DC\/IC\A/ A D T I O I C KtVICW M K I IV^LC

sports Mea 2009. 39 (7): 547-568 0112-142/09/0007.0547/$49.95/0 2009 Adis Data Intarmatian BV. All rights reserved.

Physical Attributes, Physiological Characteristics, On-Court Performances and Nutritional Strategies of Female and Male Basketball Players
Gal Ziv^ and Ronnie
1 The Zinman College of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, Wingate Institute, Netanya, Israel 2 Faculty of Education, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel

Contents
Abstract 1. Physical Attributes 1.1 Femaie Piayers 1.2 iViaie Players 2. Physioiogicai Characteristics 2.1 Aerobic Profiie 2.1.1 Female Piayers ; 2.1.2 Maie Piayers 2.2 Strength 2.2.1 Female Players 2.2.2 Male Piayers 2.2.3 Female versus Male Players 2.3 Anaerobic Power 2.3.1 Femaie Piayers 2.3.2 Male Piayers 2.4 Agiiity and Speed 2.4.1 Femaie Piayers 2.4.2 Maie Piayers 3. On-Court Performances 3.1 Femaie Players 3.2 Maie Piayers '. 3.2.1 Time-Motion Anaiysis 3.2.2 Heart Rate 3.2.3 Biood Lactate 4. Nutritionai Strategies and Oxidative Stress 4.1 Hydration 4.2 Oxidative Stress 5. Conditioning far Basi<etbali 5.1 Hormonai Status and the Overtraining Syndrome 6. Five Limitatians Observed from the Physicai and Physialogicai Measurements 7. Practical Advice for Basketbail and Strength and Conditioning Caaches 8. Conciusions 548 549 549 549 551 551 551 552 553 553 554 554 555 555 555 557 557 557 558 558 559 559 560 561 561 561 562 562 563 564 565 566

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This article reviews a series of studies (n = 51) examining physical attributes, physiological characteristics, on-court performances and nutritional strategies of female and male elite basketball players. These studies included relevant information on physical and physiological variables, such as height, weight, somatotype, relative size, aerobic profile, strength, anaerobic power, agility and speed. Six main findings emerged from our review: (i) differences in physical attributes exist among playing positions and skill levels (e.g. guards tend to be lighter, shorter and more mesomorphic than centres); (ii) maximum aerobic capacity (VO2max) values of female and male players are 44.0-54.0 and 50-60 mL02/kg/min, respectively; (iii) male and female players of higher skill levels tend to have higher vertical jump values; (iv) the more skilled female and male players are faster and more agile than the less skilled players; (v) guards tend to perform more high-intensity movements during game play compared with forwards and centres; and (vi) a water deficit of 2% of bodyweight can lead to reduced physical and mental performance during an actual game. Five limitations associated with the testing protocols used in the studies are outlined, among them the lack of a longitudinal approach, lack of tests performed under physical exertion conditions, and lack of studies using a time-motion analysis. In addition, three practical recommendations for the basketball coach and the strength and conditioning coach are presented. It is concluded that the data emerging from these studies, combined with the knowledge already obtained from the studies on physical and physiological characteristics of elite basketball players, should be applied by basketball and strength and conditioning coaches when planning training programmes for elite basketball players.

The game of basketball has established itself as one of the most popular sports in many countries around the globe. Competitive basketball is played not only in North America, where the game was invented and developed, but also on other continents. During the season, elite basketball players - both female and male - practice on a daily basis, often twice a day, play one or two games per week, and take part in international tournaments such as continental and world championships and the Olympic Games.''^ This heavy schedule of practices and games requires careful short- and long-term planning of the players' training programmes. A training programme for elite athletes (e.g. basketball players) should be composed of three critical phases: preparation, competition and transition.[^'^l In each critical phase, emphasis is placed on four fundamental preparations: physical, technical, tactical and psychological. Among these preparations, the physical preparation is
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considered to be the major component in most training theories.''*' One of the primary objectives of the physical preparation is to develop the unique fitness components required to attain achievement in a specific sport (e.g. agility, endurance and strength). Relevant information on the physical and physiological characteristics of elite basketball players should be obtained by those professionals - basketball coaches, strength and conditioning coaches, athletic trainers, physiotherapists and sport physicians - who work regularly with the athletes throughout the different phases of the training programme. This information can be appropriately utilized when planning a daily practice, a weekly agenda, or a more long-term programme. It is assumed that such information will help coaches increase their control over the physical and physiological workloads in which the players are engaged, and in turn improve the quality of training.

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The purpose of this article is threefold: (i) to review a series of studies (n = 51) examining physical attributes, physiological characteristics, oncourt performances and nutritional strategies of female and male basketball players; (ii) to highlight a number of limitations associated with the testing protocols used in the reviewed studies; and (iii) to provide the basketball coach and the strength and conditioning coach with several practical recommendations. 1. Physical Attributes A number of the studies examined the physical attributes of femalet^-i '1 and male''^-'^! basketball players. All the studies described the players' absolute size such as height and weight, while a few aiso looked at somatotype^^-^''"'*! and relative size.t^l Table I presents a summary of the anthropomtrie data for both female and male players across the reviewed studies. 1.1 Female Players Two studies found that the top teams' players r'^-^i and had a longer arm span^^' comwere pared with the bottom teams' players who took part in the 1994 Women's World Basketball Championship. These findings suggest that it is possible that absolute size is related to skill level in female players. Studies on female players also showed that percentage body fat (%BF) was higher in centres compared with guards.'^'^l However, centres had a higher fat-free mass (FFM) compared with both guards and forwards. This finding can be explained by the large differences in absolute weight compared with the smaller differences in %BF. A comparison of %BF among female basketball players and female players in other team sports (e.g. teamhandball and volleyball) indicated that basketball players had more %BF than volleyball players, but less %BF than team-handball players.""! Three studies examined somatotypes - general categories of body type that are independent of absolute body size - in female basketball playgj.j [5.9,10] Qj^g study found that guards were more mesomorphic than centres,^^! while another re 2009 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved.

ported that guards were more mesomorphic than both centres and forwards.'^' However, Carter et al.t^l suggested that in elite female players, somatotype differences were not great. These finding were in line with the higher %BF found in centres compared with guards in other studies.'^'^^ Wheh comparing somatotypes of basketball players with those of volleyball and team-handball players, it was found that basketball players were more mesomorphic than volleyball players, but less than team-handball players.''"' Having a mesomorphic body type along with lower absolute weight can prove useful to guards, who often need to defend against the quickest players of the opposing team and to rapidly transfer the ball from defence to offence while attacking the quickest defenders of the opposite team. The lighter, shorter mesomorphic physique of guards is suitable to the speed and agility required of them. Although female guards were found to be more mesomorphic than centres, centres still showed a higher FFM. When looking at the players' physique, it is suggested that physical characteristics be considered as a whole, since looking at only one aspect of the players' physique can be misleading. 1.2 Male Players One study found that male players of moderate skill level weighed less and were shorter in stature than top-level players.f'*' However, another study of male elite players of different skill levels found no differences in height and weight between these players.''^1 As suggested by Viviani,''^' it seems that certain physical attributes can negatively or positively affect performance in the game of basketball. One physical variable that was rather consistently different among male players playing different positions was %BF. Out of five studies that reported %BF for male players,''^"'^-'^' three found that centres had higher %BF than guards,''^'''*-'^' one found no significant differences among the players playing different positions,''^' and one suggested that centres had lower %BF compared with guards.''^' However, the latter study only sampled one player in the posiSports Med 2009:39 (7)

