EinsteinsBigBreak:OntheMiracleYearof1905

NicholasWerle BrownUniversity10 Majors:Physics,ModernCriticalPhilosophy (516)3162993nicholas_werle@brown.edu

2 EinsteinsBigBreak:OntheMiracleYearof1905 Attheendofthenineteenthcentury,physicistsdeclaredtheirscience complete.Themechanicsofmatterwaswellunderstood:accordingtoNewtons lawsofmotionandresearchersmodels,thedynamicsoffluids,optics,andsound wavesweregrowingmorerefined.JamesClerkMaxwellhadrecentlyformulated thepropagationofelectromagneticwavesinfourrelativelysimpleequations. Drivenbymathematicalformalisms,hederivedrelationshipsbetweentraveling electricandmagneticdisturbancesthatdefiedanysimplephysicalexplanationsbut seemedtopreciselydescribeexperimentalphenomena.Thiswasnottosaythere wasnotworktobedonebutmostphysicistsbelievedfutureprogresswouldmainly consistofexperimentalrefinementsandmoreprecisemeasurementsofthe universesfundamentalconstants. Withinthefirstdecadeofthetwentiethcentury,however,physicistsfound themselvesstrugglingtounderstandthemostfundamentalfeaturesoftheuniverse includingtheshapeofspace,themeaningoftime,thecharacteristicsofmatter,and thenatureoflight.Insteadofputtingthefinishingtouchesonagrandedificeof completedknowledgeoftheuniverse,twentiethcenturyphysicistswereconsumed byaracetodisassemblethatverysystemandfindsomestablegroundonwhichto rebuild.Thisradicalreversalwasneithereasytobeginnorsimpleforgreatmindsto

3 acceptbut,onceitsnecessitywasrealized,newfieldsofpossibleknowledgeswere openedtoscience. Thisjoltingbeginningtomodernphysicswasnotatransitionthatlogically followedfromtheknowledgeofatriumphantclassicalphysicsbutratheraradical discontinuitywithwhatcamebefore.In1905,AlbertEinstein,anunknownGerman physicistworkingasapatentexaminerinBern,publishedaseriesofshortpapers onBrownianmotion,thequantumnatureoflight,andtheelectrodynamicsof movingbodiesinoneofthemostastoundingburstsofcreativityinthehistoryof thought.Theseideas,afteryearsoflaborioustheoreticalelaboration,werethestart ofamajorbreakwiththephysicalknowledgeofthepast.WhileEinsteinwasnot abletocontinueworkingthisbreakthroughitscontinualbattleagainstclassical ideologyindeed,hewouldspendhislateryearsfightingagainsttheveryconcepts thatfollowedfromhisdiscoveriesinthemiracleyearof1905theconjunctureof hisreadingofnineteenthcenturyphysicswiththerecentphysicaldiscoveriesof MichaelFaraday,Maxwell,andMaxPlanckandthemathematicalformalismsof BernhardRiemannsnonEuclideangeometryproducedanewphysicalproblematic. Thisproblematicpermittedthedevelopmentofquantummechanicsandrelativity theory,thecornerstonesofthenewedificeofmodernphysics. AnAlthusserianreadingofmodernphysicsisaninterestingprojecton multipleregisters.Thispaperwillarguethatquantumandrelativityphysicsisthe firsttrulyAlthusserianhardscience.Wecanreaditsbirthasabreakinthestrong sense:theproductionofanewscientificproblematicfromareadingofthe contradictions,seams,andlacunaeintheideologicalframeworkthatcamebefore.

4 Applyingthisreadingtoahardscience(hardscienceshouldbeunderstoodinthe Americansensetomeanthestudyofthestructureofthephysicalworld,especially thedomainsofphysics,chemistry,biology,astronomy,geology,etc)providesa uniqueopportunitytorefinetheAlthusseriannotionofscienceintoaconceptthatis atleastprovisionallystableandconnectedwiththeotherepistemologicalnotionsof thebreak,theproblematic,theencounter,andideology.Unfortunately,thescaleof thisprojectpreventsthissinglepaperfromprovidingclosureonanyoftheseissues. Therefore,theseargumentsshouldbetakenasthefirstnotesforamuchlarger investigationofphysicalscience. Thefoundingofmodernphysicsasascienceisnottheonlytargetofthis reading;thecontentofthisnewproblematicisalsoparticularlyAlthusserian.In contrastwiththeidealismoftheNewtonianmodel,quantummechanicsand relativityuseconceptsthataremorefluidtounderstandthephysicalnatureofthe universe.Theproblematicofmodernphysicsdispenseswithabsolutereferentiality notionsofabsolutespace,motion,andtimelosetheirmeaninginthisnew problematiccontinuity,andlinearcausality,infavorofrelativitysfabricofspace time,quantummechanicsdiscretizedenergyandlight,nonEuclideangeometrys fieldeffectivityandfundamentalindeterminacy.TheCopenhageninterpretation challengedthenotionsofobjectivephysicalrealityandtransparentexperimentation thatwerepreviouslytakenasfundamentalontologicalassumptions.Finally, quantummechanicsandrelativityassertedtheexistenceofabsolutephysicallimits onvelocitiesandenergiesthateliminatedidealistnotionsofinfinitespeedandzero

