CONTENTS.........................................................Pg No.

1. Abstract 2. Introduction 3. Principle of Operation 4. Elements of Regenerative Brake 5. Advantages of RBS 6. Limitations of RBS 7. Existing Products 8. Conclusion 9. References 1 2 3-4 5-7 8 9 10-11 12 13

ABSTRACT

A regenerative brake is an energy recovery mechanism which slows a vehicle or object down by converting its kinetic energy into another form, which can be either used immediately or stored until needed. This contrasts with conventional braking systems, where the excess kinetic energy is converted to heat by friction in the brake linings and therefore wasted. The most common form of regenerative brake involves using an electric motor as an electric generator. In electric railways the generated electricity is fed back into the supply system, whereas in battery electric and hybrid electric vehicles, the energy is stored in a battery or bank of capacitors for later use. Energy may also be stored mechanically via pneumatics, hydraulics or the kinetic energy of a rotating flywheel. This energy can be again used by the driver to give extra power to the car during acceleration.

INTRODUCTION
Vehicles driven by electric motors use the motor as a generator when using regenerative braking: it is operated as a generator during braking and its output is supplied to an electrical load; the transfer of energy to the load provides the braking effect.Regenerative braking is used on hybrid gas/electric automobiles to recoup some of the energy lost during stopping. This energy is saved in a storage battery and used later to power the motor whenever the car is in electric mode. Early examples of this system were the front-wheel drive conversions of horse-drawn cabs by Louis Antoine Krieger (18681951). The Krieger electric landaulet had a drive motor in each front wheel with a second set of parallel windings (bifilar coil) for regenerative braking.[1] In England, the Raworth system of "regenerative control" was introduced by tramway operators in the early 1900s, since it offered them economic and operational benefits as explained by A. Raworth of Leeds in some detail.[2][3][4] These included tramway systems at Devonport (1903), Rawtenstall, Birmingham, Crystal Palace-Croydon (1906) and many others. Slowing down the speed of the cars or keeping it in hand on descending gradients, the motors worked as generators and braked the vehicles. The tram cars also had wheel brakes and track slipper brakes which could stop the tram should the electric braking systems fail. In several cases the tram car motors were shunt wound instead of series wound, and the systems on the Crystal Palace line utilized series-parallel controllers.[clarification needed][5] Following a serious accident at Rawtenstall, an embargo was placed on this form of traction in 1911. Twenty years later, the regenerative braking system was reintroduced.[4] Regenerative braking has been in extensive use on railways for many decades. The Baku-Tbilisi-Batumi railway (Transcaucasian railway or Georgian railway) started utilizing regenerative braking in the early 1930s. This was especially effective on the steep and dangerous Surami Pass.[6] In Scandinavia the Kiruna to Narvik railway carries iron ore from the mines in Kiruna in the north of Sweden down to the port of Narvik in Norway to this day. The rail cars are full of thousands of tons of iron ore on the way down to Narvik, and these trains generate large amounts of electricity by their regenerative braking. From Riksgrnsen on the national border to the Port of Narvik, the trains use only a fifth of the power they regenerate. The regenerated energy is sufficient to power the empty trains back up to the national border.[7] Any excess energy from the railway is pumped into the power grid to supply homes and businesses in the region, and the railway is a net generator of electricity. An Energy Regeneration Brake was developed in 1967 for the AMC Amitron.[8] This was a completely battery powered urban concept car whose batteries were recharged by regenerative braking, thus increasing the range of the automobile.[9] Many modern hybrid and electric vehicles use this technique to extend the range of the battery pack. Examples include the Toyota Prius, Honda Insight, the Vectrix electric maxi-scooter, the Tesla Roadster, the Nissan Leaf, and the Chevrolet Volt.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

Fig 1. Operation of regenerative braking system.

Every time you step on your car's brakes, you're wasting energy. Physics tells us that energy can not be destroyed. So when your car slows down, the kinetic energy that was propelling it forward has to go somewhere. Most of it simply dissipates as heat and becomes useless. That energy, which could have been used to do work, is essentially wasted. Is there anything that you, the driver, can do to stop wasting this energy? Not really. In most cars it's the inevitable byproduct of braking and there's no way you can drive a car without occasionally hitting the brakes. But automotive engineers have given this problem a lot of thought and have come up with a kind of braking system that can recapture much of the car's kinetic energy and convert it into electricity, so that it can be used to recharge the car's batteries. This system is called regenerative braking.