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Table I. Anthropomtrie measurements of male and female basi<etbaii piayers. Data shown as mean (SD) study Females Acklandetal.Pi(1997) Guards (n = 64) Forwards (n = 57) Centres (n=47) Bale'l(1991) Guards (n = 7) Forwards (n = 6) Centres (n=5) Bayios et ai.l"" (2006) LaMonteetal.'i(1999) Ail players (n = 133) Guards (n = 18) Fonards(n = 19) Centres (n=9) Narazaki et al.'^"! (2008) Rodriguez-Alonso et ai.l"i (2003) All piayers (n = 6) Internationai (n = 14) National (n = 11) Smith and Thomas' (1991) Guards (n = 11) Forwards" (n = 12) Centres (n=6) Males Apostoiidis et al.i' (2004) Ben Abdeikrim et al.l''l (2007) Ail players (n = 13) Guards (n = 8) Forwards (n = 18) Centres (n = 12) Cormery et al.''=i (2008) Guards (n = 26) Forwards (n = 51) Centres (n = 22) Latin at ai.i'^i (1994) Guards Forwards Centres Narazaki et ai.^"! (2008) Ostojic at ai.i"! (2006) All players (n = 6) Guards (n = 20) Fonards(n = 20) Centres (n=20) Parr et al."=l (1978) Guards Forwards Centres Sailet et al.l"l (2005) Guards (n = 14) Forwards (n = 22) Centres (n=22) 199.5(6.2) 183(4.0) 188(4.0) 193(3.0) 185(0.01)" 200(0.01)" 207 (0.02)" 187.4(5.8) [n = 185] 198.4(3.8) [n = 153] 205.5(6.1) [n = 90] 192.4(11.7) 190.7(6.0) 200.2 (3.4) 207.6 (2.9) 188.0(10.3) [n = 15] 200.6 (5.0) [n = 15l 214.0(5.2) [n = 4] 185.7(6.9) 195.8(4.8) 203.9 (5.3) 95.5 (8.8) 76.2 (6.4) 77.4(5.1) 87.2 (5.3) 82.3(1.66)" 95.9(1.15)" 111 (2.42)" 82.9 (6.8) (n = 185] 95.1 (8.3) [n = 152] 101.9(9.7) [n = 90] 91.9(17.5) 88.6(8.1) 95.7(7.1) 105.1 (11.5) 83.6 (6.2) [n = 15] 96.9 (7.3) [n = 15] 109.2(13.8) [n=4] 82.0 (8.8) 89.4(7.1) 103.9(12.4) 11.4(1.9) 6.1 (3.7) 7.8(4.1) 10.4(7.8) 13.7(0.51)" 13.5(0.35)" 14.1 (0.74)" 8.4 (3.0) [n = 113] 9.7 (3.9) [n = 89] 11.2(4.5) [n = 53] 9.7 (5.9) 9.9(3.1) 10.1 (3.2) 14.4(5.6) 10.6(2.9) [n = 5] 9.0 (3.6) [n = 7) 7.1 (NA) [n = 1] 11.4(1.7) 11.4(2.3) 14.4(3.7) 84.5 (NA)" 71.6(NA)" 71.4 (NA)" 78.1 (NA)" 71.02 (NA)" 82.95 (NA)" 95.35 (NA)" 75.8 (8.6) (n = 113] 85.5(8.1) [n = 891 90.4 (6.2) [n = 53] 83.0" 79.8 (NA)" 86.0 (NA)" 90.0 (NA)" 72.9 (6.2) [n = 5] 86.6 (6.9) [n = 7] 100.7 (NA) [n = 1] 72.7 (NA)" 79.2 (NA)" 88.9 (NA)" Continued next page 171.9(6.1) 181.3(5.9) 189.8(6.4) 162.2(4.9) 172.6(2.7) 180.0(4.1) 174.7(7.8) 169.55(3.86) 179.56(3.71) 188.09(5.46) 174.2(9.0) 180.9 (8.0) 175.1 (6.5) 176.5(4.3) 183.3 (NA) 188.5(5.2) 66.1 (6.2) 73.3(5.1) 82.6 (8.2) 57.9 (6.4) 63.9 (5.0) 71.2(6.4) 71.5(10.1) 62.15(5.03) 73.61 (6.55) 79.99 (7.29) 66.9 (5.8) 71.7(7.6) 71.9(8.7) 67.3 (4.8) 77.9 (NA) 81.1 (7.2) NA 17.9(1.1) 17.9(2.3) 18.3 (2.3) 24.3 (3.6) 14.62(2.58) 17.45(6.08) 20.79(4.14) 19.8(4.5) NA 47.5 (4.9) 52.4 (3.2) 58.1 (4.7) 53.6 (6.8) 52.99 (3.89) 60.51 (3.99) 63.20 (4.6) 53.7" NA Position Height (cm) Mass, (kg) %BF FFM (kg)

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Table I.Contd Study VivianiH! (2005) Withers et al.P" (1977) a b c d Data in brackets are standard errors, Not inciuded in originai data (calcuiated from %BF and mass by authors), Not eiite piayers. Position Ali piayers** Aii piavers** Heigiit (cm) 194.2(6.5) 188.8(7.2) Mass (i<g) 94,7 (8,7) 82.7 (7.3) %BF NA 16,6(2.6) 69.0 (NA)" FFM (kg)

Combined average for power forwards and shooting forwards,

%BF = percentage body fat; FFM = fat-free mass; NA=data not avaiiabie.

tion of centre, and therefore its findings cannot be generalized. Because of the higher absolute weight of centres, it should be noted that although centres tended to have higher %BF, they also possessed higher FFM, As for the somatotypes of male players, one study found that guards were less mesomorphic than other players,''^^ A comparison of anthropomtrie measurements among players from different team sports can help shed light on the specific attributes of basketball players. For example. Withers et al,'^'' described various characteristics of male players in basketball, hockey and soccer. They found that basketball players were both taller and heavier than hockey and soccer players. However, this study reported descriptive statistics only. Based on the studies that examined physical characteristics in female and male basketball players, it is observed that differences in height and weight among players playing different positions (e,g, guards, forwards and centres) were the most apparent and consistent. For a specific example, centres were heavier and taller than guards. The tall and heavy build of centres is useful in their physical low-post battles and the necessity to shoot the ball into a rim positioned 3,05 m (10 ft) above ground, 2. Physiological Characteristics 2,1 Aerobic Profile Although basketball is not an endurance sport per se, having high values of cardiopulmonary functions is important for the player to maintain a high level of activity during the entire game, in both defence and offence, A number of the studies examined cardiopulmonary function in
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and players.

2. ;. 7 Femaie Players

The most interesting finding in female players is the difference in maximum aerobic capacity (V02max) as reported in studies conducted prior to the enactment in 1972 of Title IX, which is part of an education amendment in the US that prohibited sex discrimination in educational settings, and in those conducted after its enactment. For example, the study by McArdle et al,'^^] (published in 1971, before the enactment of Title IX) found female V02max values that were only slightly higher than non-athlete college-age female students (35,5 vs 33,6mLO2/kg/min, respectively), V02max was measured at a walking speed of 5,45 km/h and grade was increased until volitional fatigue. Later studies (published from 1979 onwards, after the enactment of Title IX) found much higher V02max values, ranging from 44,0 to 54,0 mLO2/kg/min in female basketball players,'^-"'-^"'^-''^'*' As for the differences between skill levels, Rodriguez-Alonso et al,'"l reported higher V02max values for women participating at an international level compared with those at a national level. Although the exact protocol used to estimate VO2max was unclear, it was apparently estimated from a progressive run test. The difference in VO2max before and after the enactment of Title IX can be explained, at least in part, by the subsequent increased interest in women's sports, which resulted in the elevation of scientific interest in regard to female athletes. This was followed by better and more serious training and conditioning programmes for female athletes.
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Different testing protocols for V02max can produce different results. The V02max testing protocol in the study of Smith and Thomast^l included running at each player's selected comfortable speed, with grade increased until volitional fatigue. In contrast, Riezebos et al.I^-' used a discontinuous treadmill protocol to assess V02niaxThese different testing protocols make it difficult to compare values among studies. In addition, most studies involved increasing grade, whereas basketball players run on level ground. We believe that a better protocol to measure aerobic capacity in basketball players should involve increasing speed and maintaining level grade. Unlike VO2max, and quite expectedly, maximum heart rate (HR^^x) of female players was not different across studies. However, it was found that during an actual game, guards had higher heart rates compared with forwards and centres.t"i This finding can be explained by the high level of work intensity demonstrated by guards during the game compared with that of forwards and centres. However, HR may be influenced by other factors, such as environmental conditions, nutritional status and fitness levels of players, and therefore the interpretation of these results should be performed cautiously.
2.1.2 Male Piayers

