Direct Current Generators

Historically, d-c machines came into being before a-c machines because the scientists of that time (about the middle of the 19th century) were only familiar with battery sources and consequently strived to make motors which operated from batteries, as well as generators to charge the batteries and operate arc lamps. Although superior in many ways, a-c machines have not completely replaced dc machines, and will not in the foreseeable future, since the d-c motor offers a controllability not yet approached by a-c motors. The d-c generator, on the other hand, is declining rapidly in use since its functions have been largely taken over by solid state rectification of alternator outputs (in automobiles for example). Nevertheless a thorough study of d-c generators is worthwhile because the construction of motors and generators is the same, and the bilateral nature of the energy conversion process means their inner workings share much in common. A D.C. generator is an energy converter. Mechanical power input received from a prime mover (D.C. motor in this case) is converted electromagnetically into electrical energy. This electrical energy can be changed into heat as is done by connecting load resistors across its armature terminals. It is essential that the field windings of the generator be excited with D.C. current.

Principle: It is based on the principle of production of dynamically or motionally induced emf (Electromotive Force). Whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, dynamically induced emf is produced in it according to Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic Induction. This emf causes a current to flow if the conductor circuit is closed.

Magnetization Characteristics The induced emf in the armature winding of a dc machine is directly proportional to flux and speed of rotation. Let us assume that the field winding is connected to a variable dc source that is capable of supplying a desired field current. If the armature terminals are left open and the armature is rotated at constant speed, then the induced emf in the armature is E = K1 , where K1 is a constant. In other words the induced emf is directly proportional to the airgap flux. Flux depends on the magnetomotive force (MMF) provided by the current in the field winding. That is, = KfIF , where Kf depends on the operating flux density. Therefore induced emf can now be written as E = K1 Kf If. The magnetic circuit of a dc machine consists of both linear (airgap) and non-linear (magnetic material of the stator and rotor) parts. Hence, Kf changes (it decreases as the magnetic circuit gets saturated) with the change in flux density in the machine. The relationship between E and If can be determined by measuring the open circuit voltage (voltage across armature terminals) at different values of If at a constant speed. This curve is known as open circuit characteristics (O.C.C). Since E is an indirect measure of air gap flux (at constant speed of rotation), the curve is similar to the B-H curve ( or Vs If ) of the magnetic material. For this reason, o.c.c. can also be referred to as the magnetization curve. It should be noted that E does not start at zero when the field current is zero but at some value (of the order of 8-10 V). This is due to residual magnetism.

Clasifications
1. Shunt Generator If the shunt field alone is used then thegenerator is called a shunt generator.As the name indicates, the shunt field is connected in parallel with the armature. The shunt field is of larger number of turns and of higher resistance than the series field.The shunt field can be excited either from a separate source (separately excited generator) or from the armature of the same generator (self-excited shunt generator).

2. Series Generator In a series wound generator, the field winding is connected in series with armature winding so that whole armature current flows through the field winding as well as the load. Since the field winding carries the whole of load current, it has a few turns of thick wire having low resistance. Series generators are rarely used except for special purposes such as boosters.

3. Compound Generator In a compound-wound generator, there are two sets of field windings on each pole one is in series and the other in parallel with the armature. It is possible to have two types of compound generators; one is for the cumulativeoperation and the other for the differential operation; in the former the series fieldassists the shunt-field, while in the latter it opposes it. A compound wound generator may be

a. Short Shunt only shunt field winding is in parallel with the armature

b. Long Shunt shunt field winding is in parallel with both series field and armature winding

Efficiency and Losses

There are four internal losses that contribute to lower efficiency of a DC generator. A. Copper Losses Copper loss is the power lost as heat in the windings; it is caused by the flow of current through the coils of the DC armature or DC field. This loss varies directly with the square of the current in the armature or field and the resistance of the armature or field coils.

