1e-4 (1cm2) Area Displacement NL Area charge sensor
X Y+ Y-

NL Compliance

A capacitor Cms would be here for linear case

mech
D

(V,Hz)

Bl_value
(Tm)

Ac 1 N mech

+C

Mms

Pa_Cavity (m3/140000) .define m3 50u

Pin_for_Bl Y+ X

IDEALTRA_nonlin

Blvalue_at_rest=0.5 NL Bl Fermi ShiftCoilOut=0.1m Y-

Figure 41: Combining 3 distortion mechanisms in a circuit for a simplied headphone.

42

APPENDIX B. HARMONIC DISTORTION

Appendix C

Some Curious Observations

C.1 Bl Distortion In Resonance

Using the technique described in Section B.2 on p. 41 we simulate now a non-linear symmetrical Bl prole (circuit: Figure 42) for a LS with 300Hz resonance (Figure 43). We perform rst a transient analysis at a very low frequency 30Hz, where inertial mass plays no role (Figure 44 on p. 45). As expected the coil displacement clips where the eld becomes weak. As also expected the distortion for sound at a distance is much worse than that of displacement (displacement x being dierentiated twice for acceleration, which determines SP L).
.define Fres_mech 300 Mms=93.816u .define Cms 3m .define Mms (1/(twopi^2*Cms*Fres_mech^2)) Mms Bl_NONLIN volts
volt=4 Hz=F1
(V, Hz, Deg)

displacement charge sensor +

Cms

40m Rmech

electr

mech

N mech

Rdc 8

1e-4 .define F1 30 Bl_value NL Bl Fermi Blvalue_at_rest=0.5 ShiftCoilOut=0

(Tm)

(AREAm2,DISTm)

acoust. 1

SPL

DISTm=2

Figure 42: LS circuit in which Bl value is modulated by coil displacement.

We now choose a generator frequency of 300Hz. Since this is exactly in the resonance, the displacement must be much larger, as conrmed in Figure 45 on p. 45. But the distortion has just about disappeared. Normally we expect distortions to increase with displacement. But this applies only to distortions of mechanical or acoustical impedances within the system itself. The Bl prole is not a mechanical impedance. It cannot properly be classed with such building blocks as spring compliances which denitely distort if stretched beyond the linear limit. 43

44
70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0 20.0 10.0 10 dB(v(SPL))+94 100

APPENDIX C. SOME CURIOUS OBSERVATIONS

2BLAC.CIR

1K F (Hz)

10K

5.0m 4.0m 3.0m 2.0m 1.0m 0.0m 10 v(displacement) (V) 100 F (Hz) 1K 10K

Figure 43: AC analysis of Figure 42.

What we see here is an irregularity in the force generator, which need not necessarily be revealed in the reaction of the mechanical system, if the latter has a high quality factor. A pendulum clock shows a very similar behaviour. It receives an impulse every time it goes through the mid point. And yet its oscillation is perfectly sinusoidal. The LS simulated here does the same because the damping resistance Rms =40m is not very high. But, as seen in Figure 43 the Q value is fairly typical of an average LS.

C.1. BL DISTORTION IN RESONANCE

5.0 0.0 -5.0 3BL30HZ.CIR

45

0.0m v(volts) (V)

20.0m

40.0m T (Secs)

60.0m

80.0m

100.0m

1.0m 0.0m

1.5m 0.0m

-1.0m -1.5m

0.0m 20.0m 40.0m v(displacement) (V) v(SPL) (V) T (Secs)

60.0m

80.0m

100.0m

500.0m 250.0m 0.0m -2.0m -1.0m v(Bl_value) (V) 0.0m v(displacement) (V) 1.0m 2.0m 3.0m

Figure 44: Transient analysis of Figure 42 at 30Hz.

5.0 0.0 -5.0

4BL300HZ.CIR

0.0m v(volts) (V)

20.0m

40.0m T (Secs)

60.0m

80.0m

100.0m

50.0m 0.0m -50.0m

1.5m 0.0m -1.5m

0.0m 20.0m 40.0m v(displacement) (V) v(SPL) (V) T (Secs)

60.0m

80.0m

100.0m

500.0m 250.0m 0.0m -2.0m -1.0m v(Bl_value) (V) 0.0m v(displacement) (V) 1.0m 2.0m 3.0m

Figure 45: Transient analysis of Figure 42 at 300Hz.