While V02max values in females were found to increase in the late 1970s, male players' values did not change greatly over the last 40 years. However, great variability was found in V02max values among the male players, ranging from 45.3 +5.9 mL02/kg/min in one study'^^' to 65,2mLO2/kg/min in another,'^^^ In the former study, VO2max was measured in a graded test on an electrically braked cycle ergometer, and in the latter study the Bruce protocol was used (for details of this protocol see Whaley et al,,'^'' pp, 99-100), The large variability in V02max can be explained at least in part by the different protocols used. Nevertheless, in most studies, V02max values were in the range 50-60 mL02/kg/min. Court drills are often used in basketball practices to induce skill adaptation in players. The effects of these drills on HR and VO2 were examined in a study by Castagna et al.'^^l of
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14 basketball players. VO2 was measured with a portable metabolic system. Drills included fullcourt games of 2 versus 2, 3 versus 3, and 5 versus 5, with lengths of 3,4 and 5 minutes. It was found that the intensity of practice was highest in the 2 versus 2 drills (%HRn,^^ 92,1 5.6, %V02peak 79,0 10.7), and was higher in the 3 versus 3 drills (%HRax 88.2 8,4; %V02peak 73,5 11.6) than the 5 versus 5 drills (%HRa^, 84.0 9.2%; V02peak 69.010,7), Individual HR-VO2 coefficients of determination (r^) were 0,83-0.97, It was suggested that basketball court drills elicit physiological responses that may enhance aerobic fitness. In addition, HR can be used by coaches as a valid estimator of VO2 and work intensity during basketball drills, A comparison among players playing different positions indicated that guards had the highest V02max,''^'''*''^'^''^ reflecting the actual functional requirements of guards during the game. Only one study, Sallet et al.['''J failed to find differences in VO2max among players playing different positions. Two studies compared aerobic capacity among basketball players and players in other team sports (e.g, soccer and volleyball). One study'^'' described low V02max values in basketball players compared with both hockey and soccer players, while another study'^''' indicated similar V02max values among basketball and volleyball players. These studies reported descriptive statistics only. The ability of basketball players to maintain high aerobic capacity during the entire season is of critical importance to both their basketball coach and their strength and conditioning coach. In one study, Tavino et al,t^^l found no differences in V02max as measured in different phases of the season; however, they did not differentiate between starters and bench players. In another study, Caterisano et al.'^^l examined physiological variables of starters and reserves during preand post-season phases, and found that starters were able to maintain a relatively high V02max) while reserves failed to do so. These findings can be explained by the fact that starters are typically provided with better aerobic stimulation during game play, whereas reserves need to rely mostly on practice sessions, which are usually lower in
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intensity. However, in practices after game days it is mostly the reserves who practice, and those practice sessions may be intense enough to provide a positive training stimulus for them as well. In the year 2000, several rules of the game were changed by the Fdration Internationale de Basketball Amateur (FIBA), Three major changes were: (i) a reduction in the time allowed to score a basket from 30 to 24 seconds; (ii) a reduction in the time allowed to cross the median line from 10 to 8 seconds; and (iii) the division of the game into four quarters (4x 10 min) instead of two halves (2x20 min), Cormery et al,['^l compared a number of physiological variables as measured during the two different periods before the changes made by FIBA and after the realization of these changes. They reported that these changes were associated with an increased V02n,ax in guards, but no significant changes in V02max in forwards and centres. Although it was suggested that the rule modifications were associated with physiological changes in the players (especially in guards), causation could not be established from this study, since other factors could have influenced the increased VO2max in guards, among them better training and conditioning programmes, and increased level of competitiveness in the top-level leagues. The ventilatory threshold (VT), which is thought to be related to the anaerobic threshold, is an important measure of aerobic endurance. High VT allows athletes to maintain higher work intensities for longer durations before fatigue appears. Three studies looking at VT found varying values,^'^''^'^*' ranging from 50,4% of V02,ax'^^' to 77,6% of VO2,ax-"^' In addition, VT values were similar among players playing different positions, and did not differ after the FIBA rule changes,''^^ The variations in VT can be explained by several factors, among them the fitness level of the players, their playing style, and the time of the season in which the tests were administered. Due to the scarcity of data and the varied results that emerged from these studies, more research is needed in order to profile the VT of ehte basketball players.
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2.2 Strength Eleven studies assessed measures of strength in

femaleI^-9.24.32] ^^ jj^^let'3.'5.25,32-35] basketball

players. Various types of tests were used to measure strength, and therefore it was difficult to compare values across studies. Among the tests used were isokinetic tests,[^'^^'^^> maximal concentric testst'''^''5'25.33,34] ^g g bench press one repetition maximum [RM]), muscle endurancet'5'2''] and isometric tests,t^'''^^] Variations in strength among players were large, and some of the flndings should be treated cautiously,
2.2.1 Femaie Players

Two studies that examined strength in female playersP'^''' represent the difficulty that exists in making comparisons among studies. Both of these studies assessed left and right hand grip, but one assessed isometric strength^^'*' and the other dynamic strength,^^! No differences were found among players playing different positions in left and right dynamic hand grip strength. As Vaccaro et aLP"*' suggested, female players' strength was clearly superior to that of non-athlete females. Maintaining balance in strength and force production in the limbs and in the antagonist muscles of the same limb are of interest to strength and conditioning coaches, athletic trainers and physiotherapists, since it is possible that imbalances can lead to injury,'^^'^^) Smith and Thomas'*! examined female basketball players on an isokinetic dynamometer. They found no differences in peak torque of knee flexion and extension between the dominant and the nondominant leg. However, the ipsilateral torque ratio between flexion and extension was outside the generally accepted values. There were large individual variations in this ratio, suggesting that each player should be assessed individually, and that specific exercise programmes should be developed for each player based on their unique characteristics. The scarcity of data regarding the strength of female basketball players is unfortunate, especially since interest in female basketball has been increasing, and training programmes have reached levels similar to those in male basketball.
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More research is needed so that strength and conditioning coaches can optimize training sessions when working with elite basketball players.
2.2.2 Maie Piayers

When comparing concentric strength measurements among players playing different positions and at different skill levels, for example in the bench press, relatively similar values were reported. In one study of college players,''^' a mean of 102,3 kg was found, and in another studyt^'*' a mean of 97,2 kg was indicated over 4 years of testing. The highest value was reported in a study comparing starters versus reserves: a mean of 112.7 kg and 111.3 kg, respectively.^^] However, these values were obtained during the pre-season phase. Testing conducted during the post-season phase produced values of 104,2 kg and 98,0 kg for starters and reserves, respectively. The authors suggested that the decrease in bench press 1 RM was due to the limited time the players devoted to strength training during the season. The only measurements of strength in NBA players were performed by Parr et al.t'^^ In this study, strength was measured on an isokinetic device at an angular velocity of 60 deg/sec. Guards' bench press strength mean value was 86,8 kg. As expected, this value is lower than the 1 RM values of guards in other studies. Interestingly, the forwards who took part in this study demonstrated relatively high values of strength (101.3 kg), similar to the 1 RM values of college players. This could suggest that the 1 RM values of NBA players may be higher than those of college players. In a study by Latin et al.,''^! forwards showed higher power clean values compared with guards and higher squat values compared with centres, while there were no differences in absolute maximal strength in bench press among players playing different positions. When these values were divided by bodyweight, guards were shown as having the greatest strength. It is possible that upper-body strength is more important for certain playing positions, such as power forward and centre.[^''i Training for maintaining or increasing strength throughout the season in players in these
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positions may be recommended. When comparing bench press and squat performances between basketball and football players, one study found significantly lower values in basketball compared with football players.[^^i This was true for both absolute strength and strength relative to bodyweight. One study of isokinetic knee fiexion and extension torque in male players failed to reveal significant differences between the dominant and the non-dominant legs.f^^' However, unlike in the female players, the study did find a relatively high fiexors-extensors ratio in both the dominant and non-dominant legs at an angular velocity of 180 deg/sec in males (84,6% and 83,1%, respectively). It is suggested that those male players possessed relatively strong hamstring muscles.
2.2.3 Femaie versus Maie Piayers

One study compared force production between male and female players.t^^J Quite expectedly, male players showed higher values in isometric leg extension and trunk fiexion and extension. In addition, male players took less time to produce maximal force compared with female players. However, when the absolute strength results were adjusted to bodyweight, differences in leg extension force production disappeared. While force production relative to bodyweight was greater in male players for trunk flexion and extension, the differences were smaller than those observed for absolute force production. Moreover, when the absolute values were divided by FFM rather than bodyweight, the differences were even smaller. The discrepancies that remained could be related to sexual distinctions; however, it is possible that differences in volume and intensity of strength training between the female and male players could be contributing factors as well.t^^' Since individual variability was the common thread in all studies of strength, the reported values should be carefully considered. Providing individual training essentials should be taken into account by basketball coaches and strength and conditioning coaches, regardless of the mean or expected strength of players in a specific playing position.