5 energy.Yetthisisonlythebeginningofthelistoftheintenselystrangeresultsof modernphysics. Attheendofthenineteenthcentury,thesuccessofMaxwellsequations thoroughlyconvincedthephysicscommunitythatlightandelectromagnetic radiationtraveledinwaves.Countlessexperimentshadalsoproducedcharacteristic interferencepatternswithbeamsoflightorelectromagneticradiation,allowing researcherstodeterminethewavelengthsofthesedisturbances.Nevertheless, thereweretwoareasinwhichclassicalphysicstheoreticalunderstandingof electromagnetismbrokedown.First,theproblemoflightpropagationledphysicists toposittheexistenceoftheether,amediumthatallowedthetransmissionoflight andfilledallspace.Butitprovedundetectable.Second,theproblemofblackbody radiation(asolidbodyemitsacertainspectrumofelectromagneticradiation dependingontemperature)wasincomprehensibletotheclassicaltheoryoflight. Thesedifficultiesweresymptomsoftheproblemswiththeproblematicofclassical physics.ThegeniusofEinstein,however,wasnotanyexperimentalone.Instead, Einsteinwasabletorefoundphysicsinatrulyscientificproblematic.Heproduceda newmodeoftheoreticalpracticebasedondeductivereasoning,whichallowed theoreticalphysicstomoveaheadofexperimentationforthefirsttime.Becausehis instinctualapproachwassensitivetotheepistemologicalconcernsofscience, Einsteinsucceededineffectingaprimarybreakwithclassicalmechanics,rejecting Newtonianidealism,andproducingaproperobjectofknowledgeforhisnew science.

6 FromtheEthertoSpecialRelativity Classically,wavestransmitenergythroughspacebycausingvibrationsor rarefactionsinsomemedium,suchaswater,air,orastring.Indeed,thevery conceptofawavewasunthinkablewithoutsomevibratingsubstance.Sincelight wasknowntotransmitthroughavacuum,physicistswereforcedtofindsome vibratingsubstancethattransmittedlight,evenwhenacontainerwasapparently empty.Thesolutiontothisproblemwastoposittheexistenceoftheluminiferous ether,asubstancethatfilledallspaceandvibratedtoallowthetransmissionoflight. Themoreexperimentallyobservedfeaturesoflightpropagationthatwereincluded inthistheory,themoreoutrageouscharacteristicstheetherwasrequiredto possess.Theetherwasrequiredtobealiquidinordertofillspacebutalso incrediblyrigidinordertopermitlightshighfrequencyvibrations.Inorderto preventthedisruptionofotherphysicalsuccessessuchasthecalculationsof planetaryorbits,theetheralsohadtobeinvisible,incompressible,andmassless withzeroviscosity. AsEinsteinwasgrowingup,thephysicscommunitywasworkingtirelessly tosomehowdetecttheether.Themostfamousand(un)successfulattemptwasan experimentconductedbyAlbertMichelsonandEdwardMorleyinCleveland,Ohio. Theacceptedtheorypositedthattheetherfilledtheentireuniverse,whichmeantit wastheabsoluterestframeoftheuniverse.Sincelightshouldpropagateata constantspeedthroughtheether,lightshouldappeartomoveatadifferentspeed inrelationtotheEarthastheplanetmovesthroughtheetherwind.Michelsonand

7 Morleysapparatusincludedasemisilveredmirrorthatsplitalightbeamandsent itinorthogonaldirectionsbeforereunitingitataninterferometer.Becauseonearm ofthedeviceshouldbepointinginthedirectionoftheetherwind,theypredicted thelightinthatdirectionwouldtakelongertotravelthroughtheapparatusthanthe lighttravelingorthogonaltotheetherwind.Fortunately,noamountofinsulation, refinementoradjustmentwasabletoproduceanyresults.Buttheetherwasso essentialtothedominanttheoriesoflightpropagationthatphysicistscontinuedto struggletoexplaintheresultsintermsofnewerandmoreelaboratetheoriesofthe ether. Einsteinhadstruggledwiththeproblemoftheethersincehistimestudying attheZurichPolytechnicInstitute.Whileheworkedwithhisprofessors,whowere occupiedwithtryingtodevisemoresophisticatedetherdetectionmethods,hewas certainlyexposedtoMichelsonsexperimentalfailure,amongothers.Butthese experimentaldatahadarguablylittleimpactonEinstein;throughouthislife,he maintainedthathisobjectionstotheinclusionoftheetherinphysicswerepurely theoretical.1In1899hewrotetoMilevaMaric,hisclassmateandfuturewife,that theintroductionofthetermetherintotheoriesofelectricityhasledtothe conceptionofamediumwhosemotioncanbedescribedwithout,Ibelieve,being abletoascribephysicalmeaningtoit.2ThisremarkrevealsthepowerofEinsteins subtlereadingofexistingtheoreticaldiscourse.Ofcoursetheetherequations workedwithinthelogicofclassicalphysics,foritwasatheoreticallyrequired addition.YetEinsteinwasabletoworkthislogicagainstitselftodeterminehowthe 1WalterIsaacson,Einstein(NewYork:SimonandSchuster,2007),11622 2Ibid.115.

