A model for northern Gotland high purity limestones based on a Dynamic Stratigraphic concept

Olof Sandstrm PhD & Mikael Calner, Prof. Olof Sandstrm, Graptolit Geoproject AB, Kapellgatan 10, SE-214 21 Malm, Sweden, olof@graptolitgeo.se M. Calner, Dept of Geology, Lund University, GeoBiosphere Science Centre, Lund University, Slvegatan 12, SE-223 62 Lund, Sweden, mikael.calner@geol.lu.se.

Introduction
Carbonate sequence stratigraphy is normally used by the petroleum industry to search for quality petroleum deposits in dynamic sedimentary environments. Also, a more academic use of this involves describing the depositional dynamics and history of ancient and present carbonate environments. Very few investigations have been done in order to correlate sequence stratigraphic concepts to carbonates used for industrial purposes. Pawellek & Aigner (2004) investigated a Jurassic deposit for ultra-white limestone and concluded that the occurrences followed a cyclostratigraphic pattern. On Gotland, five major industry areas deal with extraction of stone and quality demands. These areas are: Limestone for industrial minerals purpose. This includes high purity limestone for metal industry, paints, pulp, paper, plastics and sugar industry. Chemical demands are high. Other quality factors may be grindability, lime reactivity, thermal detoriation, hardness, softness, yellowness, whiteness. Limestone and marl for cement manufacturing. Here demands are for a mixture of limestone and impurities like silica, clay etc. to optimize the sintering process. Limestone for aggregates and construction. Here quality demands are for durability, hardness and size. Chemical qualities are not very important, though this is sometimes linked to physical parameters. Limestone for agriculture, forestry and lake de-

acidification. Most important are the CaO-value. The value should normally not be lower than 50%. Other demands are on pollutants like lead, manganese and sulphur. Ornamental stone for buildings, pavements and gravestones. Demands are most often related to the hardness, fissure density, brittleness and durability. Colour and leaching are two other quality factors. This paper is a part of the project Energy effective production of lime products (see Sandstrm 2011a, b for further references) and will focus on an example with high-purity limestone for production of metallurgic pebble lime, used as a flux in the steel manufacturing process. The example is from a site on northern Gotland and will follow the method suggested by Aigner et al (1999). The purpose is to show how one may utilize stratigraphic knowledge and basin dynamics to predict where to find limestone of a specific quality.

Dynamic stratigraphy
The concepts of dynamic stratigraphy (Aigner et al 1999; Pawellek & Aigner 2004), involves a systematic analysis of sedimentary rock sequences along a hierarchy of spatial and temporal scales, moving from small to larger levels (Fig. 1): Microfacies analysis (sensu Flgel 2004) identifies generally small-scale primary and secondary textures of limestone as controlled by carbonate-producing biota,

Fig. 1 Silurian palaeogeography and location of Gotland. A Paleogeography of Scandinavia and the East Baltic showing Gotland within the square (modified from Baarli et al. 2003). B Stratigraphic units of Gotland and references). C. Facies distribution of Gotland (modified from Sandstrm 1998). The square in the northern part marks the area from where the example is taken in the text.

Fig. 2. A sequence stratigraphic model based on the reef development and eustatic factors.

water energy during deposition, and fluid dynamics during diagenesis. At the same time, microfacies types also mirror the chemical composition and thus the economic potential of the limestone. For instance, low -energy mud- and wackestone tend to contain more insoluble matter and are thus usually less pure than the high-energy pack- and grainstone. Petrophysical and facies analysis focuses on larger-scale groups of microfacies types (MFT cf Flgel 2004) reflecting similar depositional processes. These groups of microfacies often show comparable physical and chemical parameters such as their gamma-ray signal, whiteness and carbonate content. Thus petrophysical facies types help to characterise the quality of economic minerals. Architectural analysis reconstructs the three-dimensional geometry of rock bodies as a reflection of the dynamic evolution of depositional environments. These geometries also allow the assessment of the volumes of produceable mineral resources. Sequence analysis provides a genetic framework for the occurrence of rock types within sedimentary sequences and cycles. The cycles record changing environ-

mental conditions (e.g. baselevel dynamics). At the same time, these cycles highlight preferred stratigraphic levels where economic minerals (e.g. ultrapure limestones) may occur. Stacking analysis deciphers the way shorter-term stratigraphic cycles change and follow longer-term trends, controlled by various mechanisms (tectonics, eustasy, etc.) During exploration, stacking patterns help to predict the regional occurrence of mineral resources. Basin-analysis identifies the general patterns of basin paleogeography, dynamics and evolution. It is thus possible to deduce general rules for predicting the distribution of certain facies types that have an economic potential on a basin-wide scale. This hierarchical approach provides a logical basis for understanding the small- to large-scale occurrence of industrial limestone. In this paper we present a generalised dynamic model for the Gotland limestone and marls focusing on its usage for prospecting industrial carbonates of specific qualities. Focus is on high quality pure limestone, but other usages are also mentioned and described.