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2.3 Anaerobic Power It is generally accepted that possessing anaerobic power is essential in most sports, particularly in sport activities requiring the production of work over short periods of time, such as basketball. Various batteries of tests were used in the reviewed studies to assess anaerobic power, and therefore it was difficult to compare results across the studies. Among the tests included were vertical jump, Margaria stair run, Wingate Anaerobic Test (WanT), and an anaerobic power step test. Six studies examining the anaerobic power profile in female[6.8.9.23,32,38] ^^ ^2 in reviewed here.
2.3.1 Femaie Piayers

Vertical jump is the most prevalent test used to assess anaerobic power in female and male players, since vertical jumps are among the most prevalent acts performed by basketball players in both defence (e.g. blocking and rebounding) and offence (e.g, shooting and rebounding). Various tests assessing vertical jump were used in the reviewed studies, and therefore a wide range of vertical jumping capabilities can be seen. Vertical jump values as reported in these studies are presented in table II. The studies on vertical jump used various protocols. Mean values ranged from 24,8 cm in one studyi^^l to 48,2 cm in another,^*] However, most studies found values that were above 40 cm. The low value of 24,8 cm was recorded while using a method in which hands were kept on the waist throughout the test. This value was similar to a value measured in physical education students, ^^^^ A number of studies looked at vertical jump in players playing different positions. Only one study found a significant difference between guards and power forwards (48.9 4,9 cm vs 40,5 3.8 cm, respectively).t^l When converting the vertical jump values to anaerobic power, centres showed significantly higher anaerobic power compared with guards (108.5 12,7 vs 88.9 12.9 kg/m/sec, respectively),''1 In comparison, anaerobic power values were 120,7 4,0 kg/m/sec as obtained from the Margaria stair

run,[231 and 67.67 kg/m/sec from the WanT,!^] The type of test selected by the researchers to assess anaerobic power greatly influenced the results in the different studies. Differences in skill levels were found to be related to vertical jump capability, A study that compared the best eight players in each playing position with the rest of the players in this position found that the best point guards had higher vertical jump values compared with the rest of the point guards (52.6 vs 44.8 cm, respectively). Similar results were found when comparing the best power forwards and the rest of the power forwards (50,5 vs 40,2 cm, respectively),''^1 These results suggest that good jumping ability is associated with achieving success in basketball. This information can also be used for talent detection and early development processes in basketball, as well as for the establishment of conditioning programmes attempting to increase jumping height. For example, plyometric training has shown promising results in increasing jumping height.''*']
2.3.2 Mote Piayers

One study found no differences in vertical jump and jumping power among players playing different positions,''''] and another found higher values of vertical jump height in guards and forwards compared with centres,'''^ The latter study also found higher power in forwards and centres compared with guards. Differences in vertical jump among players at different skill levels revealed that the best players tend to jump higher compared with other players. However, in this study, only the difference between the best eight shooting guards and the rest of the shooting guards was found to be significant (68.6 vs 60.6 cm, respectively).'^^] In a study of NBA players, no differences in power were found between guards and forwards.''^] The vertical jump values of basketball players were similar to those of football players, but vertical jump power values were higher in football players.'^^1 A comparison among basketball players, hockey players and soccer players revealed similar power values (120.410.7, 115.511,2 and 125.8 13.5 kg/m/sec, respectively).'^']
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Table II, Verticai jump vaiues of maie and femaie basi<etbail piayers. Data shown as mean (SD) Study Females Baie! (1991) CMJ Guards (n = 7) Forwards (n = 6) Centres (n = 5) Hands on waist; no arm swing aiiowed HoarePsi (2000) Step baci< with one foot, crouched positions, hands stretched back - bringing feet together, swing arms forward and ieap Ali piayers (n = 9) Guards (n = 62) 47.6 (4.9) 47.2 (6.5) 47.6 (5.3) 24.6 (2.5) 45.73 (NA)' Type of test Position Verticai jump (cm)

Fon/vards (n - 44) Centres (n = 19) LaMonteetai,i^i(1999) CMJ Guards (n = 18) Forwards (n = 19) Centres (n = 9) NA Smith and Thomas'^'(1991) CiViJ Aii piayers (n = 20) Guards (n = 11) Shooting forwards (n = 6) Power forwards (n = 6) Centres (n = 6) Males Apostolidis et ai.i'i (2004) HoareP^i (2000) Hands on waist; no arm swing aiiowed Hands on waist; no arm swing aiiowed. Step back with one foot, crouched positions, hands stretched back - bringing feet together, swing arms fonward and ieap Aii players (n = 13) Ali piayers (n = 11 ) Guards (n = 53)

42.76 (NA)'' 46.6 (4,8) 49.38 (6.20) 49.43(11.10) 43.51 (4.45) 37,0(1.1)" 48,9 (4.9) 44,5 (4,4) 40.5 (3,8) 42.0 (3,0) 40.1 (4.0) 43.9 (4.0) 63.3 (NA)

Fonwards (n = 56) Centres (n = 16) Hoffman et al.i^i (1996) Hoffman et ai.i^^i (2000) Latin et ai.i'31 (1994) CMJ Hands on waist; no arm swing aiiowed NA, data coiiected from surveys Ail piayers (n = 15) Ail piayers (n = 9) Guards (n = 152) Forwards (n = 124) Centres (n = 73)

58.78 (NA)" 57.9 (8.5) 68,5 (NA)'= 51.6(6.9) 73.4 (9.6) 71.4(10.4) 66.8(10.7) 59.7 (9.6) 57.8 (6.5) 54.6 (6.9)

Ostojic et al.l'"! (2006)

Hands on waist; no arm swing aiiowed

Guards (n = 20) Forwards (n = 20) Centres (n = 20)

a b d c

Data combined for point guards and shooting guards by authors. Data combined for smail forwards and power fonwards by authors. Standard error of measurement on brackets. Mean of four consecutive seasons (caicuiated by authors).

CMJ = counter movement jump (squatting with hands stretched backwards and leaping with hands swinging fonward); NA = data not avaiiabie.

