Ocean *********************************************************************************************

The surface of the planet is approximately 71% water and contains (5) five oceans, including the Arctic, Atlantic, Indian, Pacific and Southern. Their borders are indicated on the world image (right) in varied shades of blue. For many years only (4) four oceans were officially recognized, and then in the spring of 2000, the International Hydrographic Organization established the Southern Ocean, and determined its limits. Those limits include all water below 60 degrees south, and some of it, like the Arctic Ocean, is frozen. ******************************************************************************************************************************************** 5 Main Oceans 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Arctic Atlantic Indian Pacific Southern

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Countries
Country from Arctic Ocean Country from Atlantic Ocean Country from Indian Ocean Country from Pacific Ocean Country from Southern Ocean Russia Argentina Sri Lanka Australia

No countries border the Southern Ocean. The only major land mass it touches is Antarctica. ********************************************************************************************

********************************************** Russia
Geography Russia is the largest country in the world with the total area 17 075 400 square kilometers (over 6.5 million square miles), that is about 1,8 times the size of the USA. It's situated in the Eastern part of Europe and Northern part of Asia. The main part of the European territory of Russia is situated within the Eastern European Plain (Vostochno-Evropeyskaya Ravnina). The southern border is on the North Caucasus. The main part of the Asian area of Russia is on ZapadnoSibirskaya Ravnina and Sredne-Sibirskoye Ploskogor'ye. The territory of Russia spans through 11 times zones. Russia borders with Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Belarus, Poland, Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, China and North Korea by land, and with Sweden, Turkey, Japan and the USA by sea. The climate of Russia varies from the steppes in the south and coastal on the north-west through humid continental in much of European Russia; sub arctic in Siberia to tundra climate in the polar north and monsoon on the Far East. The average temperatures of January vary from 0 to 50C, July - from 1 to 25C. Many regions of Siberia and Far East are situated in the permafrost zone. Thus, Russia is one of the coldest countries in the world. The town of Oimyakon in northeast Siberia is the coldest inhabited place on earth, with temperatures recorded at more than 70C below zero. The inhabited areas are mostly in the continental climate zones with long freezing winters (5-6 months long) and short warm summers. The largest rivers: Volga, Lena, Irtysh, Yenisey, Ob, Amur. The largest lakes: Caspean Sea, Aral'skoye More, Baykal, Ladozhskoye, Onezhskoye. Russia has an extremely wide natural resource base including major deposits of oil, natural gas, coal, strategic minerals, timber, diamonds and gold. There are 85 nature reserves and 25 national parks. Population Total population is about 144.7 mln people, with about 72.9% urban population. Most of the population are Russians (81,5%), with more than 100 other nationalities (Tatar 3.8%, Ukrainian 3%, Chuvash 1.2%, Bashkir 0.9%). Language The official language is Russian. Every autonomous republic uses its own language as the second official language. Religions: Russian Orthodox, Muslim, Judaic and others. 1066 cities and towns, 2070 urban settlements (1994).

The state The official name of the state: Russian Federation. It is a democratic federative republic. The country was formed as independent 24 August 1991 from the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic of Soviet Union. The current Constitution was adopted 12 December 1993 by national referendum. Russia is divided into 21 autonomous republics, 10 autonomous okrugs, 6 krays, 2 federal cities (Moscow and St. Petersburg), 1 autonomous oblast and 49 oblasts. The national capital is Moscow. The chief of the state - President, elected by popular vote for a four-year term. Current president is Vladimir Putin (since March 2000). The legislative branch is bicameral Federal Assembly (Federal'noye Sobranie), which consists of State Duma (Gosudarstvennaya Duma) and the Federation Council (Sovet Federatzii). The executive branch is run by the government. The head of the government is appointed by the president with approval of the State Duma. Economy Russia is potentially one of the wealthiest countries with its natural resources, a well-educated population (99.6% adult literacy; 64% tertiary education enrollment rate), and a diverse industrial base. Nevertheless, its economic situation has deteriorated since the beginning of Perestroika in 1985, which announced moving from centrally planned economy to a market economy. The absence of a clear economical doctrine and means led to destruction of internal economical structure and declining of industries. In its turn, it led to significant raise of unemployment, with official unemployment figures of 10.2% (which might be in reality twice as high, since many people do not file for unemployment benefits). Russian health and education systems, which used to be of the highest standard during the Soviet times, were slowly deteriorating. Inflation, started in 1992, reached its peak in 1994, and increased 10 000% by the end of 1997. In 1998 the government implemented a 1000% denomination of national currency (Rouble), turning back prices from thousands rubles to rubles. August 1998 brought a new serious crisis. The exchange rate of US Dollar flew up from 6 to 24 rubles in less than 6 weeks. Small businesses were almost devastated. Prices for consumer goods increased in 4-5 times with the salaries increased only on 20-30%. However, the crisis gave a boost to the development of national industries, which could not compete with foreign goods with the low dollar rate. Now, 5 years after the crisis, the results become visible with reviving the industrial enterprises, particularly in production of consumer goods and food processing. Currently the average salary is Russia is about US$100 (salary of a teacher, government employee etc). The government experiences permanent difficulties with collection of taxes and fulfilling the national budget. A lot of economic activity is officially unaccounted for and organized crime plays a significant role. National income (GDP): US$310 billion, from which:

industries - 39.4% agriculture - 7.2% services - 53.4%

The average annual growth in real GDP in 1991-2001: -3.3% GDP per head: $2.140 The main industries: complete range of mining and extractive industries producing coal, oil, gas, chemicals, and metals; all forms of machine building from rolling mills to high-performance aircraft and space vehicles; shipbuilding; road and rail transportation equipment; communications equipment; agricultural machinery, tractors, and construction equipment; electric power generating and transmitting equipment; medical and scientific instruments; consumer durables, textiles, foodstuffs, handicrafts. 12 economic regions: Northern, Northern-Eastern, Central, Volgo-Vyatskiy, CentralChernozemniy, Povolzhskiy, Northern-Caucasus, Ural, Western-Siberian, Eastern-Siberian, FarEastern and Kaliningrad region. Statistics All statistical figures are quoted as according to: The Economist: Pocket World in Figures, 2004 Edition People Population: 144.7 m Population per square km: 8 Average annual growth in population, 2000-05: - 0.57% Population under 15: 18.0% Population over 60: 18.5% Number of men per 100 women: 88 Life expectancy (men): 60.8 yrs Life expectancy (women): 73.1 yrs Adult literacy: 99.6% Fertility rate (per woman): 1.1 Urban population (per 1,000 population): 72.9% The Economy GDP: Rb9,041bn GDP: $310bn Average annual growth in real GDP 1991-2001: -3.3% GDP per head: $2,140 GDP per head in purchasing power parity (USA=100): 20.1 Inflation and finance Consumer price inflation 2002: 15.8% Trade (Principal exports), $bn fob Mineral products: 53.6 Metals: 14.6 Machinery & equipment: 10.4 Chemicals: 7.4 Total including others: 103.1 Trade (Principal imports), $bn fob Machinery & equipment: 14.1 Food products: 9.1 Chemicals: 7.5 Metals: 3.0

Total including others: 59.0 Health and education Health spending, % of GDP: 6.1 Doctors per 1,000 population: 4.4 Hospital beds per 1,000 population: 13.1 Education spending, % of GDP: 4.4 Society Number of households: 51.8m Average number of household: 2.8 Cost of living (Dec.2002, New York = 100): 84

****************************************************************************** Argentina
Basic Information POPULATION: 38.7 million (2004) CAPITAL: AREA: Buenos Aires 3,761,274 sq.km (1,452,228 sq.mi) of which about three-quarters is located on the South American continent, the rest consists of a section of Antarctica and three groups of islands the South Atlantic. The unit of currency is the peso ($).