46

APPENDIX C. SOME CURIOUS OBSERVATIONS

Figure 46 shows the frequency responses of THD etc. And nally Figure 47 shows the time signals of Figure 44 on p. 45 with coil shifted out of the magnet gap by 0.3mm.
12.0 THD AND K2 TILL K5

8.0

4.0

0.0

30 100 400 Y_Level(THD(HARM(v(Pa)),F1),1,1,11*F1) Y_Level(IHD(HARM(v(Pa)),F1),1,1,2*F1) Y_Level(IHD(HARM(v(Pa)),F1),1,1,3*F1) Y_Level(IHD(HARM(v(Pa)),F1),1,1,4*F1) Y_Level(IHD(HARM(v(Pa)),F1),1,1,5*F1) F1

-20.0 -40.0 -60.0 -80.0 -100.0 -120.0

30 100 Y_Level(dB(HARM(v(Pa))),1,1,F1) Y_Level(dB(HARM(v(Pa))),1,1,2*F1) Y_Level(dB(HARM(v(Pa))),1,1,3*F1) Y_Level(dB(HARM(v(Pa))),1,1,4*F1) Y_Level(dB(HARM(v(Pa))),1,1,5*F1) F1

400

Figure 46: Quasi-AC analysis of same LS. Lower gure black: linear SP L component.

5.0 0.0 -5.0

6BL30Hzcoiloutby300u.CIR

0.0m v(volts) (V)

20.0m

40.0m T (Secs)

60.0m

80.0m

100.0m

1.0m 0.0m

1.5m 0.0m

-1.0m -1.5m

0.0m 20.0m 40.0m v(displacement) (V) v(SPL) (V) T (Secs)

60.0m

80.0m

100.0m

500.0m 250.0m 0.0m -2.0m -1.0m v(Bl_value) (V) 0.0m v(displacement) (V) 1.0m 2.0m 3.0m

Figure 47: As in Figure 44, but coil shifted out of the magnet gap by 0.3mm.

C.2. THE EGG DOES COME BEFORE THE CHICKEN.

47

C.2

The Egg Does Come Before the Chicken.

Does voltage U across a resistor produce current I or does the current produce the voltage drop? And in the mechanical world: Does force F cause velocity v or the other way round? Like the question What Comes Firstthe Chicken or the Egg?, there seems to be no unique answer. But that is only because we were dealing with a twopole. If we consider a four-pole (or two-port) and put the chicken and egg on opposite sides: one at the input, one at the output, we get a clear answer: The motional parameter on one side causes the potential parameter on the other.

C.2.1

Potential and Motional Parameters

In the above question one parameter is a potential and the other is a motional parameter. Electrical current is a motional parameter because it consists of a ow of charge. Even WORLD electrical mechanical mechanical (acoust.) human POTENTIAL voltage U force F pressure p wish (intention) MOTIONAL current I, charge Q velocity v, position x, acceleration a volume ow q[m3 /s] action

Figure 48: Examples of potential and motional parameters. the position x of a membrane, as in a condenser microphone, belongs to the motional category, although we do not normally associate position with movement. This is because we can choose to be concerned exclusively with frequency responses of amplitude and phase of signals, which implies sinusoidal movement. Then we can always express position x in terms of velocity by writing v = jx, where = 2f . And of course acceleration a = 2 x.

C.2.2

Does Intention Produce Action?

In Figure 48 the last line seems to contradict what we are saying here. Most of us feel that a wish produces an action. Nevertheless brain research has come up with apparently unquestionable evidence that it is the other way around (Roth [6]). Whether or not we like this view, is not the issue here. And I am not qualied to nd a way of harmonising this so-called fact with free-will ideology. Radical materialists (an expression coined by Zoltan Torey [7]) say it is not possible. But Torey seems to succeed in reinstating free-will without invoking the concept of spirit (his pseudo-free-will model). Nevertheless there is one observation we can denitely make, without becoming esoteric: We need no theory, hypothesis or model whatsoever, to observe that the results of brain research are analogous to transduction behaviour. The same idea is expressed by the famous saying: The road to hell is paved with good intentions (potential not actualised). It would go too far here, to speculate further about the completeness of the analogy. But we can say this much: To be eective, the action needed seems to be in the material world with which we are familiar. If the analogy works, the result must be a potential. If so, to which world does it belong? Was the category human world chosen in Figure 48 too narrow? Maybe Bennett has an answer [8].