When examining power output relative to bodyweight, similar results to those of the vertical jump were observed. Three studies used a 30-second all-out test to measure power output.
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two studies used the WanT,''*'^'' and the third used a comparable test using an electromagnetically braked cycle ergometer.''^^ Peak power outputs ranged from 10,7 1.3 to 14,1 1,4 W/kg, No
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differences in peak power were indicated among players playing different positions, or among skill levels, although percentage fatigue was higher in the high-skilled than the low-skilled players (63.3%13.8 vs 54.1%11.1, respectively).''^] It can be assumed that the high-skilled players were more motivated to perform the test to the best of their ability. When examining changes in anaerobic capacity across the entire season, one study found lower anaerobic power values (as measured with an anaerobic step test) before pre-season began compared with 5 weeks after the beginning of pre-season.'^^] No differences in power were found between 5 weeks after pre-season to the end of the season. Lastly, the comparison of basketball players with players in volleyball, handball, rugby and soccer resulted in similar relative peak power outputs (11.00,81, ll,20,64, ll,20,8, 10.90,59and 10.60.68, respectively).''*"] The large number of anaerobic power tests available for the strength and conditioning coach can be overwhelming. We suggest that the coach be aware of the concept of specificity in training and testing. For example, choosing anaerobic power tests that mimic actual game situations is most beneficial. In this respect, vertical jump tests are probably more useful for basketball players than the WanT. Choosing a specific vertical jump test is also important. Since arm swing is used during a basketball game, a counter movement jump with arm swing allowed would be preferable to a vertical jump test, in which arms are held behind the back or at the waist, 2.4 Agility and Speed Agility and speed are integral aspects of almost every defensive and offensive manoeuvre performed by basketball players in practices and games. Only a few studies looked at these abilities: three in female'^'-^-''-'^] and five in
male"3.18.33.34,38] players, 2.4.1 Femaie Piayers

secutive 'suicide' sprints (each consisting of a total of 143,3 m of running with seven reversals of direction) were performed, no differences were found among players in the first two sprints,'^] However, in the third sprint, guards were faster than centres. It was explained that fatigue probably affected the centres more than the guards. In another study,'^^] point guards were quicker in an agility test compared with power forwards and centres. In addition, guards had better results in suicide sprints compared with power forwards. When achievements of players at different skill levels were compared, the best eight point guards had better results in 5 m, 10 m and 20 m suicide runs than the rest of the point guards participating in the study. On suicide sprints, the best eight small forwards were faster than the rest of the small forwards.'^^] An analysis of the relationship between agility/speed and performance suggests that agility and speed are important characteristics for basketball players, and therefore including agility and speed drills in the conditioning programme is essential. Indeed, when the relationship between achievements in an agility run test and on-court performances - as evaluated by five experienced basketball coaches during game situations - was looked at, a moderate correlation was found (r = 0.4; p<0.05),'23]
2.4.2 Maie Piayers

Two studies looked at speed among players playing different positions,'^.'^] When three con 2009 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved.

A comparison of agility and speed among players playing different positions indicated confiicting results. In one study,''^] guards were faster than centres in both the 30-yard (27.4 m) dash and the 40-yard (36.6 m) dash. However, no differences were indicated among the players in an agility test. In another study,'^^] point guards were faster than forwards and centres in an agility test; however, no differences were found among these players in 5 m, 10 m and 20 m runs. Since basketball is an intermittent sport and players have time to rest between bouts of intense activity, it is useful to examine the effects of the recovery mode - passive or active - between bouts on performance. One recent study'"*^] found that during a repeated-sprint test, passive recovery was associated with lower fatigue index and lower total sprint time. It was suggested that coaches
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should advise players to avoid unnecessary activity during the game, and should substitute players frequently when game intensity is high and little game interruption occurs (e.g. when there are few free throws or ball out of play). Comparison between the best eight players and the rest of the players indicated better suicide sprint times in the best eight shooting guards compared with the rest of the shooting guards, A comparison between basketball and football players revealed no differences in the 40-yard (36,6 m) dash.I^^l The conflicting results obtained in the agility and speed tests are difficult to explain. It is assumed that the players would achieve similarly in both agility and speed tests. Future research is definitely needed on agility and speed in basketball players. Finally, correlational studies found that various fleld tests - such as control dribble, speed dribble, shuttle run and dribble shuttle run - were negatively correlated with %BF. However, these tests were positively correlated with peak power as measured by the WanT,''^' The obtained correlations were moderate, in the range 0,5-0,7, In addition, Hoffman et al,'^'*' found moderate correlations between achievements in speed and agility tests and on-court playing time. Agility and speed tests, like other fitness or physiological tests, should be in line with the concept of specificity. As Hoffman and Maresh suggested,['*^l 30-yard (27,4 m) sprint tests are more specific to basketball players than 40-yard (36,6 m) sprints, as the court length is approximately 30 yards (27,4 m), It is up to the strength and conditioning coach to flnd the best agility and speed tests for the individual players in his or her team,
3. On-Court Performances

analysis was used in order to quantify the number and types of movements performed by the players during a game. This analysis enabled the researchers to assess certain levels of the players' workload during different phases of the game,
3,1 Female Players

Physiological variables such as heart rate and blood lactate can be measured not only under sterile laboratory conditions but also under field and more authentic conditions, namely actual games. Information on patterns of movements and actions performed by basketball players during the game can be also collected and analysed. In a number of studies, a time-motion
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Four studies examining on-court physiological demands of female players'"^'^^''*'*1 were identified, Rodriguez-Alonso et al,t" found higher blood lactate levels in guards compared with forwards and centres; however, no differences were indicated between national and international players. In addition, lower blood lactate levels were found when measured during practice games. The values of heart rates followed a similar pattern among players playing different positions, with guards showing higher heart rates during a game compared with forwards and centres. Unlike blood lactate, heart rates during international level play were higher than during national level play, McArdle et al.'^^' showed mean heart rates of 81-95% of HRn,.,j( during an actual game. These values represent moderate to heavy workloads during a game. The authors also estimated oxygen consumption and average caloric cost of playing from heart rates, and suggested that players utilize 7,1-11,8 kcal/min. Only one study on time-motion analysis in female basketball players was found,'^"1 In this study, six female Division II basketball players participated in six practice games of approximately 20 minutes each (four quarters of 5 minutes with a I-minute rest in between). In each game, one player's physiological variables were measured using a portable metabolic system. For the purpose of this study, four movements were defined: standing, walking, running and jumping. On average, the players spent 1,6 0,9 minutes standing, 10,60,3 minutes walking, 6.20,7 minutes running and 0,3 0,1 minutes jumping. In addition, players spent approximately 34% of the time in running and jumping and other active movements. This study was also the first to measure oxygen consumption during a basketball game. The
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players had an average oxygen consumption of 33.44.0mLO2/kg/min, which was 66,77.5% of their V02max.'^''^ Oxygen consumption remained relatively the same throughout the game. These VO2 values are higher than those estimated in a recent compendium of physical activities (i,e. 28 mL02/kg/min for a game of basketball),''*^] suggesting greater utilization of aerobic metabolism than previously expected,t^] Blood lactate levels were 3,20.9mmol/L measured every 5 minutes and were not changed throughout the game. It is difficult to estabhsh whether these values represent a greater contribution from aerobic or anaerobic metabolism. Beam and Merill''*''] recorded heart rates of female collegiate players in real game conditions. Results showed that players spent 61.8% of playing time with heart rates >90% of HR^ax and 30.4% of the time with heart rates >95% of HRmax- This suggests that the intensity of female collegiate basketball is high enough to require large contributions from anaerobic metabolic pathways. 3.2 Male Players
3.2.7 Time-Motion Anaiysis

Only four time-motion analysis studies on male basketball players'''^'^.''^.'*''] were found. This is a low number for this kind of study, compared, for example, with another popular ball game - soccer.'''^"^^] A time-motion analysis was conducted by Ben Abdelkrim et al,'"] of elite under-19-year-old male basketball players. In this study, the authors defined nine specific movements, and the average total number of movements performed by the players during the game was 1050 51. Mclnnes et al.'''^] defined eight specific movements (e.g, stand/walk, jog, run and stride/sprint), and examined their frequency and duration during a basketball game. The mean frequency of all movements was 997 183 and the mean duration of all movements was <3 seconds. The mean frequency of movements is smaller than that reported by Ben Abdelkrim et al,,'"] since these researchers defined eight types of movements (e,g, standing still, walking, jogging, and running) compared with nine in the study by Ben Abdelkrim et al,'"]