B. Iron or Core losses These losses occur in the armature of a d.c. machine and are due to the rotation of armature in the magnetic field of the poles. They are of two types 1. hysteresis loss Hysteresis loss occurs in the armature of the d.c. machine since any given part of the armature is subjected to magnetic field reversals as it passes under successive poles. Figure shows an armature rotating in two-pole machine. Consider a small piece ab of the armature. When the piece ab is under N-pole, the magnetic lines pass from a to b. Half a revolution later, the same piece of iron is under S-pole and magnetic lines pass from b to a so that magnetism in the iron is reversed. In order to reverse continuously the molecular magnets in the armature core, some amount of power has to be spent which is called hysteresis loss.In order to reduce this loss in a d.c. machine, armature core is made of such materials which have a low value of Steinmetz hysteresis co-efficient e.g., silicon steel. 2. Eddy current loss In addition to the voltages induced in the armature conductors, there are also voltages induced in the armature core. These voltages produce circulating currents in the armature core as shown in the figure. These are called eddy currents and power loss due to their flow is called eddy current loss. The eddy current loss appears as heat which raises the temperature of the machine and lowers its efficiency. Core resistance can be greatly increased by constructing the core of thin, roundIf a continuous solid iron core is used, and the resistance to eddy current path will be small due to large cross-sectional area of the core. Consequently, the magnitude of eddy current and hence eddy current loss will be large. The magnitude of eddy current can be reduced by making core resistance as high as practical. The iron sheets called laminations. The laminations are insulated from each other with a coating of varnish. The insulating coating has a high resistance, so very little current flows from one lamination to the other. Also, because each lamination is very thin, the resistance to current flowing through the width of a lamination is also quite large. Thus laminating a core increases the core resistance which decreases the eddy current and hence the eddy current loss.

C. Mechanical losses These losses are due to friction and windage. i. Friction loss e.g., bearing friction, brush friction etc. ii. Windage loss i.e., air friction of rotating armature. These losses depend upon the speed of the machine. But for a given speed, they are practically constant. Iron losses and mechanical losses together are called stray losses. D. Constant and Variable Losses
1.

Constant losses Those losses in a d.c. generator which remain constant at all loads are known as constant losses. The constant losses in a d.c. generator are: (a) iron losses (b) mechanical losses (c) shunt field losses

2.

Variable losses Those losses in a d.c. generator which vary with load are called variable losses.

Direct Current Motor

A direct current (DC) motor is a fairly simple electric motor that uses electricity and a magnetic field to produce torque, which turns the motor. At its most simple, a DC motor requires two magnets of opposite polarity and an electric coil, which acts as an electromagnet. The repellent and attractive electromagnetic forces of the magnets provide the torque that causes the DC motor to turn. The magnets have two opposite side, the positive and negative side. The attraction between opposite poles and the repulsion of similar poles can easily be felt, even with relatively weak magnets. A DC motor uses these properties to convert electricity into motion. As the magnets within the DC motor attract and repel one another, the motor turns. A DC motor requires at least one electromagnet. This electromagnet switches the current flow as the motor turns, changing its polarity to keep the motor running. The other magnet or magnets can either be permanent magnets or other electromagnets. Often, the electromagnet is located in the center of the motor and turns within the permanent magnets, but this arrangement is not necessary.

Principles of operation
In any electric motor, operation is based on simple electromagnetism. A current-carrying conductor generates a magnetic field; when this is then placed in an external magnetic field, it will experience a force proportional to the current in the conductor, and to the strength of the external magnetic field. The internal configuration of a DC motor is designed to harness the magnetic interaction between a current-carrying conductor and an external magnetic field to generate rotational motion.