In a traditional braking system, brake pads produce friction with the brake rotors to slow or stop the vehicle. Additional friction is produced between the slowed wheels and the surface of the road. This friction is what turns the car's kinetic energy into heat. With regenerative brakes, on the other hand, the system that drives the vehicle does the majority of the braking. When the driver steps on the brake pedal of an electric or hybrid vehicle, these types of brakes put the vehicle's electric motor into reverse mode, causing it to run backwards, thus slowing the car's wheels. While running backwards, the motor also acts as an electric generator, producing electricity that's then fed into the vehicle's batteries. These types of brakes work better at certain speeds than at others. In fact, they're most effective in stop-and-go driving situations. However, hybrids and fully electric cars also have friction brakes, as a kind of back-up system in situations where regenerative braking simply won't supply enough stopping power. In these instances, its important for drivers to be aware of the fact that the brake pedal might respond differently to pressure. The pedal will sometimes depress farther towards the floor than it normally does and this sensation can cause momentary panic in drivers.

Energy Flow: Acceleration Batteries Motor

Speed of Vehicle Ke= * M * V2

Kinetic Energy

Energy Flow: Traditional Braking Heat Loss Brakes Kinetic Energy

Energy Flow: Regenerative Braking Batteries Motor Kinetic Energy

ELEMENTS OF REGENERATIVE BRAKE

The basic elements of a regenerative braking system are:1. ENERGY STORAGE UNIT (ESU) The ESU performs two primary functions To recover & store braking energy To absorb excess engine energy during light load operation The selection criteria for an effective energy storage includes: High specific energy storage density High energy transfer rate Small space requirement The energy recaptured by regenerative braking might be stored in one of three devices: An electrochemical battery, a flywheel or in a regenerative fuel cell. BATTERIES With this system, the electric motor of a car becomes a generator when the brake pedal is applied. The kinetic energy of the car is used to generate electricity that is then used to recharge the batteries. With this system, traditional friction brakes must also be used to ensure that the car slows down as much as necessary. When the brake pedal is depressed, the battery receives a higher charge, which slows the vehicle down faster. The further the brake pedal is depressed, the more the conventional friction brakes are employed. Normally a battery takes 10 times of its discharging time to recharge. Hence suitable choice should be made while deciding the type of batteries. Hence Lithium ion or NIMH batteries are preferred

Fig 2. NIMH battery used in RBS

FLYWHEEL In this system, the translational energy of the vehicle is transferred into rotational energy in the flywheel, which stores the energy until it is needed to accelerate the vehicle. Using a continuously variable transmission (CVT), energy is recovered from the drive train during braking and stored in a flywheel. This stored energy is then used during acceleration by altering the ratio of the CVT. The benefit of using flywheel technology is that more of the forward inertial energy of the car can be captured than in batteries, because the flywheel can be engaged even during relatively short intervals of braking and acceleration. In the case of batteries, they are not able to accept charge at these rapid intervals, and thus more energy is lost to friction.

Fig 3. Flywheel KERS

2. REGENERATIVE BRAKING CONTROLLERS Brake controllers are electronic devices that can control brakes remotely, deciding when braking begins, ends, and how quickly the brakes need to be applied. In towing situations, for instance, brake controllers can provide a means of coordinating the brakes on a trailer with the brakes on the vehicle doing the towing. Regenerative braking is implemented in conjunction with anti-lock braking systems (ABS), so the regenerative braking controller is similar to an ABS controller, which monitors the rotational speed of the wheels and the difference in that speed from one wheel to another. In vehicles that use these kinds of brakes, the brake controller not only monitors the speed of the wheels, but it can calculate how much torque -rotational force -- is available to generate electricity to be fed back into the batteries. During the braking operation, the brake controller directs the electricity produced by the motor into the batteries or capacitors. It makes sure that an optimal amount of power is received by the batteries, but also ensures that the inflow of electricity isn't more than the batteries can handle. The most important function of the brake controller, however, may be deciding whether the motor is currently capable of handling the force necessary for stopping the car. If it isn't, the brake controller turns the job over to the friction brakes, averting possible catastrophe. In vehicles that use these types of brakes, as much as any other piece of electronics on board a hybrid or electric car, the brake controller makes the entire regenerative braking process possible.