8 stringentrequirementsplacedontheetherproducedanartifactthatexpressed noneofthephysicalqualitiesascribedtoanyrealsubstance. WhiletheproblemoftheetherpresentedEinsteinwithstrongevidencethat therewerefundamentalproblemswithclassicalphysics,hewouldlaterinsistitwas nottheetherthatdrovehisthinkingtowardsthetheoryofspecialrelativity. Throughouthislife,Einsteincontinuallydeclaredthathismethodwasentirely deductive;hereliedalmostexclusivelyonabstractthoughtexperiments,thoughhe laterincludedabstractmathematics(nonEuclideangeometry)inhistheoretical arsenal.Thiswasasignificantdeparturefromthemethodologyofthetime,which countedentirelyonexperimentationandinductiveexplanationsofobserveddata. ButEinsteinthoughtlittleofatheorythatfollowsinthewakeofexperimentation. Thebigadvancesinscientificknowledgeoriginateinthiswayonlytoa smalldegree,wroteEinsteinaboutinduction.3Indeed,itwasthroughafaulty inductiveapproachthatphysicswassidetrackedfornearlyacenturybythe ideologicalillusionoftheether. InanAlthusserianepistemology,theinductiveapproachwouldcertainlybe dismissedasaharmfulempiricistpractice.Relyingonempiricismrisksbeing incapableofmakingthescienceprogress,sincewewillbeblindtothenatureofthe realprocessoftheproductionofknowledges,andwillremaininthewakeoffacts andevents.4Inordertobreakwiththeclassicalproblematic,Einsteinhadto developanewmodeofproductionofknowledgethatworkedtoshedtheideological 3Ibid.118. 4LouisAlthusser,Theory,theoreticalpracticeandtheoreticalformation:Ideology andideologicalstruggleInPhilosophyandthespontaneousphilosophyofthe scientistsandotheressaysed.GregoryElliott(London:Verso,1990),14

9 assumptionsofthepast.Atruetheoreticalscience,farfromreflectingthe immediategivensofeverydayexperienceandpractice,isconstitutedonlyonthe conditionofcallingthemintoquestion,andbreakingwiththem,totheextentthat itsresultsappearindeedasthecontraryoftheobviousfactsofeverydaylife.5 Thiseffortisnotdirectedonlyatindividuallyfalsefacts,butanentiresystemof ideologicalbeliefs(forideologypositsobviousnessesasobviousnesses)that standsinthewayofscientificprogress.6(Ameasureofthemagnitudeofthisbreak withinduction:ittookEinsteinuntil1921towinaNobelPrizebecausetheSwedish experimentalistswhocontrolledtheawardjudgedhisworkwastooabstractand theoretical.) Hisdeductivemethodwasthebeginningofexactlythisnewtypeof theoreticalpractice,onespecifictoandresponsiblefortheoreticalphysics.Forthe firsttime,theoreticalworkwasreachingaheadofexperimentalprogressinanew modeofknowledgeproductionuniquetotheobjectoftheoreticalphysics.To properlyconstituteascienceistoproducetheadequateconceptoftheobjectby puttingtoworkmeansoftheoreticalproductionappliedtoagivenrawmaterial. Thisproductionofknowledgeinagivenscienceisaspecificpracticewhichshouldbe calledtheoreticalpracticeaspecificpracticedistinctfromotherexistingpractices andabsolutelyirreplaceableatitslevelandinitsfunction.7WhileEinsteinbegan withhisthoughtexperiments,histheoreticalpracticematuredwithhis 5Ibid.15. 6LouisAlthusser,IdeologyandIdeologicalStateApparatuses:NotesTowardsan InvestigationinLeninandPhilosophyandOtherEssays(NewYork,MonthlyReview Press,2001),116 7LouisAlthusser,Theory,theoreticalpracticeandtheoreticalformation:Ideology andideologicalstruggle,15

10 understandingofhisobject.Bythetimehewasworkingtogeneralizehisspecial theoryofrelativityin1915,Einsteinhadfullyrealizedthevalueofabstract mathematics.Indeed,bythistimeitwasRiemannsworkonmetrictensorsthatwas drivinghisunderstandingofthenonEuclideangeometryofspacetime,leadinghim tosuccessfullyformalizegeneralrelativity. Todaystheoreticalphysiciststakethisuniquetheoreticalpracticetoan extreme.Asadiscipline,particlephysicsaimstopredicttheexistenceofnewkinds ofmatterthatmightexistonlyinveryspecificscenarios,suchastheuniverseinthe momentsaftertheBigBang.Becausedecadesmightelapsebetweenthetheoretical discoveryofaparticleandexperimentalobservation,thedisciplinestheoretical apparatusmusthavetheabilitytodeterminethetruthofaparticularidea independently.ThepresentsearchfortheHiggsBosonattheLargeHadronCollider isaperfectexampleofhowfartheorycanrunaheadofexperimentalcapability today.ForAlthusser,thisisahallmarkofaproperlyconstitutedscience.Atruly scientifictheoreticalpracticeisindeeditsowncriterion,andcontainsinitself definiteprotocolstovalidatethequalityofitsproduct.Once[sciences]aretruly constitutedanddevelopedtheyhavenoneedforverificationfromexternalpractices todeclaretheknowledgestheyproducetobetrue,i.e.,tobeknowledges.8Indeed, theLHCisthelargest,mostcomplex,mostexpensivemachineinthehistoryof humanity.ItwasbuiltbyCERN,aninternationalconsortium,solelyonfaithinthe rigorofphysiciststheoreticalpractice. 8LouisAlthusserFromCapitaltoMarxsPhilosophyinReadingCapital,Trans.Ben Brewster(London:Verso,1997),59.