Every DC motor has six basic parts -- axle, rotor , stator, commutator, field magnet(s), and brushes. In most common DC motors , the external magnetic field is produced by high-strength permanent magnets . The stator is the stationary part of the motor -- this includes the motor casing, as well as two or more permanent magnet pole pieces. The rotor (together with the axle and attached commutator) rotate with respect to the stator. The rotor consists of windings (generally on a core), the windings being electrically connected to the commutator. The above diagram shows a common motor layout -- with the rotor inside the stator (field) magnets. The geometry of the brushes, commutator contacts, and rotor windings are such that when power is applied, the polarities of the energized winding and the stator magnet(s) are misaligned, and the rotor will rotate until it is almost aligned with the stator's field magnets. As the rotor reaches alignment, the brushes move to the next commutator contacts, and energize the next winding. Given our example two-pole motor, the rotation reverses the direction of current through the rotor winding, leading to a "flip" of the rotor's magnetic field, driving it to continue rotating.

In real life, though, DC motors will always have more than two poles (three is a very common number). In particular, this avoids "dead spots" in the commutator. You can imagine how with our example two-pole motor, if the rotor is exactly at the middle of its rotation (perfectly aligned with the field magnets), it will get "stuck" there. Meanwhile, with a two-pole motor, there is a moment where the commutator shorts out the power supply . This would be bad for the power supply, waste energy, and damage motor components as well. Yet another disadvantage of such a simple motor is that it

would exhibit a high amount of torque "ripple" (the amount of torque it could produce is cyclic with the position of the rotor).

Classification
1. Brushed DC electric motor The brushed DC electric motor generates torque directly from DC power supplied to the motor by using internal commutation, stationary magnets (permanentor electromagnets), and rotating electrical magnets. Like all electric motors or generators, torque is produced by the principle of Lorentz force, which states that any current-carrying conductor placed within an external magnetic field experiences a torque or force known as Lorentz force. Advantages of a brushed DC motor include low initial cost, high reliability, and simple control of motor speed. Disadvantages are high maintenance and low life-span for high intensity uses. Maintenance involves regularly replacing the brushes and springs which carry the electric current, as well as cleaning or replacing the commutator. These components are necessary for transferring electrical power from outside the motor to the spinning wire windings of the rotor inside the motor.

2. Brushless DC motors Brushless DC motors use a rotating permanent magnet or soft magnetic core in the rotor, and stationary electrical magnets on the motor housing. A motor controller converts DC to AC. This design is simpler than that of brushed motors because it eliminates the complication of transferring power from outside the motor to the spinning rotor. Advantages of brushless motors include long life span, little or no maintenance, and high efficiency. Disadvantages include high initial cost, and more complicated motor speed controllers. Some such brushless motors are sometimes referred to as "synchronous motors" although they have no external power supply to be synchronized with, as would be the case with normal AC synchronous motors.

3. Uncommutated Other types of DC motors require no commutation.

a. Homopolar motor A homopolar motor has a magnetic field along the axis of rotation and an electric current that at some point is not parallel to the magnetic field. The name homopolar refers to the absence of polarity change. Homopolar motors necessarily have a single-turn coil, which limits them to very low voltages. This has restricted the practical application of this type of motor.

b. Ball bearing motor A ball bearing motor is an unusual electric motor that consists of two ball bearing-type bearings, with the inner races mounted on a common conductive shaft, and the outer races connected to a high current, low voltage power supply. An alternative construction fits the outer races inside a metal tube, while the inner races are mounted on a shaft with a non-conductive section (e.g. two sleeves on an insulating rod). This method has the advantage that the tube will act as a flywheel. The direction of rotation is determined by the initial spin which is usually required to get it going. Application

The d.c. machine can operate as either a motor or a generator, at present its use as a generator is limited because of the widespread use of ac power. Large d.c. motors are used in machine tools, printing presses, fans, pumps, cranes, paper mill, traction, textile mills and so forth.

Small d.c. machines (fractional horsepower rating) are used primarily as control device-such as tachogenerators for speed sensing and servomotors for position and tracking.

Technological University of the Philippines Manila College of Engineering Electrical Department

Assignment No. 1 DC Motor and DC Generator

SANCHEZ, Ruben III B. BS ECE 4B

Engr. Instructor