Bartolom Mitre (2 pesos) CURRENCY: Jos de San Martn (5 pesos)

Manuel Belgrano (10 pesos)

Juan Manuel de Rosas (20 pesos)

Domingo Faustino Sarmiento (50 pesos)

Julio Argentino Roca (100 pesos) NATIONAL DAY: 25th of May - Anniversary of the 1810 Revolution which led to formal independence from Spain on the 9th of July, 1816.

LANGUAGE:

The official language is Spanish. English is widely spoken, while other languages such as Italian, French and German derive their popularity from the large immigrant population and cultural links with Europe.

FLAG:

The flag consists of three horizontal stripes, two sky blue with a white stripe with the sun the centre. This became the country's official flag when it formalized independence from Spain in 1816. The "Sun of May" in the centre was added in 1818 to depict the sun shining through the clouds of Buenos Aires on the 25th of May 1810, when Argentina established its first independent government.

THE NAME ARGENTINA:

The Europeans were the first to visit Argentina. In 1516, a time when Spanish sailors were searching for precious metals, they sailed into a beautiful wide estuary which they named "Rio de la Plata" or river of silver. They called the land Argentina, after the Latin word meaning silvery

****************************************************************************** Sri Lanka

History
Main article: History of Sri Lanka [edit]Pre-historic

Sri Lanka

Main article: Prehistory of Sri Lanka The pre-history of Sri Lanka dates back over 125,000 years Before Present (BP) and possibly even as [27] early as 500,000 BP. The era spans the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and early Iron ages. Among the Paleolithic (Homo Erectus) human settlements discovered in Sri Lanka, Pahiyangala (named after [28] the Chinese traveler monk Fa-Hsien), which dates back to 37,000 BP, Batadombalena (28,500 [29] BP) and Belilena (12,000 BP) are the most important. The remains of Balangoda Man, [30] ananatomically modern human, found inside these caves, suggests that they may have engaged [31] in agriculture and kept domestic dogs for driving game.

Frescos on the Sigiriya rock fortress inMatale District, 5th century

One of the first written references to the island is found in the Indian epic Ramayana, which provides details of a kingdom named Lanka that had been created by the divine sculptor Vishwakarma, for Kubera, [32] the lord of wealth. It is said that Kubera was overthrown by his demon stepbrother Ravana, the [33] powerful Emperor who built a mythical flying machine named Dandu Monara. The modern city [34] ofWariyapola is described as Ravana's airport. Ravana belonged to the tribe Raksha, which lived alongside four Hela tribes [35] named Yaksha, Deva, Naga and Gandharva. These early inhabitants of Sri Lanka were probably the [36] ancestors of the Vedda people, an indigenous community living in modern-day Sri Lanka, which numbers approximately 2,500. Irish historian James Emerson Tennent theorised Galle, a southern city in Sri Lanka, was the ancient seaport of Tarshish, from which King Solomon is said to have drawn ivory, peacocks and other valuables. Early inhabitants of the country spoke the Elu language, [37] which is considered the early form of the modern Sinhala language.

Ancient Sri Lanka

Main article: Ancient history of Sri Lanka

The Rankot Vihara or the Golden Pinnacle Dagoba in Polonnaruwa, 12th century

According to the Mahvamsa, a chronicle written in Pli language, the ancient period of Sri Lanka begins in 543 BC with the landing of Vijaya, a semi-legendary king who arrived in the country with 700 followers [38] from the southwest coast of what is now the Rarh region of West Bengal. He established the Kingdom of Tambapanni, near modern day Mannar. Vijaya is the first of the approximately 189 native monarchs of Sri Lanka that the chronicles like Dipavamsa, Mahvamsa, Chulavamsa, and Rjvaliya describe (seeList of Sri Lankan monarchs). Sri Lankan dynastic history spanned a period of 2359 years, from 543 BC to AD [39] 1815, until the land became part of the British Empire.

The Sigiriya rock fortress.

The Kingdom of Sri Lanka moved to Anuradhapura in 380 BC, during the reign of Pandukabhaya. [40] Thereafter, Anuradhapura served as the capital of the country for nearly 1400 years. Ancient Sri [41] Lankans excelled invarious constructions such as tanks, dagobas and palaces. The society underwent a major transformation during the reign of Devanampiya Tissa, with the arrival of Buddhism from India. In [42] 250 BC, bhikkhuMahinda, the son of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka arrived in Mihintale, carrying the [43] message of Buddhism. His mission won over the monarch, who embraced the faith and propagated it [44] throughout the Sinhalese population. The succeeding kingdoms of Sri Lanka would maintain a large number of Buddhist schools and monasteries, and support the propagation of Buddhism into other [45] countries in Southeast Asia as well. In 245 BC, bhikkhuni Sangamitta arrived with the Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi tree, which is considered to be a sapling from the historical Bodhi tree under which Gautama [46] Buddha became enlightened. It is considered the oldest tree in the world, with a continuous historical [47] record. (Bodhivamsa) Sri Lanka experienced the first foreign invasion during the reign of Suratissa, who was defeated by two [44] horse traders named Sena and Guttika from South India. The next invasion came immediately in 205 BC by aChola king named Elara, who overthrew Asela and ruled the country for 44 years. Dutugemunu, the eldest son of the southern regional sub-king, Kavan Tissa, defeated Elara in the Battle of Vijithapura. [48] He builtRuwanwelisaya, the second stupa in ancient Sri Lanka, and the Lovamahapaya. During its two and a half millennia of existence, the Kingdom of Sri Lanka was invaded at least eight times by [49] neighbouring South Asian dynasties such as the Chola, Pandya, Chera, and Pallava. There also were incursions by the kingdoms of Kalinga (modern Orissa) and from the Malay Peninsula as well. Kala [50] Wewa and the Avukana Buddha statuewere built during the reign of Dhatusena.