48

APPENDIX C. SOME CURIOUS OBSERVATIONS

C.2.3

Passive Transducers

A two-port connects input and output. If input and output are in dierent worlds we usually call the two-port a transducer (LS or Microphone). If they are in the same world we get such devices as electrical transformers. This category is not the subject here. A microphone detects sound pressure, pressing against the membrane. But it is not the resulting force which gives the voltage at the electrical terminals. If the membrane is very heavy there will be no electrical signal. It is the movement in the mechanical world which is needed to give an electrical signal, voltage or potential, in the electrical world. Similarly a loudspeaker needs a non-zero motional parameter (current I) at the electrical input to give a sound at the output. Applying a voltage will not do anything if the leads to the coil are broken (open circuit). We can formulate this as follows: DEVICE dynamic LS dynamic microphone CAUSE current I coil velocity v RESULT Force F voltage U FORMULA I Bl = F v Bl = U

Figure 49: Electro-dynamic transduction parameters.

C.2.4

Pure Transduction Two-ports

Figure 50 shows the pure dynamic (gyrator) and electrostatic transduction two-ports. They are pure in that their parameters do not involve any impedances from either
(Tm)

+ b electr
a

+ c mech

Figure 50: Pure transduction two-ports (w means = 2f ).

of the worlds to be connected. As an interface the job of a transduction two-port is to make the connection and no more. Bl is the product of magnetic eld and wire length. The negative sign for one of the Bls expresses the anti-reciprocity of the gyrator. Cem is the electro-mechanical compliance of the electrostatic membrane. This is not an obvious concept and deserves elucidation. An electrical condenser C connects two electrical quantities: the potential U and the charge Q, which is a motional parameter. The electro-mechanical condenser Cem relates electrical potential U with mechanical

j d se r n qp

g v { k j iw z yx w f w { k j iw z yx v h

kj i

g v { k j i zyx w } |w { k j i z y x v h

kj i

o j d p p r u q p d t

kj i

j d se r n qp

j o o j k j j  r r n p r d n~d uqp d  j j o kj i zy e d ur ~p r f g g

v w

d o kn ml v h h

C.2. THE EGG DOES COME BEFORE THE CHICKEN.

49

displacement x thus: U Cem = x (microphone). It may seem an amazing coincidence that going the opposite direction involves exactly the same constant: Force F Cem = Q. Well thats how things are. Why complain if theyre simpler than you expected! The chain matrices1 for two transduction two-ports are as follows: Dynamic transduction: U I Electrostatic transduction: U I = 0 1/jCem F jCem 0 v (C.2) = 0 Bl F 1/Bl 0 v (C.1)

C.2.5

Piezoelectric Transducer Two-port

The concepts transduction two-port and transducer two-port are dierent. Sometimes bits of the mechanical world are included (Zwicker and Zollner [4]), as in Equation C.3. Piezoelectric transducer ( = eS/x): U I = 1/ 0 F 0 v (C.3)

Here = eS/x. S is the area and e = E , which contains the elasticity modulus E of the crystal. Though convenient and correct, this is no more a transduction two-port than the circuit of Figure 51, which is a transducer two-port.

in

RadiatorBaffledPascal AREAm2=0.8e-4 DISTm=1 angledegrees=0

(AREAm2,DISTm,deg)
deg

out

13SPEAKER1100Hz08ALU

Figure 51: A transducer two-portyes, a LS is indeed a transducer. But this is not a transduction two-port.

Equation C.3 might lead one to think the force F itself produces an electrical voltage U , both potential parameters. Though this equation relates these two parameters correctly and is useful, it does not reect physically what is going onNo microphone potential U would be produced if the crystal did not deform (motional parameter).
The I and v directions are dened here symmetrically: both pointing inwards at the two-port (not suitable for matrix multiplication).
1

50

APPENDIX C. SOME CURIOUS OBSERVATIONS

C.2.6

There Is No Magnetic World

On p. 47 we acknowledged two worlds: (1) Electrical and (2) Mechanical. One might be tempted to extend this to four worlds: (1) Electrical, (2) Mechanical, (3) Acoustical, (4) Magnetic. But the last two are lower down in the hierarchy. As a physical phenomenon Acoustics belongs to the mechanical world. It can be dened as The Mechanics of Gaseous Material. It is convenient to separate the mechanical and acoustical worlds, but only because the dimensions are dierent: Force F [N ] is replaced by pressure p[N/m2 ], and velocity v[m/s] by volume current q[m3 /s]. But that has nothing to do with physics. Similarly magnetism belongs properly to the electrical world. A dynamic loudspeaker transduces from the electric to the mechanical world. There is no need to speak of a magnetic world (even if the LS does contain a magnet). Magnetism can be entirely accounted for by combining Coulombs Law of electrostatic attraction with special relativity (Figure 52). It is convenient to look at the problem from the point of view of the ionic charges (red) because they do not move. Focussing our attention on the red charges in the left wire, we shall ask what force they feel due to the right wire. When no current ows, as in (a) the forces cancel. When an electron current ows in both wires (b), from the point of view of the positive charges (red) in the left wire, the electrons in the right wire seem closer together due to relativistic length contraction. This is felt as an apparent increase in negative (blue) charge density, whereas the charge density of the positive (red) charges remains as before, because they have the same reference system as the red charges in the left wire. The result is that the right wire appears to be negatively charged. This gives an attraction between the wires, which we have come to call magnetism. But this is inherently an electrostatic phenomenon, and we need invoke no new concept to explain it.