11 Asconfoundingasparticlephysicsis,stringtheoryisevenfartherremoved fromexperiment.Scientistssearchingforaunifiedfieldtheoryofeverythinghave beenworkingonstringtheoryfordecadeswithoutanyhopeofexperimental verification.Stringtheoryprobesthefabricoftheuniverseonsuchsmalldistance scalesthattheoristsestimatethataparticlecolliderwouldhavetobecapableof producingenergiesmorethanonemillionbilliontimesashighastheLHCinorder totestthetheoryspredictions.9Thesepredictions,whicharetheresultsproduced byhighlyabstractmathematicalarguments,makesuchcounterintuitiveclaimsas anelevendimensionalspacetime.Today,thereissignificantdebatewithinthe scientificcommunityaboutwhetherstringtheorycanevenbeconsidereda scientifictheoryifitis(currentlyandfortheforeseeablefuture)untestable. Ultimately,thisisnotascientificdebateaboutthenatureoftheuniversebuta philosophicaldebateabouttheacceptablemodesoftheoreticalpracticeinphysics. Clearly,noneofthiswouldhavebeenpossibleintheproblematicofclassical physics,whichwasneithercapableofposingthesekindsofabstractquestionsin advanceofexperimentalevidencenorabletoevaluateaclaimwithouttestable claims. Soifitwasnothisskepticismabouttheexistenceoftheetherthatdrove Einsteinsthoughtstowardspecialrelativity,wheredidhisdeductivemethodbegin? Later,hewouldclaimnottobeabletocompletelyuntanglethepreciseseriesof thoughtsleadinghimtospecialrelativity,butitsurelystartedwithathought experimenthehadbeenponderingforyears.Einsteinhadspentagreatdealoftime 9BrianGreene,TheElegantUniverse(NewYork:Vintage,2003),141.

12 thinkingaboutwhatitwouldbeliketoobservealightbeamwhiletravelingatthe speedoflight.Hestartedwithwhatwasalongheldbeliefintheprincipleof relativity,whicharguedthatthelawsofphysicsshouldbethesameforany observerinaninertialreferenceframe(anobservertravelingataconstantspeedin thesamedirection).Galileohadprovedthistoholdforclassicalmechanics,but Einsteinbelievedthatitshouldholdforallphysicallaws,includingMaxwells equations. ThisfirstpostulatereceiveditsforcefromEinsteinsthinkingabouta particularlytroublesomeasymmetryintheclassicaltheoryofelectrodynamicsthat cametohisattentionwhilehelpinghisfatherengineersomeinductorsforan electricgenerator.(Inductanceisthepropertybywhichanalternatingmagnetic fieldisabletoinduceacurrenttoflowinaseparatecoilofwire.)Accordingto classicalelectrodynamics,thereweredifferentequationsgoverningthesituation whenamagnetwasmovedpastastationarywirecoilandwhenawirecoilwas movedpastastationarymagnet.Einsteincouldnotfathomwhythesetwosituations shouldbedistinct,sincetherelevantphysicalchangewastherelativemotionofthe twoobjects.EvenGalileanrelativitysuggestedthatthereshouldbenomechanical waytodeterminewhichobjectsinertialreferenceframewasatrest.Yet electromagnetictheorydidhaveathirdtermtodefinethestateofabsoluterest:the ether,whichallegedlytransmittedtheelectromagneticwavesbetweenthemagnet andthewire.Withouttheether,therewouldbenoneedtoformallyexplainthetwo physicallyidenticalscenariosdifferently.

13 ThisasymmetrywasthekeytoEinsteinsformalrejectionoftheetherinhis seminalspecialrelativitypaper,OntheElectrodynamicsofMovingBodies. Restoringthelogicalunitytotheproblemofinductancesuggest[s]thatthe phenomenaofelectrodynamicsaswellasofmechanicspossessnoproperties correspondingtotheideasofabsoluterest.[Thus]theintroductionofalight etherwillprovetobesuperfluous,inasmuchastheviewtobedevelopedherewill notrequireaspaceatabsoluterest.10ThisisthefirststepofEinsteinsbreakwith theproblematicofclassicalphysics.Removingtheconceptofabsoluterestthereby assertingthefundamentalrelativityofmotioncollapsestheapparentasymmetry, whichhadbeenallowedtopersistforsolongbecauseitwasnotstrictlywrong accordingtothelogicoftheoldproblematic.Indeed,theasymmetrywasasymptom ofthatfaultylogicitself. ForAlthusser,thissymptomaticreadingistheexactprocessnecessaryto foundanew,scientificproblematic.InReadingCapital,hearguesthatMarxs achievementwasnottheabilitytoseewhatbourgeoispoliticaleconomycouldnot theanswertothequestionwhatisthevalueoflabor?butthesensetoexplain thenonvisioninsideitsvisionbyarticulatingtheabsenceswithinitstext.11In arguingfortherelativitypostulate,Einsteinaccomplishedasimilarfeat,whichcan beexplainedbyreformulatingAlthusser:Itisnot[Einstein]whosayswhatthe classicaltextdoesnotsay,itisnot[Einstein]whointervenestoimposefrom withoutontheclassicaltextadiscoursewhichrevealsitssilenceitistheclassical 10WalterIsaacson,Einstein,127 11LouisAlthusserFromCapitaltoMarxsPhilosophy,23

