Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela Ministry of People's Power for Higher Education Caribbean Maritime University English VII

Teacher: Tovar, Albis

Members: Rodrguez, Luis Ruffo, Carlos Urbina, Adrin Valero, Alberto Yanes, Rubn Catia la mar, November 2011

20.102.342 20.406.432

Introduction

For the purposes of this Act, the term ship or vessel includes all ships that have fixed means of propulsion and are intended for traffic by territorial or internal waters or the free sea between national ports or from abroad, or between the latter and those. Barges, cranes, boats and dikes, houses, wharves and floating dredges and other buildings without autonomy of movement, will not be deemed as ships but as navigation accessories.(Chapter II Article 9 - Navigation Act) Before understanding a ship's structure, it is extremely important to known and to remember the basic terms that are used in building a ship. Known as the language of naval architecture, these dimensions not only describe a ship but also exhibit its true worth. Talking about describing a ship one of the most common ways to define a ship is with his tonnage capacity. Read inside to know more. First, lets learn the definitions of some very important terminologies which are essential from the dimensioning point of view. Summer load waterline or design waterline: The line that runs along the water planes, from aft to the fore of the ship is known as summer load waterline. It is the line at which the ship is generally floating with its load. Fore perpendicular: It is the vertical line passing through the point of intersection of the summer load line with forward side of the stem. Aft perpendicular: It is the line perpendicular to the water plane and passing through the centerline of the rudder pintles.

There are so many different types of ships and it depends of the purpose that each ship will have; it could be a troop ships designed to carry any kind of goods and passengers; or could be an industrial ships designed to draw out any natural resources from sea or just fishing. The important thing here is that ships are one of the most efficient forms for international trade.

Ships Dimension (Linear Dimension) a. Length: It is measured in different ways for ship's officers, for architects and designers, and for registry. The more commonly used length measurements -- length overall, length between perpendiculars, and length on load waterline are discussed as follows. i. Length between perpendiculars (lbp): The distance measured along the summer load water plane from fore to aft perpendicular is known as length between perpendiculars. ii. Length overall (loa): It is the distance measured parallel to the summer load waterline between the extreme points at the forward and the aft. The extreme point at the forward can be taken on the bulbous bow. iii. Length on the waterline (lwl): It is the distance measured between the intersections points of the bow and the after end with the summer load waterline. In case it is not mentioned, the length of the summer load waterline is taken into consideration as the length of the waterline. b. Beam: The width of the ship is also known as the extreme breadth. It is generally measured at amid ship. It is the greatest distance between the two sides of the ship at the greatest width. c. Depth: Depth: The depth of the ship varies along the length. But the depth of the ship is taken as the distance between the undersides of the deck amid ship to the bottom of the keel. i. Draft: It is the vertical distance between the waterline and the bottom of the keel. ii. Air Draft: It is the distance from the surface of the water to the highest point on a vessel. iii. Freeboard: It is the distance from the waterline to the upper deck level, measured at the lowest point of sheer where water can enter the boat or ship.

Ships Dimension (Tonnage Capacity) a. Displacement: It is the weight of the ship. iv. Light Displacement: The weight of the ship excluding cargo, fuel, ballast, stores, passengers, crew, but with water in boilers to steaming level. v. Loaded Displacement: The weight of the ship including cargo, passengers, fuel, water, stores, dunnage and such other items necessary for use on a voyage, which brings the ship down to her load draft. b. Deadweight: The total lifting capacity of a ship expressed in tons of 2240 lbs. It is the difference between the displacement light and the displacement loaded. c. Gross Tonnage: The entire internal cubic capacity of the ship expressed in tons of 100 cubic feet to the ton, except certain spaces which are exempted, such as: peak and other tanks for water ballast; spaces above the uppermost continuous deck, such as: open forecastle, bridge and poop, certain light and air spaces, domes of skylights, condenser, anchor gear, steering gear, wheel house, galley and cabins for passengers. d. Net Tonnage: The tonnage most frequently used for the calculation of tonnage taxes and the assessment of charges for wharfage and other port dues. Net tonnage is obtained by deducting from the gross tonnage, crew and navigating spaces and an allowance for the space occupied by the propelling machinery. e. Cargo Deadweight: Capacity is determined by deducting from total deadweight the weight of fuel, water, stores, dunnage, crew passengers, and other items necessary for use on a voyage.