Fig. 3. Geologic profile, microfacies, chemistry, depositional facies, thermal detoriation, cyclic pattern and depth analysis of DH 1. The letters a j refers to example photographs of different facies in Fig 4. Thickness of the right hand side of the lithological column refers to the system by Dunham (1962) and the letters at the bottom of the column are: m= mudstone; w=wackestone; p=packstone; g=grainstone; b=boundstone.

Fig. 4. Photographs showing the different facies of DH 1. The position of each picture is indicated by its corresponding letter in Fig. 3. a. Crinoid limestone (grainstone) with abundant stylolites. b. Fragmented limestone (packstone). c. Stromatoporoid limestone (boundstone) intercalated with fragmented limestone (packstone). d. Reefal fragmented limestone (packstone). e. Stromatoporoid limestone (boundstone). f. Crinoid limestone, partly with micritic matrix (packstone/ grainstone). g. Fragmented limestone with solitary rugose corals and coated grains (wackestone/packstone). h. Reef limestone (boundstone), partly rich in stromatoporoids. i. Crinoid limestone with abundant stylolites and fine clay intercalations (grainstone). j. Fragmented marly limestone, with abundant fossil fragments and in part rich in crinoids (storm depositions; packstone).

Geology and Sequence-stratigraphy of Gotland

Ludlow time. During the Silurian, the Baltic basin was fringed by a carbonate platform system whereas shales with graptolites formed in the central and deeper parts of the basin. The lack of The Silurian of Gotland consists of more than 750 meters of major tectonic structures and the exceptionally good preservalimestone, marls and some lesser extent siliclastic siltstones tion of the rocks enable good control on temporal and spatial and sandstones (Fig. 1), reflecting a series of stacked carbonate facies change, i.e., on platform architecture. To the south, the platform generations that formed in the intra- to pericratonic Rheic Ocean separated the Baltic Shield form the main GondBaltic basin at low latitudes south of the equator (see Calner et wana continent. This palaeogeographic setting makes the Baltic al. 2004 for a recent review). This basin was situated on the basin an excellent target for studies of the relationship between southern margin of the Baltic Shield and the East European industrial carbonate prospecting and aspects of carbonate platplatform (Fig. 1). After extension, followed by tectonic quies- form evolution. cence in the earliest Palaeozoic, the south-western margin of Earlier works on Gotland sequence- and dynamic stratigraphy the Baltic Shield was active from the latest Ordovician when includes works by Erikssson & Calner (2008) and Sandstrm the Avalonia Composite Terrane was amalgamated to Baltica. (2000). Eriksson & Calner (2008) investigated a time interval A substantial change in basin tectonics that may have affected within the Late Ludfordian (Late Silurian) of Gotland, and intethe Gotland area is noted in the Silurian, particularly during grated sequence stratigraphy, carbon isotope stratigraphy, and 3

Fig. 5. Fence diagram showing the architecture and three dimensional geometry of the MFT (Micro Facies Types) from the western part of the exemplified area. The succession is here from shoals and mid-ramp facies (Fragmented limestone) to reef facies (Reef limestone and crinoid limestone) and stromatoporid biostromes (stromatoporoid limestone). This reflects a transgressive phase with its maximum flooding at the mid-part of the reef and reef flank facies. The Highstand tracts are represented by the uppermost part of crinoid limestone and stromatoporoid limestone (cf Fig. 2).

platform-scale palaeoecological changes. Three depositional sequences (sequences Nos. 13), including two separate periods of forced regression (falling stage systems tracts, FSSTs) are identified from outcrop and drillcore studies. The sequence stratigraphical framework is interpreted to reflect glacioeustatic sea-level changes. Based on their facies analysis and sequence stratigraphical interpretation, two main mechanisms are suggested as responsible for the Late Ludfordian CIE: (1) a change in the riverine C-weathering flux towards the 13C end member following glacio-eustatically induced subaerial exposure of carbonate platforms throughout the tropics, and, (2) increased photosynthetic activity by benthic cyanobacteria exaggerating the d13C values of precipitated carbonates. Sandstrm (2000) suggested a sequence stratigraphic model based on the development of different reef types and morphologies (mounds, biostromes, bioherms), presenting an ideal development of reef formation is: Axelsro bioherms (small bioherms) Hoburgen bioherms (large bioherms) Kuppen and Holmhllar type biostromes (biostromes; Fig. 2), reflecting a shallowing upward depositional system of development which does not necessarily reflect regression in terms of a sealevel fall. Instead this system is transgressive, reflecting initially a rapid rise in sea-level and as the transgressive rate decreases, it moves laterally, filling the new space (i.e. highstand shedding). When the transgressive rate is approximately zero, an extensive shallow shelf has formed (due to progradation and flooding), that is ideal for biostrome development (cf. Fig. 2). Such a sequence is found in the Visby Hgklint Tofta transition (Riding. & Watts 1991, Watts & Riding 2000). This 4

model reflects an ideal transgressive and highstand situation, and can be used to discuss the dynamics of other intervals.