Fig 4. RBC `

ADVANTAGES OF RBS
1. ENERGY CONSERVATION The energy efficiency of a conventional car is only about 20 percent, with the remaining 80 percent of its energy being converted to heat through friction. The miraculous thing about regenerative braking is that it may be able to capture as much as half of that wasted energy and put it back to work. This could reduce fuel consumption by 10 to 25 percent. 2. WEAR REDUCTION An electric drive train also allows for regenerative breaking which increases efficiency and reduces wear on the vehicle brakes. Traditional friction based braking is used in conjunction with mechanical regenerative braking. The regenerative braking effect drops off at lower speeds; therefore the friction brake is still required in order to bring the vehicle to a complete halt. Since both are used together the wear of friction brakes is lesser. 3. BRAKING NOT A TOTAL LOSS Conventional brakes apply friction to convert a vehicles kinetic energy into heat. In energy terms, therefore, braking is a total loss: once heat is generated, it is very difficult to reuse. With regenerative brakes, on the other hand, the system that drives the vehicle does the majority of the braking.

Fig.5

Regenerative braking systems are particularly effective in stop-and-go driving conditions.

LIMITATIONS OF RBS
Traditional friction-based braking is used in conjunction with mechanical regenerative braking for the following reasons:

The regenerative braking effect drops off at lower speeds; therefore the friction brake is still required in order to bring the vehicle to a complete halt. Physical locking of the rotor is also required to prevent vehicles from rolling down hills. The friction brake is a necessary back-up in the event of failure of the regenerative brake. Most road vehicles with regenerative braking only have power on some wheels (as in a two-wheel drive car) and regenerative braking power only applies to such wheels because they are the only wheels linked to the drive motor, so in order to provide controlled braking under difficult conditions (such as in wet roads) friction based braking is necessary on the other wheels. The amount of electrical energy capable of dissipation is limited by either the capacity of the supply system to absorb this energy or on the state of charge of the battery or capacitors. Regenerative braking can only occur if no other electrical component on the same supply system is drawing power and only if the battery or capacitors are not fully charged. For this reason, it is normal to also incorporate dynamic braking to absorb the excess energy. Under emergency braking it is desirable that the braking force exerted be the maximum allowed by the friction between the wheels and the surface without slipping, over the entire speed range from the vehicle's maximum speed down to zero. The maximum force available for acceleration is typically much less than this except in the case of extreme high-performance vehicles. Therefore, the power required to be dissipated by the braking system under emergency braking conditions may be many times the maximum power which is delivered under acceleration. Traction motors sized to handle the drive power may not be able to cope with the extra load and the battery may not be able to accept charge at a sufficiently high rate. Friction braking is required to dissipate the surplus energy in order to allow an acceptable emergency braking performance.

Fig.6 Graph showing effect of RBS vs Friction brakes

EXISTING PRODUCTS
1. TOYOTA PRIUS

Fig 7. Toyota PRIUS

SPECIFICATIONS: NIMh batteries SYNCHRONOUS A.C. MOTOR

Fig 8. NIMh battery of Prius

2. HONDA ACCORD

Fig.9 HONDA Accord

Fig.10. A C SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

CONCLUSION
In a century that may see the end of the vast fossil fuel reserves that have provided us with energy for automotive and other technologies for many years, and in which fears about carbon emissions are coming to a peak, this added efficiency is becoming increasingly important Regenerative braking is a small, yet very important, step toward our eventual independence from fossil fuels. Theoretical investigations of a regenerative braking system show about 25% saving in fuel consumption. The lower operating and environment costs of a vehicle with regenerative braking system should make it more attractive than a conventional one. The traditional cost of the system could be recovered in a few years time. The exhaust emission of vehicle using the regenerative braking concept would be much less than equivalent conventional vehicles as less fuel are used for consumption.

REFERENCES
JOURNALS: 1. Dave (16 March 2009). "Horseless Carriage: 1906". Shorpy. Retrieved 14 August 2010. 2. Journal/Proceedings of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, Volume 38: 19061907 page 374-398. Institution of Electrical Engineers. 7 February 1907. Retrieved 31 January 2011. 3. Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, Volume 36: 1917 page 68. American Institute of Electrical Engineers. 1917. Retrieved 31 January 2011. 4. a b Straun Jno, T Robertson, John Markham (19 February 2007). "The Regenerative Braking Story: 2007". Venture Publications. Retrieved 31 January 2011. 5. Transport World The Tramway and Railway World Volume XX July December: 1906 page 20. Carriers Publishing Company Limited. 1906. Retrieved 31 January 2011. 6. Bigpanzer (30 April 2006). "Susrami Type Locomotoive at Surami Pass". Shorpy. Retrieved 31 January 2011.

7. "Iore". 30 January 2011. Retrieved 31 January 2011

WEBSITES: 1. www.google.com 2. www.toyota.com 3. www.wikipedia.com 4. www.yahooanswers.com BOOKS: 1. DRIVE CONTROL SYSTEM BY V K MEHTA