Claudius Ptolemy's map of Ceylon, 1st century AD

Sri Lanka was the first Asian country to have a female ruler; Queen Anula who reigned during 4742 [51] BC. Sri Lankan monarchs attained some remarkable construction achievements like Sigiriya, the socalled "Fortress in the Sky". It was a constructed during the reign of Kashyapa I. Sigiriya is a rock fortress surrounded by an extensive network of gardens, reservoirs, and other structures. The 5th century palace [50] is also renowned forfrescos on the rock the surface. It has been declared by UNESCO as the [52][53] 8th Wonder of the world. Among the other constructions, large reservoirs, important for conserving water in a climate that alternates rainy seasons with dry times, and elaborate aqueducts, some with a slope as finely calibrated as one inch to the mile, are most notable. Biso Kotuwa, a peculiar construction inside a dam, is a technological marvel based on precise mathematics, allowing water to flow outside the [54] dam keeping the pressure to a minimum. Ancient Sri Lanka was the first country in the world to have [55] established a dedicated hospital, in Mihintale in the 4th century. It was also the leading exporter of cinnamon in the ancient world, and has maintained close ties with European civilizations including the Roman Empire. For example, King Bhatikabhaya (22 BCAD 7) had sent an embassy to Rome and [56] got down coral for a net to be cast over the Ruwanwelisaya. Bhikkhuni Devasra and ten other fully ordained bhikkhunis from Sri Lanka went to China and established the bhikkhuni ssana there in AD [46] 429. [edit]Medieval

Sri Lanka

Main article: Medieval history of Sri Lanka

A Buddhist statue in the ancient capital city ofPolonnaruwa, 12th century

The medieval period of Sri Lanka begins with the fall of Anuradhapura. In AD 993, the invasion of Chola emperor Rajaraja I forced the then Sri Lankan ruler Mahinda V to flee to the southern part of the [57] country. Taking advantage of this situation, Rajendra I, son of Rajaraja I, launched a large invasion in AD 1017. Mahinda V was captured and taken to India, and the Cholas sacked the city of [57] [58] Anuradhapura. Subsequently, they moved the capital to Polonnaruwa. This marked the end of the two great houses of dynasties of ancient Sri Lanka, the Moriya and the Lambakanna. Following a seventeen year long campaign, Vijayabahu I successfully drove the Chola out of Sri Lanka in 1070, [59][60] reuniting the country for the first time in over a century. Upon his request, ordained monks were sent from Burma to Sri Lanka to re-establish Buddhism, which had almost disappeared from the country during [61] the Chola reign. During the medieval period, Sri Lanka was divided to three sub-territories, [62] namely Ruhunu, Pihiti and Maya.

Kuttam Pokuna or the Twin Ponds, Anuradhapura, 8th century

Sri Lanka's irrigation system was extensively expanded during the reign of Parkramabhu the Great ( [63] AD 11531186). This period is considered as a time when Sri Lanka was at the height of its [64][65] power. He built 1470 reservoirs - the highest number by any ruler in the history, repaired 165 dams, [66] 3910 canals, 163 major reservoirs, and 2376 mini reservoirs. His most famous construction is [67] the Parakrama Samudra, the largest irrigation project of medieval Sri Lanka. Parkramabhu's reign is memorable for two major campaigns in the south of India as part of a Pandyan war of succession, and [68] a punitive strike against the kings of Ramanna (Myanmar) for various perceived insults to Sri Lanka. After his demise, Sri Lanka gradually decayed in power. In AD 1215, Kalinga Magha, a South Indian with uncertain origins, invaded and captured the Kingdom of Polonnaruwa with a 24,000 strong army [66] from Kalinga. Unlike the previous invaders, he looted, ransacked, and destroyed everything in the [69] ancient Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa Kingdoms beyond recovery. His priorities in ruling were to extract as much as possible from the land and overturn as many of the traditions of Rajarata as possible. His reign saw the massive migration of native Sinhalese people to the south and west of Sri Lanka, and into the mountainous interior, in a bid to escape his power. Sri Lanka never really recovered from the impact of Kalinga Magha's invasion. King Vijayabhu III, who led the resistance, brought the kingdom [70][71] to Dambadeniya. The north, in the meanwhile, eventually evolved into the Jaffna kingdom. The Jaffna kingdom never came under the rule of any kingdom of the south except on one occasion; in 1450, [72] following the conquest led by king Parkramabhu VI's adopted son,Prince Sapumal. He ruled the [73] North from AD 1450 to 1467. The next three centuries stating from 1215 were marked by kaleidoscopically shifting collections of kingdoms in south and central Sri Lanka, [74] includingDambadeniya, Yapahuwa, Gampola, Raigama, Kotte, Sitawaka, and finally, Kandy.

Early modern Sri Lanka

Main article: Colonial history of Sri Lanka

A 17th century painting of Dutch explorerJoris van Spilbergen meeting with king Vimaladharmasuriya in 1602.

The early modern period of Sri Lanka begins with the arrival of Portuguese soldier and explorer Lorenzo de Almeida, the son of Francisco de Almeida, in 1505.[75] The Portuguese founded a fort at the port city of Colombo in 1517 and gradually extended their control over the coastal areas. In 1592 Vimaladharmasuriya I moved the kingdom to the inland city of Kandy, a location more secure against an attack from western invaders.[76] Intermittent warfare continued through the 16th century. In 1619, due to the attacks of Portuguese, independent existence of Jaffna kingdom, came to an end.[77]

Colonial Coat of arms of British Ceylon

During the reign of the Rajasinghe II, Dutch explorers arrived in the island. In 1638, the king signed a treaty with the Dutch East India Company to get rid of Portuguese who ruled most of the coastal areas.[78] The following DutchPortuguese War resulted in Dutch victory, with Colombo falling into Dutch hands by 1656. The Dutch remained in the areas they captured, violating the treaty. An ethnic group named Burgher peopleintegrated into the Sri Lankan society as a result of Dutch rule.[79] The Kingdom of Kandy was the last independent monarchy of Sri Lanka.[80] In 1595, Vimaladharmasurya brought the sacred Tooth Relic - the traditional symbol of royal and religious authority amongst the Sinhalese - to Kandy, and built the Temple of the Tooth.[80] Even with intermittent warfare with Europeans, the kingdom was able to survive. A succession crisis emerged in Kandy, upon king Vira Narendrasinha's death in 1739. He was married to a Telugu-speaking Nayakkar princess from South India and was childless by them.[80] Eventually, with the support of bhikku Weliwita Sarankara, the crown passed to the brother of one of Narendrasinha's princess, overlooking the right of "Unambuwe Bandara", Narendrasinha's own son by a Sinhalese concubine.[81] The new king was crowned Sri Vijaya Rajasinha later that year. Kings of Nayakkar dynasty, launched several attacks on Dutch controlled areas, which proved to be unsuccessful.[82] During the Napoleonic Wars, fearing that French control of the Netherlands might deliver Sri Lanka to the French, Great Britain occupied the coastal areas of the island (which they called Ceylon) with little difficulty in 1796.[83] Two years later, in 1798, Rajadhi Rajasinha, 3rd of the four Nayakkar kings of Sri Lanka died of a fever. Following the death, a nephew of Rajadhi Rajasinha, 18-year-old Konnasami was crowned.[84] The new king, Sri Vikrama Rajasinha faced a British invasion in 1803, but was able to retaliate successfully. By then, the entire coastal area was under the British East India Company, as a result of the Treaty of Amiens. But on 14 February 1815, Kandy was occupied by the British, in the second Kandyan War, finally ending

Sri Lanka's independence. Sri Vikrama Rajasinha, the last native monarch of Sri Lanka was exiled to India. Kandyan convention formally ceded the entire country to the British Empire. Attempts of Sri Lankan noblemen to undermine the British power in 1818 during the Uva Rebellion were [86] thwarted by Governor Robert Brownrigg. [edit]Modern

[84]

[85]

Sri Lanka

[edit]Sri Lanka under the British rule

Tea plantation was introduced to Sri Lanka by James Taylor, a British planter in 1867.