14 textitselfwhichtellsusthatitissilent:itssilenceinitsownwords.12Heneither positedtheidentityoftheetherasthestateofabsoluterestnorcreatedthe asymmetryintheexplanationofinductance.Instead,hewasabletoshowthelogical absenceintheclassicalproblematicitselfthatishowthetwoinductancescenarios couldbephysicallydistinguished.Thisabsenceintheclassicalproblematicwasthe kindofriftwiththerealityitsupposedlyrepresented,andthatisindicativeofafalse problematic.Here,Newtonianphysicsrevealedafundamentalmisunderstandingof itsowntheoreticalobject. Einsteinssecondpostulateinvolvedthevelocityoflight.Thereweretwo possibleexplanationsforthepropagationoflight.Iflightwerecomposedof particlesitwouldnotneedanetherealmediumbutitsvelocitywoulddependonthe speedofitssource.(Imaginehowabulletshotstraightaheadfromafastmovingcar wouldgetaspeedboost,relativetotheground,comparedtoabulletshotfroma gunatrestrelativetotheground.)Thispossibilitywassupportedbytheresearch intolightquantaEinsteinhadrecentlycompleted.Yetiflightbehavedmorelikea wave,thenitwouldtravelataconstantspeed(c=2.98x108m/s)regardlessofthe motionofitssourceorobserver.(Thisisanalogoustothebehaviorofsound,which travels770milesperhourinairnomatterhowfastitssourceismoving.The motionofthesourceortheobservermerelyaffectstheperceivedfrequencyofthe tone;thisisknownastheDopplereffect).Aftermucheffortexpendedtoadapt Maxwellsequationstoexplainthefirstpossibility(anemissiontheoryoflight), Einsteinsettledonthesecondoption.Fromthislogicheproducedthelight 12Ibid.22.

15 postulate:Lightalwayspropagatesinemptyspacewithadefinitevelocitythatis independentofthestateofmotionoftheemittingbody(Isaacson,120). OverwhelmingastronomicalevidenceallstarlightreachesEarthatthesamespeed validatedthischoice. However,whenEinsteincombinedthesetwopostulatesinhisthought experimentstheyappearedtocontradicteachother.Ifarayoflightweresentdown arailroadtrack,itwouldappeartotravelpastastationaryobserver(someone standingontheground)atc.Yetifanotherobserverwereonatrainmovingat0.4c inthesamedirectionasthelightbeam,Einsteinrealizedthatthelightmightseemto betravelingat0.6c.Accordingtotherelativitypostulate,thereshouldbenophysical methodtodeterminewhichobserverisatrestinanyabsolutesensesincehehad alreadydoneawaywiththeabsoluterestframeoftheether.However,ifthe observersmotionwastrulyindistinguishablethen,accordingtothelightpostulate, theyshouldbothperceivethelighttomoveatc.Thecontradictioninitiallyseemed insoluble. Einsteinsbrilliantresolutiontothisapparentcontradictioncompletedthe primarybreakwithclassicalmechanicsthatbeganwiththerejectionoftheether. Onemorning,Einsteinrealizedhehadtoworkoutarigorousoperationaldefinition oftimetoreplacetheclassicalnotionofanabsoluteprogressionoftime.Inhis Principia,Newtonassertedthatabsolute,true,andmathematicaltime,ofitselfand fromitsownnature,flowsequablywithoutrelationtoanythingexternal(Isaacson, 125).Thisselfevidentstatementhad,for216years,functionedasastandinforany rigorousformulationofthemeaningoftime.Einsteinreformulatedtimeasa

16 statementaboutsimultaneity,whichturnedouttodependonanobservers perspective.Returningtothetrainscenarioandaddingsomeinclementweatheris sufficienttoprovideabriefexplanationofsimultaneity.Tosayanobserveronthe groundwitnessestwoequidistantboltsoflightningstrikesimultaneouslyistosay thatheseesthelightfromtheseeventsarriveatthesametime.However,these sameeventsappeardifferentlytotheobserveronthetrain.Ifshepassesthe stationaryobserverattheexactmomentofthelightningstrike,shewillhavemoved alittledistanceinonedirectionbythetimetheburstsoflightreachher.Because shewillthenbeclosertothelocationofonestrikethantotheother,thetwoflashes oflightwillnotarrivesimultaneously.Thus,thereisanirreconcilabledifference betweenthetimeinthesetwoinertialreferenceframes.Inotherwords,an observeratrestperceivesaclockinarapidlymovinginertialreferenceframe appearstomovemoreslowly.(Foramoredetaileddescriptionofthisthought experimentandanexplanationofLorentzcontraction,seeIsaacson,pp.12235or Greene,2353.) ThisdiscrepancyallowedEinsteintoconfidentlyabolishthenotionofan audibleticktockeverywhereintheworldthatcanbeconsideredastime.13Time dilationimpliedthatthenotionofanabsolutespaceshouldalsobeabandoned, producingtheconceptofLorenzcontraction(rapidlymovingobjectsappearshorter toobserversatrest).Together,theseconceptsradicallydestroyedtheNewtonian ideasofdiscreteandabsolutespaceandtime.WhileNewtonianmechanicshad demonstratedanincrediblyaccuratepredictivepowerforgenerations,special 13WalterIsaacson,Einstein,128