Types of Ships

TROOP SHIPS INDUSTRIAL SHIPS

Freighters Passenger Ships Special Troop Ships Extractive Processing Ships Providing Auxiliary Ships Ships Providing Safety Ships with Special Purposes Dredges Suction Dredges Floating Docks Others

CIVIL SHIPS

SERVICE SHIPS

TECHNICAL SHIPS

1. Civil Ships: This major group is divided into types and subtypes depending on what the ship is going to be used for. 1.1. Troop Ships: Their purpose is to carry freight and passengers. 1.1.1.Freighters (also cargo ships): As the name suggests, this category includes ships carrying both dry (general-cargo and specialized ships) and liquid cargo. 1.1.1.1. General-cargo ships - Once the most popular type, nowadays generalcargo ships are still built but in small quantities. Their carrying capacity is 4,000-6,000 t on average and may reach 16,000 - 20,000 t. General cargo include items which are packed (boxes, barrels, bags, packages) or not packed (pipes, bricks, machinery, rolls of wire). They usually have spacious holds which occupy the larger part of the hull. Refrigerator chambers to keep perishable foods, tanks for carrying vegetable oils and air-conditioned systems for furs needing special care are being provided on modern vessels. However, the disadvantage is that loading and unloading takes a long time which causes delay. Ships for general cargo may sail on a fixed route (that is, making regular voyages between two ports) or may supply cargo wherever merchants want them to. The latter are also called trampers because they do not have a specific route. Trampers usually transport coal, timber, ores, cotton, etc.

1.1.1.2. Reefer - They transport perishable foods such as fruit, vegetables, meat, fish and dairy, having a carrying capacity of 8,000 - 12,000 t. They sail at a speed of 18-22 knots which is higher than that of the common general-cargo ships because these perishable goods require faster delivery. Foodstuffs are kept in holds with good heat and freezing insulation at a temperature varying from -25 C to +13 C depending on the type of cargo. Reefers are equipped to carry not only frozen stuff but also goods which first have to be refrigerated to a specific temperature for transportation. 1.1.1.3. Timber carriers - One-decked ships designed to carry logs and beams; carrying capacity - 5,000 - 20,000 t, speed - 13-15 knots. 1.1.1.4. Containerships - Carrying capacity - 8,000-15,000 t on average and 25,00030,000 t for big containerships. These ships are classified as unit-load ships because freight is carried in huge boxes of standard size (units), usually from 10 to 40 t. Actually these are the same we see on trains and trucks proving one of the advantages of containerships and those boxes: the delivery can be transported to the recipient using the link wagon - car - ship with least damage of cargo. Containerships are said to have made a revolution in the history of water transport. The higher speed (of 20-26 knots) and shorter port stay are a few of their advantages over other types of ships. 1.1.1.5. Barge-carrying ships (lighter ships) -This type of ships pertains to the category of containerships but the principle is slightly different. Cargo is carried in floating containers, also referred to as barges or lighters, each with a carrying capacity of 375 t - 1050 t. As these barges cannot sail on their own, they need to be tugged or towed to the ship. There, they can be loaded aboard in different ways depending on the type of lighter ship. For example, LASH (Lighter aboard Ship) type has a high-capacity crane at the stern which lifts the barge, moves it horizontally over the deck and arranges it. SEA BEE type has a platform at the stern which is just like an elevator - it takes the lighter on and lifts it up to the deck. From then on, another device carries the barge to its place. The "integrator" lighter ship has its hull divided into sections so that the tug can move the barge straight into its compartment. Unloading is done in the same way on the following principle - lighters are unloaded from the ship, let in the water and tugged to the pier. The advantage of this type of ships being that cargo can be carried in separate barges to and from smaller ports through a series of rivers and canals that are inaccessible for big ships.