The beginning of the modern period of Sri Lanka is marked by the Colebrooke-Cameron reforms of 1833.[87] They introduced a utilitarian and liberal political culture to the country based on the rule of law and amalgamated the Kandyan and maritime provinces as a single unit of government.[87] An Executive Council and a Legislative Council were established, later becoming the foundation of representative legislature in the country. By this time, experiments with coffee plantation were largely successful. Soon it grew to become the primary commodity export of the country. The falling coffee prices as a result of the depression of 1847 stalled economic development and prompted the governor to introduce a series of taxes on firearms, dogs, shops, boats, etc., and reintroduce a form of rajakariya, requiring six days free labour on roads or payment of a cash equivalent.[88] These harsh measures antagonized the locals, and another rebellion broke out in 1848.[89] A devastating leaf disease,Hemileia vastatrix, struck the coffee plantations in 1869, destroying the entire industry within 15 years. The British officials desperately searched for a substitute, and the promising replacement they found was tea. Production of tea in Sri Lanka thrived within the decades to come. By the end of the 19th century, a new educated social class which transcended the divisions of race and caste was emerging as a result of British attempts to nurture a range of professionals for the Ceylon Civil Service and for the legal, educational, and medical professions.[90] The country's new leaders represented the various ethnic groups of the population in the Ceylon Legislative Council on a communal basis. In the meantime, attempts were underway for Buddhist and Hindu revivalism and to react against Christian missionary activities on the island.[91][92] The first two decades in the 20th century are distinguished for the harmony that prevailed among Sinhalese and Tamil political leadership, which has not been the case ever since.[93] In 1919, major Sinhalese and Tamil political organizations united to form the Ceylon National Congress, under the leadership of Ponnambalam Arunachalam.[94] It kept pressing the colonial masters for more constitutional reforms. But due to its failure to appeal to the masses and the governor's encouragement for "communal representation" by creating a "Colombo seat" that dangled between Sinhalese and Tamils, the Congress lost its momentum towards the mid 1920s.[95] The Donoughmore reforms of 1931 repudiated the communal representation and introduced universal adult franchise (the franchise stood at 4% before the reforms). This step was strongly criticized by the Tamil political leadership, who realized that they would be reduced to a minority in the newly created State Council of Ceylon, which succeeded the legislative council.[96][97] In 1937, Tamil leader G. G. Ponnambalam demanded a 50-50 representation (50% for the Sinhalese and 50% for other ethnic groups) in the State Council. However, this demand was not met by the Soulbury reforms of 1944/45. [edit]Post independence Sri Lanka See also: 1971 JVP Insurrection, Sri Lankan Civil War, and 198789 JVP Insurrection The Soulbury constitution ushered the Dominion status for Ceylon, delivering it independence on 4 February 1948. The office of Prime Minister of Ceylon was created in advance of independence, on 14 October 1947, D. S. Senanayake being the first prime minister.[99] Prominent Tamil leaders like Ponnambalam and A. Mahadeva joined his cabinet.[96][100] Although the country gained independence in 1948, the British Royal Navy stationed at Trincomalee remained until 1956. 1953 hartal, against the withdrawal of the rice ration, resulted in the resignation of the then prime minister,Dudley Senanayake.[101] With the election of S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike to the prime ministership in 1956, Ceylon began moving towards better relations with the communist bloc. Bandaranaike's 3 year rule had a profound impact on the direction of the country. He emerged as the "defender of the besieged Sinhalese culture" and promised radical changes in the system.[102] He introduced the controversial Sinhala Only Act, recognising Sinhala as the sole official language of the government. Although it was partially reversed in 1958, the bill posed a grave concern for the Tamil community, which perceived their language and culture were threatened.[103][104] The Federal Party (FP) launched satyagraha against the move, which prompted Bandaranaike to reach an agreement (Bandaranaike-Chelvanayakam Pact) with S. J. V. Chelvanayakam, leader of the FP, to resolve the looming ethnic conflict.[105] However the pact was not carried out due to protests by opposition and the Buddhist clergy. The bill, together with various government colonisation schemes, contributed much towards the political rancour between Sinhalese and Tamil political leaders. [106] Bandaranaike wasassassinated by an extremist Buddhist monk in 1959.[107]
[98]

The formal ceremony marking the start of self rule, with the opening of the first parliament at Independence Square.

Sirimavo Bandaranaike, the widow of late S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike, took office as prime minister in 1960, but faced an attempted coup d'tat in 1962. During the second term as prime minister, her government instituted socialist economic polices, further strengthening ties with the Soviet Union and later China, while promoting a policy of non-alignment. However in 1971, Ceylon experienced a Marxist insurrection, which was quickly suppressed. In 1972, with the adoption of a new constitution, the country became a republic, repudiating the Dominion status and changing its name to Sri Lanka. Prolonged minority grievances and the use of communal emotionalism as an election campaign weapon by both Sinhalese and Tamil leaders abetted a fledgling Tamil militancy in the north, during 1970s.[108] The policy of standardization by Sirimavo government to rectify disparities created in university enrollment, which was in essence an affirmative action to assist geographically disadvantaged students to gain tertiary education,[109] in turn reducing the number of Tamil students within the Sri Lankan university student populace; acted as the immediate catalyst for the rise of militancy.[110][111] Assassination of Jaffna Mayor Alfred Duraiyappah in 1975 marked an important turn of the events.[112][113] The Government of J. R. Jayawardene swept to power in 1977, defeating the largely unpopular United Front government, towards its final years.[114] Jayawardene introduced a new constitution, together with a powerful executive presidency modelled afterFrance, and a free market economy. It made Sri Lanka the first South Asian country to liberalise its economy.[115] However from 1983, ethnic tensions blew into on-and-off insurgency (see Sri Lankan Civil War) against the government by the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (the LTTE, also known as the Tamil Tigers), a militant group emerged in early 1970s. Following the riots in July 1983, more than 150,000 Tamil civilians fled the island, seeking asylum in other countries.[116] Lapses in foreign policy resulted in neighbouring India strengthening the Tigers by providing arms and training. [117][118][119] In 1987, the Indo-Sri Lanka Accord was signed and Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) was deployed in northern Sri Lanka to stabilize the region by neutralising the LTTE.[120] The same year, the JVP launched its second insurrection in Southern Sri Lanka.[121] As their efforts did not become successful, IPKF was called back in 1990.[122] Sri Lanka was affected by the devastating 2004 Asian tsunami, which left at least 35,000 people dead.[123] From 1985 to 2006, Sri Lankan government and Tamil insurgents held 4 rounds of peace-talks, none of them helping a peaceful resolution of the conflict. In 2009, under the Presidency of Mahinda Rajapaksa the Sri Lanka Armed Forces defeated the LTTE, and re-established control of the entire country under the Sri Lankan Government.[124][125] The 26 year war caused up to 100,000 deaths.[126] Following the LTTE's defeat, Tamil National Alliance, the largest political party in Sri Lanka dropped its demand for a separate state, in favour of a federal solution.[127][128] The final stages of the war left some 294,000 people displaced.[129][130] According to the Ministry of Resettlement, most of the displaced persons had been released or returned to their places of origin, leaving only 6,651 in the camps as of December 2011.[131] Sri Lanka, emerging after a 26 year war, has become one of the fastest growing economies of the world.[132] [edit]Geography Main article: Geography of Sri Lanka