17 relativitydisproveditsmostfundamentalassumptionsaboutthefabricofthe universe.Inplaceofabsolutethreedimensionalspaceanduniversaltime,Einstein positedaninvariant,fourdimensionalspacetime. SpacetimeisunthinkableinaNewtonianregime.Thatistosay:Noamount ofexperimentationandthinkingdrivenbyNewtonianlogiccouldhavearrivedat theconceptofspacetime,sinceabsolutespaceandtimeareessentialterms undergirdingtheNewtonianequationsdescribingmotion.Beforespecialrelativity, spaceremainedsimplythepassivecontainerofallevents.14Again,theproblem wasnotoneofclassicalphysicsvisionbuttheabsoluteepistemologicallimitsofthe classicalproblematic.Inordertothinktheideasofspecialrelativity,Einsteinhadto domorethannewcalculations;hehadtoreformulatetheverytermsonwhichhis disciplineunderstooditstheoreticalobject.Inalettertoaclosefriend,Einstein displayedhisclearunderstandingofthisepistemologicalnecessity:Aftereffortsto discovertheprivilegedstateofmovementofthishypotheticaletherthrough experimentshadfailed,itseemedthattheproblemshouldberestated.Thatiswhat thetheoryofrelativitydid.Itassumedthattherearenoprivilegedphysicalstatesof movementandaskedwhatconsequencescouldbedrawnfromthis.15Inrestating theproblemandposingthequestionwhatistime?Einsteinproduce[d]theasyet unposedquestion,whichtheasyetunaskedforansweranswered.16This, Althusserargues,istheexactprocessbywhichanewproblematicisconstituted. 14AlbertEinstein,TheProblemofSpace,Ether,andtheFieldinPhysics(1934)in IdeasandOpinions.(NewYork:Bonanza.)280 15WalterIsaacson,Einstein,131.Emphasismine 16LouisAlthusserFromCapitaltoMarxsPhilosophyinReadingCapital,Trans.Ben Brewster(London:Verso,1997),23

18 Fromtheperspectiveofthisnewproblematicitisfinallypossibleto understandthetruetheoreticalstatusoftheether,whichnolongerappearsto simplybeanincorrectanswer.RetrospectivelyreadingtheterrainoftheNewtonian problematic,itisnoweasytoseehowphysicalspaceandtheetherareonly differenttermsforthesamething.[But]ifnoparticularstateofmotioncanbe ascribedtotheether,theredoesnotseemtobeanygroundforintroducingitasan entityofaspecialsortalongsideofspace.17Thetheoreticalappearanceoftheether isaneffectoftheNewtonianproblematicitself,whichrequiredsomewaytobridge thegapinlogicbetweenMaxwellswaveequations(thesemathematicallyderived equationsnowappearasprematureelementsanticipatingthemodernproblematic) andthesolelymechanicaleffectivityofNewtoniandynamics.ItistheNewtonian answertothequestionunaskedinclassicalproblematic:Whatisspace? Inepistemologicalterms,theetherisamanifestationoftheideology requiredbytheoldproblematic.AdaptingAlthussersformulationtothe knowledgesoftheoreticalphysicsitispossibletounderstandhowideologymust bethoughtofasslidingintoallthepartsoftheedifice,andconsideredasa distinctivekindofcementthatassurestheadjustmentandcohesionof[elements]in theirroles,theirfunctions,andtheir[physical]relations.18Thiscementfillsinthe problematicsstructuralfissures,suturestogetherincorrectlyformulated theoreticalobjects,andensurestheseelementsproperfunctioningaccordingtothe logicofthegivenproblematic.Thisiswhy,inordertorejecttheexistenceofthe 17AlbertEinstein,TheProblemofSpace,Ether,andtheFieldinPhysics,281 18LouisAlthusser,Theory,theoreticalpracticeandtheoreticalformation:Ideology andideologicalstruggle,25

19 ether,heneededtoeffectawholesalebreakwithastructurethatnotonlyharbored thesespecificideologicalconceptsbutwasafundamentallyideologicalproblematic: atotalsystemof[ideological]representations,asystemthatis,inprinciple, orientatedanddistorted,asystemdominatedbyafalseconceptionoftheworld [and]ofthedomainofobjectsunderconsideration.19Thisiswhy,beforehecould explaintimedilationorLorenzcontraction,Einsteinwascompelledtorefoundhis disciplineinaproperlyscientificproblematic. QuantumMechanics:FundamentalUncertainty InMay1905,beforepublishingthefirstpaperofhismiracleyear,Einstein correspondedwithaclosefriendaboutfourpapershewasworkingon.Thefirst, hewrote,dealswithradiationandtheenergypropertiesoflightandisvery revolutionary.20Hewasright.Thepaper,OnaHeuristicPointofViewConcerning theProductionandTransformationofLight,builtonMaxPlancksrecentworkon blackbodyradiationandcompletelyupendedtheclassicaltheoryofthenatureof light.ThesuccessofMaxwellsequationshadthoroughlyconvincedphysiciststhat light,likeallelectromagneticradiation,isawave.However,Einsteinarguedinhis paperthatawavetheoryoflightdidnottellthewholestory;therewereaspectsof lightsbehaviorthatindicateditcouldbedescribedinconcertascomposedof discretepacketsofenergy. 19Ibid.24. 20WalterIsaacson,Einstein,93

20 In1900Planckhadbeenstudyingthespectraofblackbodyradiation,a problemthathadthusfareludedinductiveexplanation.Hisattemptstoproducea mathematicalmodelofthespectrawereunsuccessfuluntilhereluctantlyapplied LudwigBoltzmannsstatisticalmethods,whichhehadpreviouslyresisted. Strangely,hecouldonlygetthemodeltoworkifheincludedanunexpectedtiny constant:h=6.62607x1034jouleseconds.Planckexplainedthisunexpected parameter,todaycalledPlancksConstant,asanartifactofhiscalculationthat modelshowmatterabsorbsandemitsenergy.Whileherealizedhwasthemost importantaspectofhisresearch,herefusedtobelieveitwasanintrinsic characteristicofenergy.Heimaginedthatmoleculesofmatteractedliketiny harmonicoscillators,whichareonlyabletoabsorbenergyinspecific,discrete quantities.Heassumedthemoleculesofmattercouldonlyabsorbelectromagnetic energyinmultiplesofsomeminisculequantity.Inthisview,quantizationwas merelyaneffectofmatterabsorbingandemittingenergy,notacharacteristicofthe energyitself. EinsteinstartedwithPlancksresultbutassumedhtohavemorephysical significance;heimaginedthatlightreallyiscomposedofdiscretepointsofenergy. Hecalledtheselocalizedparticlesquanta,thesmallestpossibleunitsofenergy. Thetrulyrevolutionaryaspectofthetheory,however,wasthatEinsteindidnot completelydiscardtheclassicalwavetheoryoflight,bestdescribedbyMaxwell. Instead,hearguedthatlightcouldnotbefullydescribedbyeithertheoretical formulation.TheideaofanemissiontheoryoflightwasnotnewevenNewton