Force
LEFT WIRE ATTRACTED BY EXCESS NEGATIVE CHARGE

(a) No currents

(b) Currents of electrons I

Figure 52: Electrostatic attraction due to relativistic length contraction.

C.3. PHASE DELAY IN A PRESSURE CHAMBER

51

C.3

Phase Delay in a Pressure Chamber

The speed of sound (c = 340m/s) only applies for free-eld propagation or in a tube without reections. See Figures 5354. Phase delay is dened as /. It vanishes for hard termination. The pressure rises and falls as in a pressure chamber without any gradient for tube length less than /4 (below 800Hz here), as if the speed were innite. Phase alternates between 0o and 180o for rising frequency.

(1) NO REFLECTIONS
in1 volt=1
(V,Hz) nonlossy

out1 Zw wave impedance (purely real) .define length 0.1 .define diam 20m .define area (pi*(diam/2)**2) .define Zw (rho*speed/area) Zw=1.288MEG

TUBE (L, D, N) length=length diam=diam N=1

(2) HARD WALL AT FAR END (right end closed)

in2 volt=1
(V,Hz) nonlossy

out2

TUBE (L, D, N) length=length diam=diam N=1

50e6 practically infinite

Figure 53: Circuit for non-lossy tube: closed and with non-reecting termination.

SOUND_IN_CLOSED_TUBE_ANALYSIS.CIR 15.0 5.0 -5.0 10 db(v(out1)/v(in1)) 100 db(v(out2)/v(in2)) F (Hz) 1K 5K

TRANSFER FUNCTION in dB

no reflections

360.0 180.0 0.0

-PHASE IN DEGREES + means later

no reflections 100 -ph(v(out2)/v(in2)) (Degrees) F (Hz) 1K 5K

10 -ph(v(out1)/v(in1)) (Degrees)

600.0 400.0 200.0 0.0

APPARENT SPEED OF SOUND ACCORDING TO PHASE SHIFT

no reflections 5K

10 100 1K length/(-(pi/180)*ph(v(out1)/v(in1))/ww) length/(-(pi/180)*ph(v(out2)/v(in2))/ww) F (Hz)

Figure 54: Phase delay for Figure 53. red: closed; blue: terminated with the wave impedance ZW = c/S which is pure real. (ww= .)

52

APPENDIX C. SOME CURIOUS OBSERVATIONS

Bibliography
[1] M R Avis and L J Kelly. Principles of Headphone DesignA Tutorial, Audio at HomeAES 21st UK Conference 2006, pp17-1 till 17-10. (Cited on p. 1). [2] J Borwick. Loudspeaker and Headphone ISBN 0 240 51578 1. (Cited on p. 5, 19). Handbook 3rd edition 2001,

[3] J Zwislocki. Analysis of the Middle-Ear Function, Part I: Input Impedance, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Vol. 34 (1962) p.1513-1523 (Cited on p. 34). [4] E Zwicker, M Zollner. Elektroakustik ISBN 3-540-18236-5 (Cited on p. 49). [5] G Theile. Study on the standardisation of studio headphones, reprinted from EBU Review - Technical, No.197 (Feb 1983). Published by the Technical Centre of the European Broadcasting Union, Avenue Albert Lancaster 32, B1180 Brussels Belgium. (Cited on p. 17). [6] Gerhard Roth. Fhlen, Denken, HandelnWie das Gehirn unser Verhalten u steuert. (Cited on p. 47). [7] Zoltan Torey. The Cruscible of Consciousness, ISBN 0 19 550872 6. (Cited on p. 47). [8] J G Bennett. The Dramatic Universe Volumes I II III IV. (Cited on p. 47). [9] C. Psselt Doctoral Thesis, Einuss der Verschluss-spezischen Knochenschallo Hrschwelle des Menschen auf die objektive Messung der Schalldmmung von o a Gehrschtzen, Ruhr-Universitt Bochum (1984). (Cited on p. 15). o u a

53