1.1.1.6. Ro-ro ships - Used for transporting motor vehicles and other wheeled equipment. Ro-ro is short for roll-on roll-off ships and is thus called because cargo is carried on wheeled containers or trailers. Ro-ro ships sail at an average speed of 22 knots. Roughly speaking, their shape is "boxy". Ro-ro ships usually have 2-6 decks and look like huge parking lots with stern openings and lifting platforms to sort out trailers. Needless to say, loading and unloading is quite speedy. A common "representative" of ro-ro type is the car carrier which usually has cars directly loaded on the ship without putting them in containers. Modern car carriers are capable of carrying about 6,500 automobiles. 1.1.1.7. Bulk-carriers (bulkers) - Designed to carry loose goods which constitute about 70% of all the shipments carried by sea; speed - 14 - 16 knots, carrying capacity - varies (there are ships with 30,000 t and others with 150,000 t); Bulkers are usually one-decked, with an engine room in the stern and a deckhouse above it. The holds are constructed with longitudinal and cross walls (called "bulkheads") and the cargo is easily stowed according to them. Bulk-carriers do not have cargo-handling gear aboard and have their goods loaded/unloaded by means of port devices. That's why all the space before the deckhouse is vacant to make load operations easier. There is an exception for some bulkers that work on a self-unloading principle. Bulk cargo is a wide term. Heavy bulk-carriers usually transport ore, coal and coke, building materials, such as cement and gravel. Light bulkers carry grain, salt and sugar. Unfortunately, goods such as ores and grain cannot simply be dumped in the hold of the ship without taking any precautions. Any careless maintenance of this cargo may result in damage of the ship. Just to give you an example - grain may ignite under particular conditions. Bulkers can also be all-purpose i.e. they may export bulk cargo and import oil or vehicles. This type tends to have many holds. An example of this type is the oil-ore carrier which may have a carrying capacity of 280,000t. 1.1.1.8. Heavy-cargo ships - Designed to carry cranes, oil drills, machinery for factories and power stations, equipment for heavy industry and other cargo weighing 700-1000 t.

1.1.1.9.

Cattle ships - As the name implies, these ships transport cattle.

1.1.1.10. Tankers - one of the most popular types of troop ships making up 65% of water transport. They transport crude oil and petroleum products such as chute and diesel oil at a speed of 12-20 knots. Tankers are one-decked ships with the engine room and superstructure at the stern and a pump compartment often at the bow. The middle part of the tanker consists of a group of identical sections (called tanks) separated by cross walls in the hull. Hence the name of tankers. Each tank is equipped with a heating coil. You may wonder what the heating coil is for. In winter conditions liquid cargo, e.g. chute freezes and cannot be pumped out (and thus, unloaded). The coil gives off heat in the tank and keeps the chute fluid this way making pumping easier and faster. Ship design includes also the so-called "catwalk with the pipes" - this is a bridge which connects the superstructure (in the rear) with the forecastle (in the front).
Type of Tanker Deadweight tonnage

Product carrier (for petroleum products) 10,000 - 60,000 t CC (Crude Carrier) LCC (Large Crude Carrier) LCC (Very Large Crude Carrier) LCC (Ultra Large Crude Carrier) Up to 80,000 t 80,000 t - 120,000 t 120,000 t - 250,000 t Over 250,000 t

1.1.1.11. LPG carriers (Liquid Petroleum Gas carriers) - Built to carry liquid gases, either natural gases or products of oil processing (methane, propane, butane), for chemical industry; speed 12-20 knots. The manufacture of LPG carriers starts in the 50-s, with the first being produced by Sweden and having the scant deadweight of 455 t - at the beginning people were still at a loss about how to transport this kind of cargo. Soon later, larger LPG carriers were built. Gases (which are kept in three conditions - liquid, cooled or under pressure) are held in special reservoirs with cylindrical, spherical or square shape made of aluminum or nickel alloys. 1.1.1.12. Chemical carrier - They transport chemicals such as sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid and ammonia. Some products require special conditions - for example, asphalt and liquid sulfur need to be warmed so as not to cool down during transportation.