In the study by Mclnnes et al.,'''^] there was a change from one movement to another every 2 seconds, on average. This finding suggests that basketball is a game in which changes from one type of action to another are frequent, and hence agility and speed are important. Unlike the two previous studies, a third study on time-motion analysis was conducted during practice games of 20 minutes each of six male Division II college players.'^"] The researchers defined only four movements for the analysis, and thus data cannot be compared with the previous two studies. It was found in this study that the players spent 1.70.6 minutes standing, 10,4 0.8 minutes walking, 5.8 0.8 minutes running and 0.3 0,1 minutes jumping. In addition, players spent approximately 34% of the time in active movements such as running and jumping. When examining the number of movements performed by players playing different positions, it was found that guards engaged in more movements compared with forwards and centres (1103 32 vs 1022 45 and 1026 27, respectively).'"] A number of studies investigated how frequently players engage in high-intensity movements during an actual game. Ben Abdelkrim et al.''^] found that guards and forwards spent a higher percentage of time performing highintensity movements compared with centres (17.1%, 16,6% vs 14.7%, respectively). Miller and Bartlett''*^] found that centres spent more time stationary compared with guards and centres (32.8% vs 27.8% and 26.9%, respectively). It was also indicated by these authors that forwards spent the greatest amount of time running (18,6% of on-court time). In another study it was found that high-intensity movements were performed every 21 seconds (on average) during the actual time of play when the clock was running.'''*! However, only 5% of stride/sprints performed by the players lasted more than 4 seconds, and therefore it seemed that the highest intensity sprints consisted of quick acceleration and deceleration without developing a full speed. As the authors suggested, a great deal of energy expenditure was associated with the neeid to , overcome body inertia.''**] Altogether, only 15% of live time was spent on high-intensity movements.
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Nevertheless, 65% of live time was spent performing movements of greater intensity than walking. The changes in high-intensity movements as the game progressed were also examined in studies using a time-motion analysis. While Mclnnes et al.f'*^! found no differences in movement characteristics across quarters of play, Ben Abdelkrim et al.I'^ reported that the percentage of highintensity movements was reduced from the first quarter to the second, and from the third to the fourth. This inconsistency might be related to a number of factors, among them: (i) the different fitness levels of the players who took part in these studies; (ii) the different training programmes they engaged in; (iii) the changes in the rules introduced by FIBA in 2000; and (iv) the different playing styles used throughout the quarters. It was also found that V02max values in the under19-year-old players were lower than those obtained from the adult players (approximately 53 and 60mLO2/kg/min, respectively). When comparing performances of high-intensity movements in players playing different positions, it was found that guards engaged in more moderate-intensity specific movements than forwards and centres, while there were no differences among positions in low- and high-intensity movements.t'^1 Guards performed more sprints (meanSD 67 5) than forwards (56 5) and centres (43 4), and forwards performed more sprints than cen'tres. This information should be used by strength and conditioning coaches when planning training programmes for guards. Total distance covered by players throughout an actual game was not measured in either of the above studies. It was argued that since various movements in basketball are executed in a relatively small space (e.g. blocking, guarding and rebounding), the measurement of total distance could underestimate the physiological demands of the game.t'**! However, knowing the total walking/jogging/running distance players cover during the game would probably help basketball coaches and strength and conditioning coaches improve the endurance regime of their training programmes. Only one study examined oxygen consumption during a practice game.'^"! In this study, the
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players had an average oxygen consumption of 36.9 +2.6 mL02/kg/min, which was 64.7 + 7.0% of their V02max- These VO2 values are higher than those estimated in a recent compendium of physical activities, i.e. 28 mL02/kg/min for a game of basketball,'''^' postulating a greater utilization of aerobic metabolism than previously expected. [^''1
3.2.2 Heart Rafe

Although heart rate can vary greatly among individuals, it has been considered a good predictor of exercise intensity. In one study, m e a n i S D HR was 169.34.5beats/min during team scrimmage.'^"' Expressed as a percentage of HRmax (using values of peak HR that were reached during a V02niax test for those players) reveals an exercise intensity of approximately 88% of HRmax- In a study of 20 young basketball players (meanSD age 16.8 2 years) during a 20-minute practice game, values of 86.2 5.3% and 86.74.3% of HRn,ax were recorded in the first and second halves, respectively.'^*' Similarly, in a study by Mclnnes et al.'"*' of male basketball players, it was observed that players had a HR >85% of HR^^^ in 75% of their playing time. Such high heart rates are usually associated with high intensity. However, it was indicated in the same study that high-intensity movements were performed during only 15% of the players' playing time. The authors explained this discrepancy by suggesting that a variety of high-intensity movements - such as maintaining a position against physical resistance, passing, rebounding and shooting - were not measured in this study. A similar observation was made by Ben Abdelkrim et al.,''^' who compared heart rates among male players playing different positions. They found that guards had heart rates that were higher by 2-3 beats/min than forwards and centres. This difference suggested a slightly higher play intensity in guards, which is in line with the finding that guards were engaged in more moderate- and high-intensity movements. However, heart rate is also infiuenced by other variables, such as nutritional status,'"' environmental conditions,'"' psychological arousal,''^' anxiety''^'
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and stoppage in game play.''^^ Therefore, these data should be carefully interpreted.
3.2.3 Biaad Lactate

Obtaining information on the metabolic pathways that are utilized during a basketball game both aerobic and anaerobic - should also be of interest to the basketball coach and the strength and conditioning coach. Ben Abdelkrim et al.''^' reported that guards had higher blood lactate levels than centres (6.0 1.2 vs 4.9 1.1 mmol/L, respectively). Narazaki et al.f^^' reported a mean value of 4.2 1.3 mmol/L in 20-minute practice games, while Castagna et al.'^^' reported a mean of 3.72+1.39 in 20-min games of young basketball players (mean age 16.82 years). McInnes et al.''"'' reported elevated lactate levels throughout a basketball game, with high variability among male players (mean maximum 8.5 3.1 mmol/L). The elevated lactate values suggested that glycolytic pathways made an important contribution to energy production during an actual game.f"**' However, caution is warranted when interpreting blood lactate values. Blood lactate concentration is a snapshot of lactate turnover. Lactate is being produced by muscles working at high intensity, and at the same time it is being removed from those muscles to be used by other skeletal muscles, the cardiac muscle, or for gluconeogenesis in the liver. Therefore, the simple fact that blood lactate is elevated above resting levels does not tell us directly what percentage of energy comes from aerobic or anaerobic pathways. 4. Nutritional Strategies and Oxidative Stress It is widely accepted that maintaining proper nutrition is beneficial to athletic performance.t^^' A number of studies examining the contribution of nutritional strategies to facilitating improved performance in basketball are reviewed. It is beyond the objectives and scope of our article to provide a more extensive review on nutritional strategies and oxidative stress in elite basketball players than that given here. Basketball players (female and male), as with other athletes, should maintain a positive energy
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balance and avoid low-energy intakes. Energy intake should be balanced between carbohydrates (55-58% of energy), proteins (12-15%) and fats (25-30%).["' Special care should be taken in the vegetarian athlete, who might be at risk for low protein intake, as well as low micronutrients intake (specifically vitamin B12, zinc, iron and calcium). While most macronutrients and micronutrients can be supplied from foods in a balanced diet, additional supplements may be useful during an intense basketball season. Maintaining a positive and balanced energy intake can prove difficult between the practice sessions and games, and during long travels in a competitive basketball season. Schroder et al.'^^' found that 32 (58%) of a sample of 55 basketball players in the First Spanish Basketball League reported using dietary supplements. Of those players, 81% used supplements on a daily basis, with multivitamins and vitamins being taken most frequently (50%). The authors suggested that the consumption of multivitamins might help in preventing temporary vitamin imbalances that may be caused by the frequency and timing of training sessions, travel and poor food selection. 4.1 Hydration One nutrient that is often overlooked is water. Maintaining euhydration is important to aerobic performance, and it is suggested that a water deficit of 2% of bodyweight can lead to decreased performance.f^''^' A number of studies on hydration in basketball players suggest that dehydration is detrimental to performance.'^'"^^1 In one study of eleven 17- to 28-year-old male basketball players, dehydration led to impaired vigilance-related attentional performance.'^'^ In another study of 17 male basketball players aged 17-28 years old, a progressive decline in basketball skills was associated with dehydration levels of 1-4% of bodyweight.I^^l The threshold of water deficit at which overall performance deterioration became statistically significant was 2% of bodyweight.t^^l Consumption of carbohydrate solutions (sports drinks) during intermittent exercise appears to improve sports performance.^^''1 In a study of 15 male adolescent players aged
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12-15 yearsj^^ it was found that 2% dehydration was associated with deterioration in basketball skill performance, and that euhydration with a 6% carbohydrate solution improved both shooting skills and on-court sprinting compared with euhydration with a placebo. Clearly, teaching basketball players to maintain hydration is important. This can be effectively accomplished by weighing each player before and after practices. In this manner, players can learn their individual sweat loss ratios and know how much fluid intake is required of them to maintain euhydration.
4.2 Oxidative Stress