Topographic map of Sri Lanka

The island of Sri Lanka lies atop the Indian tectonic plate, a minor plate within the Indo-Australian Plate.[133] It is positioned in the Indian Ocean, to the southwest of the Bay of Bengal, between latitudes 5 and 10N, and longitudes 79 and 82E.[134] Sri Lanka is separated from the Indian subcontinent by the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Strait. According to the Hindu mythology, a land bridge existed between the Indian mainland and Sri Lanka. It now amounts to only a chain of limestone shoals remaining above sea level.[135] It was reportedly passable on foot up to 1480 AD, until cyclones deepened the channel.[136][137]

A view of Sripada from Maskeliya

Aerial view of Sri Lanka

The island consists mostly of flat-to-rolling coastal plains, with mountains rising only in the south-central part. Amongst these is the highest point Pidurutalagala, reaching 2,524 metres (8,281 ft) above sea level. The climate of Sri Lanka can be described as tropical and warm. Its position endows the country with a warm climate moderated by ocean winds and considerable moisture. The mean temperature ranges from about 17 C(62.6 F) in the central highlands, where frost may occur for several days in the winter, to a maximum of approximately 33 C (91.4 F) in other lowaltitude areas. The average yearly temperature ranges from 28 C(82.4 F) to nearly 31 C (87.8 F). Day and night temperatures may vary by 14 [138] C (57.2 F) to 18 C (64.4 F). Rainfall pattern of the country is influenced by Monsoon winds from the Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal. The "wet zone" and some of the windward slopes of the central highlands receive up to 2,500 millimetres (98.4 in) of rain each month, but the leeward slopes in the east and northeast receive little rain. Most of the east, southeast, and northern parts of the country comprise the "dry zone", which receives between 1,200 mm (47 in) and [139] 1,900 mm (75 in) of rain annually. The arid northwest and southeast coasts receive the least amount of rain at 800 mm (31 in) to 1,200 mm (47 in) per year. Periodic squalls occur and sometimes tropical cyclonesbring overcast skies and rains to the southwest, northeast, and eastern parts of the [140] island. Humidity is typically higher in the southwest and mountainous areas and depends on the seasonal patterns of rainfall. Longest of the 103 rivers in the country is Mahaweli River, covering a distance of 335 kilometres (208 mi). These waterways give rise to 51 natural [142] waterfalls, having a height of 10 meters or more. The highest one isBambarakanda Falls, with a height of 263 metres (863 ft). Sri Lanka's coastline [143] is 1,585 km long. It claims to an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) extending 200 nautical miles. This is approximately 6.7 times the country's land area. The coastline and adjacent waters support highly productive marine ecosystems such as fringing coral reefs, shallow beds of coastal and estuarine seagrasses.[144] Sri Lanka inherits 45 estuaries and 40 lagoons too.[143] Country's mangrove ecosystem which spans over 7,000 hectares, played a vital role in buffering the force in the waves of 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami.[145] The island is rich with minerals such asIlmenite, Feldspar, Graphite, Silica, Kaolin, Mica and Thorium.[146][147] Existence of Petroleum in the Gulf of Mannar has also been confirmed and extraction attempts are underway.[148] [edit]Flora
[141]

and fauna

Main articles: Environment of Sri Lanka and Wildlife of Sri Lanka

Sri Lankan Elephant is one of three recognized subspecies of the Asian Elephant, and native to Sri Lanka. According to the 2011 elephant census, the country is home to at least 5879 elephants.[149]

Lying within the Indomalaya ecozone, Sri Lanka is one of the 25 biodiversity hotspots in the world.[150] Although the country is relatively small in size, it has the highest biodiversity per 10,000 square km inAsia.[151] Remarkably high proportion of the species among its flora and fauna, 27% of the 3,210 flowering plants and 22% of the mammals (see List), are endemic.[152] Sri Lanka has declared 24 wildlife reserves, which are home to a wide range of native species such as Asian elephants, leopards, sloth bears, the unique small loris, a variety of deer, the purple-faced langur, the endangered wild boar, porcupinesand anteaters.[153]

The Sri Lankan Leopard (Panthera pardus kotiya) is an endangered subspecies of leopard native to Sri Lanka.

Varieties of flowering acacias are well adapted to the arid conditions and flourish on the Jaffna Peninsula. Among the trees of the dry-land forests, are some valuable species such as satinwood, ebony, ironwood,mahogany and teak. In the wet zone, the dominant vegetation of the lowlands is a tropical evergreen forest, with tall trees, broad foliage, and a dense undergrowth of vines and creepers. Subtropical evergreen forests resembling those [154] of temperate climates flourish in the higher altitudes. The Yala National Park in the southeast protects herds of elephant, deer, and peacocks, and the Wilpattu National Park, the largest national park in Sri Lanka, in the northwest preserves the habitats of many water birds, such as storks, pelicans, ibis, and spoonbills. The island has four biosphere [155] reserves, Bundala, Hurulu Forest Reserve, the Kanneliya-Dediyagala-Nakiyadeniya, and Sinharaja. Out of these, Sinharaja forest reserve is home to 26 endemic birds and 20 rainforest species, including the elusive Red-faced Malkoha, Green-billed Coucal and Sri Lanka Blue Magpie. The untapped genetic potential of Sinharaja flora is enormous. Out of the 211 woody trees and lianas so far identified within the reserve, 139 (66%) are endemic. The Total vegetation density, including trees, shrubs, herbs and seedlings has been estimated to be around 240,000 individuals per hectare. In addition, Sri Lanka is home to over 250 types of resident birds (see List). It has declared several bird sanctuaries including Kumana. During the 2 Mahaweli Program of the 1970s and 1980s in northern Sri Lanka, the government set aside four areas of land totalling 1,900 km (730 sq mi) as [157][158] national parks. However the country's forest cover, which was around 49% in 1920, had been fallen to approximately 24% by 2009.
[156]

Politics
Main article: Politics of Sri Lanka

The old parliament building of Sri Lanka, near the Galle Face Green, now thePresidential Secretariat.