21 heldthisbeliefitwasEinsteinsabilitytothinkthisintrinsicdualitythatupsetthe categoriesphysicistshadrelieduponforgenerations. AfterEinsteinspaperwaspublished,ittookyearsforthescientific communitytounderstandandaccepttheintrinsicwave/particledualityoflight. Mostastonishingly,Planckhimselfresistedtheconceptforquitesometimesinceit underminedhisstrictlyclassicalunderstandingofthephysicalworld. Philosophically,assertingthisdualityrestoredtheproperrelationbetweenthe knowledgeanditsproperobject.Physicistsinitialideologicalmisgivingsabout quantummechanicswerefoundedonanincorrect,empiricistepistemologythat confusedthetrueobjectofknowledge,preventingscientificprogress.Inan empiricistproblematic,knowledgeiscompletelyinscribedinthestructureofthe realobject,intheformofthedifferencebetweentheinessentialandtheessential. Knowledgeisthereforealreadyreallypresentintherealobjectithastoknow.21In thismodelofknowledgeproduction,controlledexperimentsaredesignedtostrip awaythedrossoftheinessentialtoexposeandprobethekerneloftruth,i.e.,its knowledge.Thus,accordingtothisempiricism,thecategoriesproducedin knowledgearereallyexistingcategoriesintherealobjectitself.Intermsofthe problemoflight,thiswasthemistakeofclassicalphysicists:toattributethe absolutecategoriesofwaveandparticledynamics(categoriesthatareproductions inknowledge)totherealobjectitself(light).Inotherwords,physicistsascribedthe sameabsolutedifferencebetweenandradicalnonidentityofwavesandparticlesto therealphenomenonoflightpropagationthatexistedintheirsystemofknowledge. 21LouisAlthusserFromCapitaltoMarxsPhilosophy,38

22 Onceagain,Einsteinwasabletorefoundhisdisciplineonanappropriately scientificfooting,thistimebypracticallyassertingtheproperrelationbetween knowledgeanditsobject.Maintainingscientificityrequiresawarenessofthe distinctionbetweentherealobjectandtheobjectofknowledge,aproductofthe thoughtwhichproducesitinitselfasathoughtobject,absolutelydistinctfromthe realobject.22Thus,therealobjectlightpropagationisabstractedtoproducea theoreticalobject,whichistheonestudiedbyphysicists.Einsteinrecognizedthis epistemologicallynecessarydifferencebyrealizing(atleastinapracticalmanner) howtheproductionprocessoftheobjectofknowledgetakesplaceentirelyin knowledgeandiscarriedoutaccordingtoadifferentorder,inwhichthethought categorieswhichreproducetherealcategoriesdonotoccupythesameplaceas theydointheorderofrealhistoricalgenesis,butquitedifferentplacesassigned thembytheirfunctionintheproductionprocessoftheobjectofknowledge.23The empiricisterroroftheconservativephysicistscanthereforebereadasa calcificationanddisavowalofthisprocess.Becausetheirdisciplinewasnot sufficientlytheorized,becauseclassicalphysicsneverinterrogateditsproblematic, thisprocessofknowledgeproductionwasforgottenandtheybegantoconfusethe wave/particlecategoriesconstructedasaprocessualelementoftheproductionof physicalknowledgewiththenaturalcharacteristicsoftherealobjectitself.They forgotthattheircategorieswereproducedtorationalize,divide,andmakemeaning outofNature.TheyforgotthatNaturedidntfollowthelawssetoutbymen. 22Ibid.41. 23Ibid.

23 AfterEinsteinwasabletoconvincethephysicsestablishmenttosoftenthe logicoftheirmutuallyexclusivecategoriesworkonquantummechanicsexploded. ThepaceofinnovationincreasedsorapidlythatEinsteinhimselfwentfrombeing aniconoclasticinsurgenttoafigureofconservativeauthority.AsEinsteinaged, youngerphysicistsBohr,Born,deBroglie,Schrdinger,Pauli,Dirac,and Heisenbergtooktheleadinprobingtheprofoundlyweirdcharacteristicsofthe universeatthissmallscale.Increasingly,Einsteinnotonlyfoundhimselffollowing theworkoftheseothersbutalsorefusedanytheoreticaladvancethatundermined hisfoundationalbeliefinthestrictdeterminismoftheuniverse.Inaparticularlyapt quip,Einsteinremarked,Topunishmeformycontemptofauthority,Fatehas mademeanauthoritymyself.24 JustasPlanckhadresistedEinsteinsradicalleapfromhisblackbodyresults, EinsteinbecameapowerfulvoiceagainsttheworkoftheNielsBohrandhis Copenhagenschool.ThetheoreticalworkofWernerHeisenbergdisturbedEinstein mostprofoundly.In1927,Heisenbergformulatedhis(in)famousuncertainty principle,whichstatedthatitisimpossibletosimultaneouslyknowboththeexact positionandexactmomentumofaparticleatanygiventime.CombinedwithErwin Schrdingersstatisticalapproachtodeterminingaparticleslocationwithwave functions,quantummechanicsinsertedafundamentaluncertaintyintothephysical knowledgeoftheuniverse.TheimplicationsofHeisenbergsUncertaintyPrinciple (andtheothersthatfollowed)werebothnumerousandprofound.Experimentation couldnolongerbetreatedasatransparentexperienceofthereallyexistingreality 24WalterIsaacson,Einstein,317