1.1.2. Passenger Ships: They transport people. Passenger ships are divided into several categories: 1.1.2.1. Liners - Liners sail on one and same route (be it through rivers, seas or oceans) according to a timetable. Ocean liners used to be the most popular from this type. They usually had 1,500-2,000 seats for passengers and reached 30-35 knots of speed. A common element of architecture was the steps-like superstructure. Ship design included spacious saloons, sports halls, swimming pools and many other facilities. Nowadays, liners are no longer used and are replaced by ferries. The history of transoceanic liners is marked by success and failure. At the very beginning the competition of who would build the largest ship, sailing at the highest possible speed and providing greatest amenities was rather keen. But the years after 1950 fell short of their expectations. Air transport entered a phase of rapid development and began to "steal" the passengers. Just look at the figures - in 1947, 70% of the passengers chose to travel by sea whereas in 1972 this percentage was only 0.8%. Liners were gone. 1.1.2.2. Cruise ships - Their purpose is to take tourists to journeys. As a matter of fact, cruise ships are liners with size and load draft allowing them to enter almost every port (When the companies building giant ocean liners went bankrupt, most of the ships did not go to the junk but were adapted to tourist voyages. Such is the case with the liner "France" which became the cruise ship "Norway", organizing excursions in the Caribbean Sea). Cruise ships are usually white-painted multi-decked vessels sailing at an average speed of 20-22 knots. Ramps at the stern make boarding of passengers easier. Also, machinery noise is brought to minimum for the convenience of passengers. Restaurants, bars, casinos, discos, swimming pools, fitness centers and shops make cruise ships look like a real resort complex. The most frequent places of visits are Alaska, Mexico, Hawaii Island, the Mediterranean, West Europe, Japan. Cruise ships can also be tall ships or icebreakers, the latter organizing winter trips through ice. 1.1.2.3. Passenger coastwise vessels - Not large inland-going ships which sail close to the coast between two or more ports; their seats for passengers vary from 40 to 600. Into this category fall two other types of ships - the hydrofoil (average speed 60-80 km/h) and the hovercraft. The latter transfers passengers between two points at a speed of 40-70 knots. 1.1.2.4. Yachts - Crafts, propelled either by sail or by power, used for recreation. Power yachts are also referred to as cabin cruisers. The introduction of steam and later - internal combustion in yachts, led to an increase in their size and amenities. Large yachts began to stand up even to luxurious passenger ships.

1.1.3. Special Troop Ships: They transport freight and passengers. 1.1.3.1. Ferries - designed to carry wagons, vehicles and passengers by serving as a bridge between two ports, located at the opposite ends of rivers, bays, canals, etc. The average speed is about 20 knots. Ferries usually have two control panels - one at the bow and one at the stern. There are also huge gates called hatchways to provide fast loading and unloading. Ferries carrying wagon assemblies are equipped with rails which fit into railroads on shore. Saloons, bars, restaurants, passenger seats are all in the superstructure. This type of ships is divided into train ferries, combined train and car ferries and combined passenger and car ferries. The latter type of ferry is also used as a foreign-going vessel for tourism, just like cruise ships. As a matter of fact, both look much the same from the outside but ferries have car decks in addition. Large car-andpassenger ferries are able to carry about 1,500 people and 350 automobiles. 1.2. Industrial ships: Designed to draw out raw materials and food resources from sea. Industrial procedures may include extracting oil and mineral salts or catching and processing fish, crustacean, marine flora and fauna. We are going to focus on commercial fishing and types of ships employed in it. 1.2.1.Extractive ships - Ships used solely for catching (fish, sea mammals and plants). 1.2.1.1. Trawlers - the most widespread type of fishing vessel; The name "trawler" comes from "trawl" - a fishing net which is dragged along the sea floor. Depending on where the trawl is launched - over the side of the ship or over her stern, there are side and stern trawlers respectively. Some of the largest trawlers (factory trawlers) are equipped with machines for processing, canning and storing the fish in refrigerator compartments. 1.2.1.2. Seiners - Seiners use a peculiar kind of net (a purse seine) which hangs vertically in the water and has a rope at its bottom. Once the shoal of fish enters the net, the rope tightens and closes it, just like an upside-down purse. 1.2.1.3. Whalers - ships designed for hunting whales; Whalers usually have high forecastle which contains the harpoon weapon. 1.2.2.Processing Ships - Their main purpose is to receive the catch from extractive ships, process it into usable products and bring it to ports. Mother ships and refrigerator fishing vessels (with conditions to freeze fish) are common representatives of this group.