Sri Lanka is the oldest democracy in South Asia.[159][160] The Donoughmore Constitution, drafted by the Donoughmore Commission in 1931 enabled general elections with adult universal suffrage (universal adult franchise) in the country.[161] It was the first time a non-caucasian country within the empires of Western Europe was given one man, one vote and the power to control domestic affairs. The first election under the universal adult franchise, held in June 1931, for the Ceylon State Council.[159] SirD. B. Jayatilaka was elected as the Leader of the House.[162] In 1944, the Soulbury Commission was appointed to draft a new constitution. During this time, struggle for Independence was fought on "constitutionalist" lines under the leadership of D. S. Senanayake.[163] The draft constitution was enacted in the same year and Senanayake was appointed as the Prime Minister from the parliamentary election in 1947. The Soulbury constitution ushered in Dominion status and Independence to Sri Lanka in 1948.[161] Current politics in Sri Lanka is a contest between two rival coalitions led by the centre-leftist and progressivist United People's Freedom Alliance (UPFA), an offspring of Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP), and the comparatively right-wing and pro-capitalistUnited National Party (UNP).[164] Sri Lanka is essentially a multi-party democracy with many smaller Buddhist, socialist and Tamil nationalist political parties. As of July 2011, the number of registered political parties in the country is 67.[165] Out of these, the Lanka Sama Samaja Party (LSSP), established in 1935 is the oldest.[166] UNP, established by D. S. Senanayake in 1946, was considered to be the largest single political party until recently. [167] It is the only political group which had a representation in all parliaments since the independence.[167] SLFP was founded by S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike, who was the Cabinet minister of Local Administration, before he left the UNP in July 1951.[168] SLFP registered its first victory in 1956, defeating the ruling UNP in 1956 Parliamentary election.[168] Following the parliamentary election in July 1960, Sirimavo Bandaranaike became the prime minister and the world's first elected female head of state.[169] G. G. Ponnambalam, the Tamil nationalist counterpart of S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike,[170] founded the All Ceylon Tamil Congress (ACTC) in 1944. As an objection to Ponnambalam's cooperation with D. S. Senanayake, a dissident group led by S.J.V. Chelvanayakam broke away in 1949 and formed the Illankai Tamil Arasu Kachchi (ITAK) aka Federal Party. It was the main Tamil political party in Sri Lanka for next 2 decades.[171] Federal party advocated a more aggressive stance vis--vis the Sinhalese.[172] With the constitutional reforms of 1972, these parties created a common front, the Tamil United Front (later Tamil United Liberation Front). Tamil National Alliance, formed in October 2001 is the current successor of these Tamil political parties which had undergone much turbulences as Tamil militants' rise to power in late 1970s.[172][173] Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna, a MarxistLeninist political party, founded by Rohana Wijeweera in 1965, serves as the 3rd force in the current political context.[174] It endorses radical leftist policies, with respect to the traditionalist leftist politics of LSSP and Communist Party.[172] Founded in 1981, Sri Lanka Muslim Congress is the largest

Muslim political party in Sri Lanka. [edit]Government

[175]

Main articles: Constitution of Sri Lanka and Elections in Sri Lanka Sri Lanka is a democratic, socialist republic and a unitary state which is governed by a semipresidential system, with a mixture of a presidential system and a parliamentary system.[178] It constitutes a parliamentary system governed under theConstitution of Sri Lanka. Most provisions of the Constitution of Sri Lanka can be amended by a two-thirds majority in Parliament of Sri Lanka. However, the amendment of certain basic features such as the clauses on language, religion, and reference to Sri Lanka as a unitary state require both a two-thirds majority and approval at a nation-wide referendum.

National Symbols of Sri Lanka[176][177]

Flag

Lion Flag

Emblem

Gold Lion Passant

Anthem

Sri Lanka Matha

Butterfly

Troides darsius

Bird

Sri Lanka Junglefowl

Flower

Red and Blue Water Lily

Tree

Ceylon Ironwood (N)

Game

Volleyball

The Supreme Court of Sri Lanka, Colombo

The Sri Lankan government has 3 branches:

Executive: The President of Sri Lanka is the head of state, the commander in chief of the armed forces, as well as head of government, and is popularly elected for a six-year term.[179] In the exercise of duties, the President is responsible to the parliament. The President appoints and heads a cabinet of ministers composed of elected members of parliament.[180] President is immune from legal proceedings while in office in respect of any acts done or omitted to be done by him either in his official or private capacity.[181] With the 18th amendment to the constitution in 2010, the President has no term limit, which previously stood at 2.[182]

Legislative: The Parliament of Sri Lanka, is a unicameral 225-member legislature with 196 members elected in multiseat constituencies and 29 by proportional representation.[183] Members are elected by universal (adult) suffrage based on a modified proportional representation system by district to a six-year term. The president may summon, suspend, or end a legislative session and dissolve Parliament any time after it has served for one year. The parliament reserves the power to make all laws. [184] President's deputy, the Prime Minister, leads the ruling party in parliament and shares many executive responsibilities, mainly in domestic affairs. Judicial: Sri Lanka's judiciary consists of a Supreme Court - the highest and final superior court of record,[184] a Court of Appeal, High Courts and a number of subordinate courts. Its highly complex legal system reflects diverse cultural influences.[185]The Criminal law is almost entirely based on British law. Basic Civil law relates to the Roman law and Dutch law. Laws pertaining to marriage, divorce, and inheritance are communal.[186] Due to ancient customary practices and/or religion, the Sinhala customary law (Kandyan law), the Thesavalamai and the Sharia law too are followed on special cases.[187] The President appoints judges to the Supreme Court, the Court of Appeal, and the High Courts. A judicial service commission, composed of the Chief Justice and two Supreme Court judges, appoints, transfers, and dismisses lower court judges.

[edit]Administrative

divisions

Bay of Bengal Palk Strait Northern Province Gulf of Mannar North Central Province North Western Province Eastern Province Central Province Uva Province Western Province Sabaragamuwa Province Southern Province Indian Ocean

Main articles: Provinces of Sri Lanka, Districts of Sri Lanka, and Divisional Secretariats of Sri Lanka See also: List of cities in Sri Lanka and List of towns in Sri Lanka For administrative purposes, Sri Lanka is divided into 9 provinces Provinces Provinces (Sinhala: Tamil: ) have existed in Sri Lanka since the 19th century. But they didn't have any legal status until 1987 when
[188]

and 25 districts.