24 oftheuniversesincetheveryactofmeasurementcausedacollapseofthewave functionandchangedtheresult.Therewasnolongeraconceptofemptiness,since evenavacuumwasproventohaveapredictablezeropointenergy.Itwasnolonger possibletounequivocallylocateaparticlewithanaccuracythatdependedonlyon thesensitivityofthemeasuringapparatus.Insteadofspeakingaboutindividual particles,physicistswerereducedtomakingstatisticalandprobabilisticstatements aboutapopulationofparticles.(Eachofthesequantummechanicalresultshasan interestingschematicrelationshipwithAlthusserianthought,particularlyhislater writingonthematerialismoftheencounter.However,thesefascinatingissuesare beyondthescopeofthisessay.)Butthelossofstrictlydeterministiccausalitywas thedevelopmentthatmostdisturbedEinstein,whousedalectureonthe200th anniversaryofNewtonsbirthtopubliclydeclarehishope:Maythespiritof Newtonsmethodgiveusthepowertorestoretheunionbetweenphysicalreality andtheprofoundestcharacteristicofNewtonsteachingstrictcausality.25 BeyondtheintransienceofhisbeliefinaGodwhowouldntplaydicewith theuniverse,Einsteinsreactionarystancevisvisfundamentalquantum indeterminacyreflectsamisunderstandingoftheepistemologicalchangesto physicsheinitiated.Bohrsummedupthechange:Itiswrongtothinkthatthetask ofphysicsistofindouthownatureis.Physicsconcernswhatwecansayabout nature.26Bohr,alongwithHeisenberg(Ibelievethatindeterminism,thatis,the nonvalidityofrigorouscausality,isnecessary.27)andothers,understoodtheneed 25Ibid.333. 26Ibid. 27Ibid.332.

25 forphilosophytokeeppacewithachangingscience.Andthischangeispartofthe natureofscienceitself;Althusserargues,Theideawehaveofscienceisdecisivefor scienceitself.Ifwehaveadogmaticconceptionwewilldonothingtodevelopit,we willindefinitelyrepeatitsresults,andnotonlywillthesciencenotprogress,itwill wither.28ItisasadfactthatEinsteinwasnotabletoplaceasmuchfaceinhisown radicaltheoreticalpracticeashisfollowers.However,thismaybeacorrelative resultofhowperfectlyhismindwasmatchedtotheconjunctureofhismiracleyear. Indeed,itisalmostfittingforthelaterlifeofaman,whoseunrivaledintuitivegrasp ofscientificepistemologyrevolutionizedhumanknowledgeoftheuniverse,toserve asawarningagainstthedangereverysciencefaces:scienceisconstantly submittedtotheonslaughtofexistingideologies,andparticularlytothatmost disarmingbecauseapparentlynonideologicalideologywhereinthescientist spontaneouslyreflectshis/herownpractice:empiricistorpositivistideology.29 Perhapsthisdangerisexactlywhyaparticularencounterisalwaysfinite:because theplayersarealwaysspecifictothatparticularconjuncture.Whatittakestomake oneencountertakeholdisspecificandnontransferrabletothenext. _____________________ Thispaperrepresentsaninitialattempttobringtwohighlytheoretical discursivefieldsintocontactandcloseswithmoredanglingquestionsthanfinished answers.Hopefully,futureworkontheepistemologicalproblemsofclassical physicsandongoingscientificinquiryofitsmodernoffspringwillproducemore 28LouisAlthusser,Theory,theoreticalpracticeandtheoreticalformation:Ideology andideologicalstruggle,14. 29Ibid.12.

26 satisfyingconnectionsbetweentheAlthusserianphilosophyandthecontentand formoftheoreticalphysics.Fromallusiontophysicalprocessestoinvocationsof Newton,Althusserswritingcallsoutforthiskindofproject.Quantummechanics andrelativityspecificallygeneralrelativity,whichwaslargelyignoredbythis papersinceEinsteindevelopeditmanyyearsafterhisprimarybreakwithclassical mechanicspresentuniquechallengestoaMarxistphilosophyofscience,which alsoworkstoproduceknowledgesofthemostfundamentalaspectsoftheworld.

27 WorksCited LouisAlthusser.Theory,theoreticalpracticeandtheoreticalformation:Ideologyand ideologicalstruggleInPhilosophyandthespontaneousphilosophyofthe scientistsandotheressays,Ed.GregoryElliott(London:Verso,1990)pp.142 FromCapitaltoMarxsPhilosophyinReadingCapital.Trans.BenBrewster. (London:Verso,1997)pp.1170. AlbertEinstein,OntheMethodofTheoreticalPhysics(1934)inIdeasandOpinions (NewYork:Bonanza)pp.271276. TheProblemofSpace,Ether,andtheFieldinPhysics(1934)inIdeasand Opinions(NewYork:Bonanza)pp.276285. WalterIsaacson,Einstein(NewYork:SimonandSchuster,2007) BrianGreene,TheElegantUniverse(NewYork:Vintage,2003)