Free radicals occur naturally in the body and can have negative effects on lipids, proteins and DNA oxidation. The antioxidant system alleviates these negative effects. When there is an imbalance between the production of free radicals and the antioxidant defence, oxidative stress occurs. Oxidative stress may be involved in the aging process, cell damage, some pathology, muscular fatigue and overtraining.'^^' Exercise training increases the production of free radicals and the utilization of antioxidants. Therefore, proper nutrition is important in maintaining the antioxidants.[^^1 Since basketball players perform intense physical activity, their free radical production is likely to increase. Hence, it is important to supply the needed micronutrients that serve as antioxidants to alleviate the possible negative effects of the free radicals. When a balanced diet is not maintained, antioxidant supplements may be warranted. In one study,'^*' researchers examined the effects of antioxidant supplements - a-tocopherol (vitamin E), -carotene and ascorbic acid (vitamin C) - on exercise stress markers in 13 professional male basketball players (seven players in a supplement group, six players in a placebo group). After 32 days of treatment, elevated plasma levels of a-tocopherol and -carotene were found in the supplement group but not in the placebo group. However, plasma levels of ascorbic acid were not elevated in the suppleniht
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group, while there was a significant decrease in the placebo group. The authors cautiously suggested the ascorbic acid levels remaining similar despite the supplementation might be explained by its use to scavenge free radicals and regenerate vitamin E. Importantly, lipid peroxide (lipid peroxidation is the degradation of lipids and can cause cell membrane damage) plasma concentration decreased in the supplement group by 27%, although the difference was not statistically significant (p<0.09). The authors suggested that this may be related to a reduction in muscle cell damage during training.'**' Similar results were observed in another study,'*^' which found an improvement in oxidative stress in elite male basketball players during a competitive season when antioxidant supplements were taken. A third studyf*^' found that a-tocopherol supplementation may reduce the DNA oxidation induced by training. In this study, total antioxidant status was higher after 1 month of supplementation. These studies suggest that basketball players may benefit from supplementing their diet with antioxidants. Interestingly, vegetarian athletes have higher antioxidant status for vitamin C, vitamin E and -carotene compared with omnivores.'*'! While the negative effects of free radicals do not usually affect performance, it is possible that they can lead to overtraining. This may be because muscular cell damage, which can be caused by free radicals, can reduce the metabolic capacities of muscle cells.'*^l This speculation should be considered cautiously as there is no direct evidence to support it.'*^'
5. Conditioning for Basicetboil

A number of articles looked at conditioning for basketball.''*^'^-^'*' Although an extensive review of the basketball conditioning literature is beyond the scope of our article, a few concepts are noteworthy. (For a detailed review of conditioning practices in basketball see Hoffman and ' Conditioning practices for basketball players can be complex, as the players require good aerobic capacity, anaerobic power, spe^d, agility. and strength. The limited time for conditioning
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during the season means that the coaching staff working with the players need to decide what aspect of conditioning the strength and conditioning coach needs to concentrate on, Tavino et al,P^l suggested that during the offseason, players should use a combination of aerobic and anaerobic training to maintain fitness levels. During pre-season, athletes should concentrate more on developing anaerobic capacity, and during the season, high-intensity training should be done twice a week to maintain anaerobic capacity. In addition, weight training should be employed throughout the year, while during the season weight training should be carried out moderately twice a week to maintain strength,'^^' Relevant information on conditioning programmes was obtained from NBA strength and conditioning coaches (NBA-SC) in a large survey of 20 NBA-SC where it was found that all worked with their players on flexibility, speed development, plyometrics and strength/power development. Much variation was seen in the types of drills, frequency, duration and intensity of training,[^^l It was also found that most coaches (90%) divided their programmes into periods by taking into account the specific needs of their players in different phases of the season, NBA-SC also assessed the fitness level of their players. More coaches reported testing for aerobic capacity (n = 12) than anaerobic capacity (n= 10), It is unclear why less than half the coaches tested for anaerobic capacity, as it is clearly of great importance to the game, A time-motion analysis can be used by strength and conditioning coaches when planning conditioning programmes for their elite players, Taylor,!^''! for example, suggested that four videotapes of game performance should be chosen for analysis for each player: (a) the best game of year; (b) the worst game of year; (c) the game with fewest fouls; and (d) a post-season game. After the analysis performed by the coach, he or she can plan workouts that simulate intensity and rest periods in order to mimic what players do in actual games. Including such workouts in the" year-round conditioning programme can improve the physical preparation of the players for practices and games.
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Time-motion analysis can also be used in order to establish specific testing protocols for basketball players. This was the objective of Castagna et al,,!"*^! who decided on a repeatedsprint test protocol based on a time-motion analysis. They found that 93% of sprint stride sequences included no more than ten consecutive bouts and that sprint lengths were 5-32 m. Based on these data, they decided on a basketballspecific repeated-sprint test of ten shuttle run sprints of 15 m, As Hoffman et al,'^'! indicated, once an aerobic base has been established, further increases in aerobic capacity may not increase performance in basketball players. Therefore, a maintenance programme consisting of running three times per week for a duration of 30-40 minutes may be sufficient. However, there is reason to believe that an aerobic training programme targeted at increasing the anaerobic threshold is beneficial as well. According to a recent study, the mean oxygen consumption during game play is 66,7% of VO2max ill female and 64,7% of V02max in male basketball players,[^l These values are probably in the vicinity of the anaerobic threshold of these players and perhaps a bit higher, although this was not measured in the study. That is to say that the players worked at an intensity that was at or slightly above their anaerobic threshold. Increasing the anaerobic threshold to a realistic 70% of V02max will allow players to use more aerobic metabolic pathways, which can lead to decreased fatigue during games. However, this recommendation should be considered with caution as it is inferred from only one study of six female and six male players, 5,1 Hormonal Status and the Overtraining Syndrome One aspect of conditioning that should not be overlooked is overtraining. Peak performance can be achieved by the right combination of volume and intensity of training, as well as by providing the player with adequate resting periods in between,'^^^ If volume and intensity are too high, and if not enough recovery time is given to the player, overtraining can occur. The
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overtraining syndrome is characterized by diminished performance, increased fatigue and stress.'^'' It has been suggested that disturbances of several hormones (e.g. growth hormone, cortisol,'^'' hypothalamopituitary dysregulation'^^') can be reliable markers of overtraining. In addition, biochemical markers such as creatine kinase and urea can be indicative of muscle damage.'**' However, one study suggested that their validity in indicating overtraining may be overestimated.'^^' It should be noted that there are no definite diagnostic criteria for the overtraining syndrome.'^'' It should also be noted that the ratio between testosterone and cortisol represents the balance between anabolic and catabolic processes, and is also likely to represent the physiological strain of training.'^^' One study was found that examined hormonal and biochemical changes in ten male basketball players participating in a 4-week training camp.'^*' No difference in testosterone and luteinizing hormone levels in over 4 weeks of training was indicated. The training camp was scheduled 1 month after the end of the 9-month regular season. Plasma cortisol increased significantly in week 4 of the training programme, but remained within the normal range. The ratio between testosterone and cortisol was decreased by 22% in week 4, although this finding was not statistically significant. Between week 1 and week 2 of the training programme, creatine kinase levels increased by 60%; however, this was not statistically significant. This finding probably represented local muscle trauma only. It was concluded that a 4-week training camp for elite basketball players did not appear to cause any disturbance to the hormonal or biochemical profile of the players. Since it can be difficult to notice decrements in performance in basketball players, unlike sports hke swimming or track and field in which measures of performance are quite clear,'^*' more studies of hormonal and biochemical markers of overtraining that are evaluated over an entire basketball season are warranted. Such objective markers of overtraining can help coaches to start tapering early enough to prevent overtraining from developing.
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6. Five Limitations Observed from the Physicai and Physioiogicai iVieasurements