[189]

the 13th Amendment to the 1978 Constitution of Sri Lanka established provincial councils following several decades of increasing demand for a decentralisation of the Government of Sri Lanka.[190] The provincial council is an autonomous body and is not under any Ministry. It undertakes activities which had earlier been undertaken by the Central Government Ministries, Departments, Corporations and Statutory Authorities.[190] But importantly, land and police authorities are not given to provincial councils in practice.[191][192] Between 1988 and 2006, the Northern and Eastern provinces were temporarily merged to form the North-East Province.[193][194] Prior to 1987, all administrative tasks were handled by a district-based civil service which had been in place since colonial times. Now each province is administered by a directly elected provincial council:
Administrative Divisions of Sri Lanka Area (sq mi) 5,674 9,996 10,714 8,884 7,812 4,902 5,559 8,488 3,709 2,191 3,859 4,137 3,430 3,016 1,893 2,146 3,277 1,432

Province

Capital

Area (km)

Population

Central Eastern North Central Northern North Western Sabaragamuwa Southern Uva Western

Kandy Trincomalee Anuradhapura Jaffna Kurunegala Ratnapura Galle Badulla Colombo

2,423,966 1,460,939 1,104,664 1,311,776 2,169,892 1,801,331 2,278,271 1,177,358 5,361,200

Districts and local authorities Sri Lanka is also divided into 25 districts (Sinhala: sing. Tamil: ).[195] Each district is administered under a District

Secretariat. The districts are further subdivided into 256 divisional secretariats, and these in turn, to approximately 14,008 Grama Niladhari divisions.[196] The Districts are known in Sinhala as Disa and in Tamil as Mwaddam. Originally a Disa (usually rendered into English as Dissavony) was a duchy, notably Matale and Uva. The Government Agent, who is known as District Secretary, administers a district. There are 3 other types of local authorities: Municipal Councils (18), Urban councils (13) and Pradeshiya Sabha (aka Pradesha Sabhai, 256).[197] Local authorities were originally based on the feudal counties named korale andrata, and were formerly known as 'D.R.O. divisions' after the 'Divisional Revenue Officer'.[198] Later the D.R.O.s became 'Assistant Government Agents' and the divisions were known as 'A.G.A. divisions'. These Divisional Secretariats are currently administered by a 'Divisional Secretary'.

Largest cities of Sri Lanka (2010 Department of Census and Statistics estimate)[199]
Cit Cit Provi nce Po p. Ra nk y Na me Western 685,246 11 Batticaloa Eastern 97,648 Provi nce Po p.

Ra view nk

y Na me

view

Colombo

Dehiwalatalk 2 Mount Lavinia Western 234,559 12 Katunayake Western 92,469

talk

3 edit 4 5

Moratuwa Negombo Trincomale e Kotte Kandy Vavuniya Kalmunai

Western Western Eastern

204,849 144,995 126,902

13 14 15

Battaramull a Jaffna Dambulla Maharagam a Dalugama Kotikawatta Anuradhap ura

Western Northern Central

85,348 84,416 77,148

edit

6 7 8 9 Colombo

Western Central Northern Eastern

126,872 120,087 108,834 104,985

16 17 18 19

Western Western Western North Central

75,127 74,428 72,858 68,244

Galle

10

Galle

Southern

97,807

20

Kolonnawa

Western

64,707

Kandy Jaffna

[edit]Critism

of the government

[edit]Foreign

relations and military

Main articles: Foreign relations of Sri Lanka and Sri Lanka Armed Forces See also: South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation and Non-Aligned Movement

President Mahinda Rajapaksa withRussian President Dmitry Medvedev, at St. Petersburg Economic Forum, in June 2011.

Since its independence in 1948, Sri Lanka has maintained and expanded relationships with most of the countries in the world. Analysis of its foreign relationships helps to recognise two most important traits. One is its commitment in principle to nonalignment, being a founding member of the NonAligned Movement (NAM). Second one is the attempt to preserve satisfactory relations with India without sacrificing its independence.[200] It became a member of the United Nations in 1955. Sri Lanka also is a member of the Commonwealth, the SAARC, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Asian Development Bank and the Colombo Plan. Sri Lanka continues its active participation in the NAM, while also stressing the importance it places on regionalism by playing a strong role in SAARC. One of the two parties that have governed Sri Lanka since its independence, UNP, is traditionally biased towards the West, with respect to its leftleaning counterpart, SLFP.[200] Sri Lankan Finance Minister J. R. Jayewardene, together with the then Australian Foreign Minister Sir Percy Spencer, proposed the Colombo Plan at Commonwealth Foreign Minister's Conference held in Colombo in 1950.[201] In a remarkable move, Sri Lanka spoke in defence for a free Japan, while many countries were reluctant to allow a free Japan, at the San Francisco Peace Conference in 1951, and refused to

accept the payment of reparations for that damage it had done to the country during World War II, that would harm Japan's economy. Sri Lanka[203] China relations started as soon as the PRC was formed in 1949. Two countries signed an important Rice-Rubber Pact in 1952. Sri Lanka played a [204] vital role in AsianAfrican Conference in 1955, which was an important step toward the crystallization of the NAM. The Bandaranaike government of 1956 significantly digressed from the pro-western policies of UNP government. Sri Lanka immediately recognised the new Cuba under Fidel Castro in [205] [206] 1959. Shortly after, Cuba's legendary revolutionary Ernesto Che Guevara paid a visit to Sri Lanka. The Sirima-Shastri Pact of 1964 and Sirima[207] Gandhi Pact of 1974 were signed between Sri Lankan and Indian leaders in an attempt to solve the long standing dispute over the status [208] of plantation workers of Indian origin. In 1974, Kachchatheevu, a small island in Palk Strait was formally ceded to Sri Lanka. By this time, Sri Lanka [209] was strongly involved in the NAM and Colombo held the fifth NAM summit of 1976. The relationship between Sri Lanka and India became tensed [122][210] under the government of J. R. Jayawardene. As a result, India intervened in Sri Lankan Civil War and subsequently deployed the Indian Peace [211] [212] [213] [214] Keeping Force in 1987. In the present, Sri Lanka enjoys extensive relations with China, Russia and Pakistan.

[202]

Boats belonging to the Sri Lanka Navy

The Sri Lanka Armed Forces, comprising the Sri Lanka Army, the Sri Lanka Navy and the Sri Lanka Air Force, comes under the purview of the Ministry of Defence (MoD).[215] The total strength of the three services is around 259,000 personnel, with nearly 36,000 reserves.[216] Sri Lanka has not enforced military conscription.[217] Paramilitary units include the Special Task Force, the Civil Security Force and the Sri Lanka Coast Guard[218][219] Since independence from Britain in 1948, the primary focus of the armed forces has been on internal security, due to three major insurgencies, two by Marxist militants of the JVP and a 30 year long conflict with the LTTE which has been proscribed as aterrorist organisation by 32 countries. Due to these conflicts, the armed forces had expanded to its current size and are in a continuous mobilized state for the last 30 years. [220] Marking a rare occurrence in modern military history, Sri Lankan military was able to bring a decisive end to the Sri Lankan Civil War in May 2009.[221] Sri Lanka [222] claimed itself the first country in the modern world to eradicate terrorism on its own soil. Sri Lankan Armed Forces have engaged in United Nations peacekeepingoperations since the early 1960s. It has contributed with forces as permanent contingents deployed in several UN peacekeeping missions in Chad, Lebanon and Haiti.[223] [edit]Economy Main article: Economy of Sri Lanka See also: Tea production in Sri Lanka, Tourism in Sri Lanka, and Transport in Sri Lanka According to the International Monetary Fund, Sri Lanka has a yearly gross domestic output of US$64 billion as of 2012. [5] It has a GDP of US$158 billion in terms of purchasing power parity. Sri Lanka is next only to Maldives in the South Asian region in terms of per capita income, with a nominal value of US$2,435 and PPP value of US$5,220.[5] It recorded a GDP growth of 8.2% in 2010 and it is estimated that GDP will grow by 9.5% in 2011, becoming one of the fastest growing economies of the world.[5] Colombo Stock Exchange was the best performing stock exchange in Asia in 2009 and 2010, by almost tripling in value during that time.[19]

The Colombo World Trade Center in Colombo. Presidential Secretariat, Bank of Ceylon and Galadhari Hotel are also visible in the image.