Example from Northern Gotland.

Figure 3 shows a drill-core section from the northernmost part of Gotland. The area of interest is marked in Fig. 1C. Examples of different microfacies from the section are shown in Fig. 4. The area of northernmost Gotland (main island), is dominated by limestone in the northern part and by marls in the south. The northern part is exploited by several mining companies for its high purity limestone, suitable for a range of products and applications. Microfacies study of the section and 120 other drillcores from the area, distinguishes 6 major depositional environments, each reflecting a MFT: outer ramp marls and marly limestone (wackestone, packstone), shoals and mid ramp limestone (fragmented limestone, packstone, grainstone), Reef flank debris and crinoid limestone ((packstone), grainstone), Reef limestone (boundstone, packstone), Stromatoporoid biostromes (boundstone) and back reef limestone (mudstone, wackestone, packstone). Putting these into quality types gives that the high quality limestone are to be found in Reef flank and reef facies containing mainly grainstone and boundstone with subordinate packstone (cf Fig. 4). An architectural analysis yields that there is a standard facies succession that follows the dynamic cyclic pattern of eustatic change and thus can be predicted. A 3D-model and fence diagram of a part of the area shows a typical succession from

outer ramp to reef (Fig. 5). Further north this continues with a mid-ramp to back-reef succession (Fig 4.). The total cycle of the limestone part is between 15m and 60m. From the architectural study, volumes can be calculated and the size of a deposit is predicted (cf. Sandstrm 2011a). Earlier studies (Jux 1957, Flodn et al 2001, Eriksson & Calner 2008) reveal a prograding carbonate ramp system of forced regressions and transgressive events forming a system of stacked sequences prograding mainly to the SE and in late Silurian towards S. The major cuclicity of such a sequence forms a regressive event of subaerial exposure in the upper and midramp areas. In the uppermost ramp series of stacked stromatoporiod biostromes may form, separated by truncated surfaces (Sandstrm & Kershaw 2002). In Fig. 4, an eventual main sequence boundary is marked by the transition from back-reef to shoal/flank facies. However in the extremely shallow areas, even minor sea-level fluctuations may cause relevant facies changes and erosional structures. Or instance, within the MFT back-reef two levels of probable stromatoporoid biostromes are evident that most likely are the result of temporary changes sea -level and exposure. These are also relevant for high purity limestone production given that the thickness and volumes are economically adequate.

Flgel, E., 2004: Microfacies of carbonate rocks: analysis, interpretation and application. Springer, Berlin, 976 pp Jux, U. 1957: Die Riffe Gotlands und ihre angrenzenden Sedimentationsrume. Stockholm Contributions in Geology 1, 4189. Pawellek, T. & Aigner, T., 2004: Dynamic Stratigraphy as a tool in economic mineral exploration: ultra-pure limestones (Upper Jurassic, SW Germany). Marine and Petroleum Geology 21, 499-516. Pawellek, T. & Aigner, T., 2001: Apparently homogenous reef-limestones built by high-frequency cycles: Upper Jurassiv, SW Germany. Sedimentary Geology 160, 259284. Riding, R. & Watts, N.R., 1991: The lower Wenlock reef sequence of Gotland: facies and lithostratigraphy. Geologiska Freningens i Stockholm Frhandlingar 113, 343372. Sandstrm, O., 1998: Sediments and stromatoporoid morphotypes in Ludfordian (Upper Silurian) reefal sea stacks on Gotland, Sweden. GFF 120, 365371. Sandstrm, O. 2000: Reef biostromes and related facies from the Middle Silurian of Gotland, Sweden. Lund Publications in Geology 148, 116. Sandstrm, O. & Kershaw, S. 2002: Ludlow (Silurian) stromatoporoid biostromes from Gotland, Sweden: facies, depositional models and modern analogues. Sedimentology 49, Concluding Remarks 379396. Using dynamic stratigraphy for the purpose of finding high Sandstrm, O. 2011a (in press): Energy-effective production of purity limestone seems to work well. In other parts of the world lime products Case Models. MinFo Publication no. xxx, this has also been proven (eg. Aigner et al 1999, Pawellek & 37pp. Aigner 2001, 2004), there are possibilities to use the method Sandstrm, O. 2011b (in press): Energy effective production of for other non-metallic sedimentary evironments. Examples of lime products comparing industrial and scientific laborathis include limestone-marl interactions suitable for direct cetory methods for prediction. MinFo Publication no. xxx, ment production, clastic deposits for ultra-pure sands, gravel 7pp. for concrete and aggregate, claystone, different shales, and Watts, N. R. & Riding, R., 2000: Growth of high-relief patch mineralisation due to depositional lags et.c. reefs, Mid-Silurian, Gotland, Sweden. Sedimentology 47, Dynamic stratigraphy may be used in both ways; to refine 979-994. quarry-planning through deep knowledge in the relation between different microfacies and to find new deposits by beginning in the basin scale working down to regional and local dynamic stratigraphic sequences, establishing local facies types and microfacies.

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