The studies reviewed in this article provide useful information to both researchers and practitioners on various physical and physiological characteristics of female and male basketball players. Among these characteristics are height, mass, aerobic and anaerobic capacities, strength and agility. However, five limitations associated with the testing protocols used in the reviewed studies are presented here. (a) Lack of a longitudinal approach. In the majority of the reviewed studies the physical and physiological tests were given to the players only once. No rephcated measurements across different periods of time were performed. In order to systematically examine characteristics of elite performers (e.g. basketball players), a longitudinal approach should be used as well. In this approach, one group of performers is observed over a long period of time,'*"' enabling the researchers to collect data on a variety of dependent variables, as well as to study developmental perspectives of the observed group. From an expert theory perspective, it has been established'*'' that a period of at least 10 years is required to achieve expertise in sport, as well as in other domains such as art, music and science. Therefore, it would be useful for researchers and practitioners alike to obtain information on the physical and physiological characteristics of elite players during different periods of time across the season/s, and among different groups of skill level and age. This information would result in improving the ability of coaches to compare achievements among players as well as to plan more effectively training programmes for elite basketball players. (b) Lack of tests performed under physical exertion conditions. The physical and physiological tests used in the reviewed studies were performed in a rested state, i.e. the players performed when they felt ready, according to the protocols of the tests. Fatigue primarily affects the central processes that take place between information receipt and the initiation of a movement.'*^' In this
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respect, it was shown that fatigue can influence certain mechanisms as they operate from the input of information to the output. Moderately high fatigue will impair performances requiring strength, endurance and rapid movements. Therefore, it is of particular interest to the coach to assess his or her players' ability not only under rested conditions, but also under physical exertion conditions that reflect what is required of them in actual games, (c) Lack of studies using a time-motion analysis. The majority of the studies described in our review were conducted under laboratory conditions and sterile settings, where the players were instructed to perform the tests individually. In only a few studies were data collected on physical and physiological performances of players during actual games. In order to plan effective strength and conditioning programmes for basketball players, more information should be gathered on what actions players actually perform during the game, A systematic analysis of the main actions demonstrated by the players during the game should be carefully made, and then, based on this analysis, field observations using a timemotion analysis should be conducted on players of different skill levels as well as on players playing different positions. In addition, studying the work/rest ratio during competitive games by recording live physiological measurements (via a portable metabolic system) can allow coaches to gather additional relevant information on the players, and plan better conditioning programmes accordingly, (d) Reported HR values can be difficult to interpret. These values should be interpreted as a percentage of HR^axi however, these interpretations will be accurate only if the actual HRn^a^ is known for the players, since the estimation of HRmax from age is inaccurate. In addition, HR values should be reported for the total game time, including stoppages. Recording HR only in live time ignores important recovery information during rest periods such as time-outs and half-time, (e) The results of blood lactate concentration can also be difficult to interpret. As mentioned earher (section 3,2,3), blood lactate concentration is a result of lactate rate of appearance and rate of
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disappearance. Blood lactate and muscle lactate can be different during intermittent exercise, and blood lactate is not necessarily a good predictor of muscle lactate,t^^' Moreover, while some of the working muscles produce lactate, other muscles that work at lower intensities may actually be consumers of lactate as a substrate. It is suggested that measuring or estimating the anaerobic threshold of each player, followed by the measurements of muscle and blood lactate over several games, as Ben Abdelkrim et al,'"'' suggested, can enhance our understanding of the workload and metabolic pathways being used during a game. Several test protocols are available for the measurement of the anaerobic threshold. Performing those tests and interpreting their results require a knowledgeable and experienced staff (For a review of the concept of the anaerobic threshold and the methods of measurement, see Svedahl and
7. Practical Advice for Basicetbaii and Strength and Conditioning Coaches

We have three recommendations for the basketball coach and the strength and conditioning coach, (a) Training programmes should be planned for the athlete according to his or her playing position. Guards, forwards and centres have different physical and physiological characteristics. Although relevant information on training programmes for basketball players can be found in the literature,''*^! it is suggested that more emphasis be placed on developing specific programmes for forwards, centres and, particularly, for guards. Ultimately, basketball and strength and conditioning coaches should plan their training programmes according to the unique characteristics of each player, (b) A careful selection of the physical and physiological tests should be made. As reported in our review, there are a large number of different tests assessing physical and physiological abilities in basketball players. Therefore, it is recommended to carefully select the test most
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appropriate for assessing abilities in female and male basketball players. It is also recommended that the same test be used for comparing achievements in a specific ability among the basketball players. Different tests yield different values^ and thus the resulting comparison would not be effective. (c) Coaches should be aware of changes in the rules of the game. They should take any changes made in the rules of the game into account while planning their training progratiimes. Practically speaking, the physical preparation as part of the annual training programme should also help the player adjust to any new changes made in the rules of the game.
8. Conclusions

5. Carter JE, Ackland TR, Kerr DA, et al. Somatotype and size of elite female basketball players. J Sports Sei 2005 Oct; 23 (10): 1057-63 6. LaMonte MJ, McKinney JT, Quinn SM, et al. Comparison of physical and physiological variables for female college basketball players. J Strength Cond Res 1999; 13 (3): 264-70 7. Ackland TR, Schreiner AB, Kerr DA. Absolute size and proportionality characteristics of World Championship female basketball players. J Sports Sei 1997 Oet; 15 (5): 485-90 8. Smith HK, Thomas SG. Physiological characteristics of elite female basketball players. Can J Sport Sei 1991 Dec; 16 (4): 289-95 9. Bale P. Anthropomtrie body composition and performance variables of young elite female basketball players. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 1991 Jun; 31 (2): 173-7 10. Bayios IA, Bergeles NK, Apostolidis NG, et al. Anthropomtrie, body composition and somatotype differences of Greek elite female basketball, volleyball and handball players. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2006 Jun; 46 (2): 271-80 11. Rodriguez-Alonso M, Femandez-Garcia B, Perez-Landaluce J, et al. Blood lactate and heart rate during national and international women's basketball. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2003 Dec; 43 (4): 432-6 12. Cormery B, Marcil M, Bouvard M. Rule change incidence on physiological characteristics of elite basketball players: a 10-year-period investigation. Br J Sports Med 2008 Jan; 42 (1): 25-30 13. Latin RW, Berg K, Baechle T. Physical and performance characteristics of NCAA division I male basketball players. J Strength Cond Res 1994; 8 (4): 214-8 14. Ostojic SM, Mazic S, Dikic N. Profiling in basketball: physical and physiological characteristics of elite players. J Strength Cond Res 2006 Nov; 20 (4): 740-4 15. Parr RB, Hoover R, Wilmore JH, et al. Professional basketball players: athletic profiles. Physician Sportsmed 1978 Apr; 6 (4): 77-9; 82-4 16. Viviani F. The somatotype of medium class Italian basketball players. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 1994 Mar; 34 (1): 70-5 17. Sallet P, Perrier D, Ferret JM, et al. Physiological differences in professional basketball players as a function of playing position and level of play. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2005 Sep; 45 (3): 291-4 18. Apostolidis N, Nassis GP, Bolatoglou T, et al. Physiological and technical characteristics of elite young basketball players. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2004 Jun; 44 (2): 157-63 19. Ben Abdelkrim N, El Fazaa S, El Ati J. Time-motion analysis and physiological data of elite under-19-year-old basketball players during competition. Br J Sports Med 2007 Feb; 41 (2): 69-75 20. Narazaki K, Berg K, Stergiou N, et al. Physiological demands of competitive basketball. Scand J Med Sei Sports. Epub 2008 Apr 21. Withers RT, Roberts GD, Davies GJ. The maximum aerobic power, anaerobic power and body composition of South Australian male representatives in athleties, basketball, field hockey and soccer. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 1977 Dee; 17 (4): 391-400

This paper reviewed several issues related to basketball players and their performance. Despite the five limitations observed in the reviewed studies, three practical recommendations for basketball coaches were noted. We suggest that future research should concentrate on timemotion analyses, physiological demands during game-play, and the effects of fatigue on performance.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Dinah Olswang for her editorial assistance during the preparation of this manuscript. No sources of funding were used to assist in the preparation of this review, and th authors have no conflicts of interest that are directly relevant to the content of this review.

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