1.3. Service ships: Vessels which serve the merchant fleets and operate in harbors, inland waters and water areas; Depending on the function they perform, service ship can be grouped in four categories: 1.3.1.Ships Providing: Navigation through different waters 1.3.1.1. Hydrographic ships - Their purpose is to explore seas and oceans, gather data and report to hydrographic bureaus which on their part, compose maps and charts. Hydrographic ships inform seamen on possible weather changes as well. Besides which, they are in charge of all signaling devices and lightships at sea. 1.3.1.2. Pilot boats - small vessels that carry a pilot to a ship and then bring him back to the port. These pilots steer the ship through rivers and canals from one point to another by showing the safest way to go. It is true that ships have their own pilots to navigate them through different waters but peculiarities and changes of a particular water area are not shown on any guide. Therefore local pilots are needed. And pilot boats too. 1.3.1.3. Lightships - smaller vessels painted red and equipped with light- and radiosignal devices and anchored at places which are dangerous for ships to pass through (e.g. shallows, rocks). Lightships have begun to decrease in number and are being replaced by navigation buoys. 1.3.2.Auxiliary Ships: Vessel specially designed to help others ships. 1.3.2.1. Icebreakers - These are ships maintaining navigation in winter by leading other vessels across ice tracks (and breaking ice-floes). Compared to common ships, icebreakers have a strong bow and different construction of the hull whose purpose is to make ice blocks lift up the vessel. The principle of operation is the following: the ship climbs up the thick ice and cracks it with its hull weight, this way clearing pathways for other ships to cross. 1.3.2.2. Salvage tugs (or tugboats) - High-speed vessels with an approximate length of 60 meters, used for towing barges and damaged ships and taking them across narrow canals or fairways. Tugs can do fast and easy maneuvers to front, back and aside. This feature makes tugboats good assistants to big ships which cannot manoeuver on their own in narrow places and need help. 1.3.2.3. Push tugs - vessels used for pushing an assembly of barges; Push tugs have very high superstructures which allow keeping a watch on the vessels in front and way ahead.

1.3.3.Ships Providing Safety: Ships specially designed to attend any emergency at sea. 1.3.3.1. Rescue ships - Powerful high-speed crafts, able to operate in any conditions and being equipped to save ships which have damage or have suffered an accident aboard and need urgent help. Rescue ships can give help in underwater repairs and provide medical assistance. 1.3.3.2. Fireboats - Equipped to fight fire aboard ships and floating platforms (e.g. oil drills) by spraying foam and water from a distance of 60-100 meters. 1.3.4.Ships with special purposes: As the name implies are ships designed to special services. 1.3.4.1. Research vessels - ships used for exploring waterways, surveying the sea bottom and ocean processes, locating natural resources (petroleum, cobalt, copper, iron, etc.) and observing marine life. These ships have winches and other devices to assist research underwater vehicles and nets. They also have laboratories inside. 1.3.4.2. 1.3.4.3. Training ships - for training cadets. Floating "houses" - hospitals, hotels, exhibitions, workshops, laboratories.

1.4. Technical Ships: Ships which provide technical service and create the necessary conditions for ship navigation; Here are the various types of technical ships: 1.4.1.Dredges - These are floating vessels used to make sea- or river-floors deeper (for example, this is done when ports and canals are built or simply maintained). Dredges take out sand from the bottom and dump it on barges which bring it away. 1.4.2.Suction dredgers - an extension of dredges; These crafts have a suction device which gathers sand from the sea floor and carries it away with a system of pipes to land or to another deep place in water which has to be made shallower. Suction-dredge.jpg 1.4.3.Floating docks - the largest representatives of technical ships; Floating docks are floating vessels which cannot move on their own and serve as places for construction and repair of ships. 1.4.4.Others - floating cranes, power stations and workshops; cable laying ships; oil collector ships (they surround the oil spills and clear them); drill ships; offshore drilling rig supply vessels.

Conclusions A ships measurement is expressed in feet and inches--linear dimensions. A ship is a three dimensional structure having length, width, and depth. The tonnage capacity of a ship defines his size. Ships are specially designed depending of what the ship is going to be used for. There many types of ships designed to many particulars functions.