In the 19th and 20th centuries, Sri Lanka became a plantation economy, famous for its production and export of cinnamon, rubber and Ceylon tea, [224] which remains a trademark national export. The development of modern ports under British rule raised the strategic importance of the island as a [225] centre of trade. From 1948 to 1977 socialism strongly influenced the government's economic policies. Colonial plantations were dismantled, industries were nationalised and a welfare state established. In 1977 the Free market economy was introduced to the country, [115] incorporating privatisation, deregulation and the promotion of private enterprise. While the production and export of tea, rubber, coffee, sugar and other agricultural commodities remains important, the nation has moved steadily towards an industrialised economy with the development of food processing, textiles, telecommunicationsand finance. Main economic sectors of the country are tourism, tea export, clothing, rice production and other agricultural products. In addition to these economic sectors, overseas employment [226] contributes highly in foreign exchange, most of them from the Middle East. As of 2010, service sector makes up 60% of GDP, industrial sector 28% [226] [227] [228] and agriculture sector 12%. Private sector accounts for 85% of the economy. India is the largest trading partner of Sri Lanka. Economic disparies exist between the provinces, with Western province contributing to 45.1% of the GDP, Southern province and Central province, 10.7% and [229] [230] 10% respectively. With the end of the war, Northern province reported a record 22.9% GDP growth in 2010.

Sri Lanka's most widely known export,Ceylon tea, which is considered the "cleanest" tea in the world. Sri Lanka is also the world's 2nd largest exporter of tea.[231]

The per capita income of Sri Lanka has doubled since 2005.[232] During the same period, poverty has dropped from 15.2% to 7.6%, unemployment has dropped from 7.2% to 4.9%, market capitalization of CSEhas quadrupled and budget deficit has doubled.[226] 90% of the households in Sri Lanka are electrified, 87.3% of the population have access to safe drinking water and 39% have access to pipe-borne water.[226]Income inequality has also dropped in recent years, indicated by a gini coefficient of 0.36 in 2010.[6] Sri Lanka's cellular subscriber base has shown a staggering 550% growth, from 2005 to 2010.[226] Sri Lanka was the first country in the South Asian region to introduce 3G (Third Generation), 3.5G HSDPA, 3.75G HSUPA and [233] 4G LTE mobile broadband Internet technologies. The Global Competitiveness Report published by the World Economic Forum has listed Sri Lanka as a transitive economy, from factor-driven stage to efficiency-driven stage, ranking 52nd in the global competitiveness.[234] It also ranked 45th in health and primary education, 32nd in business sophistication, 42nd in innovation and 41st in goods market efficiency out of the 142 countries surveyed. Sri Lanka ranks 8th in the World Giving Index, registering high levels of contentment and charitable behaviour in its society.[235] In 2010, The New York Times placed Sri Lanka at number 1 position in 31 places to visit.[236] Dow Jones classified Sri Lanka as anemerging market in 2010, and Citigroup classified it as a 3G country in February 2011.[237] Sri Lanka ranks well above other South Asian countries in Human Development Index (HDI) with 0.658 points.[238] Although poverty has reduced by 50% during last 5 years, malnutrition remains a problem among children. 29% of the children under 5 years of age are reported to be underweight.[239] Nearly 58% of infants between 6 and 11 months and 38% of children between 12 and 23 months are anaemic. While Dengue remains the major infectious disease,[240] non-communicable diseasees (NCDs) account for 85% of ill health, disability and early death in Sri Lanka.[241] Sri Lankans have a life expectancy of 77.9 years at birth, which is 10% higher than the world average.[226] Infant mortality rate stands at 8.5 per 1000 births and maternal mortality rate at 0.39 per 1000 births, which is in par with figures of the developed countries. The universal, "propoor"[242] health care system adopted by the country has contributed much towards these figures.[243]

Southern Lanka Express Highway is Sri Lanka's first E Class highway.

Sri Lanka has a A and B class road network exceeding 12,000 kilometres (7,460 mi).[244] It consists of 35 A grade highways and an expressway, connecting major cities. In addition, several other expressways are being built.[245] The railway network, operated by the state-run national railway operator, Sri Lanka Railways, spans 1,447 kilometres (900 mi).[246] Sri Lanka also has three deep-water ports, at Colombo, Galle, and Trincomalee, in addition to the newest port being built at Hambantota. Its flag carrier airline is the SriLankan Airlines.

Demographics

Population growth in Sri Lanka

Main article: Demographics of Sri Lanka See also: Ethnic groups in Sri Lanka, Languages of Sri Lanka, and Religion in Sri Lanka Sri Lanka is the 53rd most populated nation in the world, with an annual population growth rate of 0.73%.[247] Sri Lanka has a birth rate of 17.6 births per 1,000 people and a death rate of 6.2 deaths per 1,000 people.[226] Population density is highest in western Sri Lanka, especially in and around the capital. Sinhalese constitute the largest ethnic group in the country, with 74% of the total population.[215] Sri Lankan Tamils are the second major ethnic group in the island, with a percentage of 12.6. Sri Lankan Moors comprise 7.4%. Tamils of Indian origin were brought into the country as indentured labourers by British colonists to work on estate plantations. Nearly 50% of them were repatriated following independence in 1948,[248] They are distinguished from the native Tamil population that has resided in Sri Lanka since ancient times. There are also small ethnic groups such as the Burghers (of mixed European descent) and Austronesian peoples from Southeast Asia. Moreover, there is a small population of Vedda people who are believed to be the original indigenous group to inhabit the island.[249]

Temple of the Tooth is the focal point ofBuddhism in Sri Lanka, 16th century.

Sinhalese and Tamil are the two official languages of Sri Lanka.[250] The Constitution defines English as the link language. English is widely used for education, scientific and commercial purposes. Members of the Burgher community speak variant forms of Portuguese Creole and Dutch with varying proficiency, while members of the Malay community speak a form of Creole Malay that is unique to the island.[251] Sri Lanka is also a multi-religious country. Buddhism constitutes the religious faith of about 70% of the population of the island,[252] most of whom follow the Theravada school of Buddhism.[253]Buddhism was introduced to Sri Lanka in the 2nd century BCE by Venerable Mahinda.[253] A sapling of the Bodhi Tree under which the Buddha attained enlightenment was brought to Sri Lanka during the same time. The Pali Canon (Thripitakaya), having previously been preserved as an oral tradition, was first committed to writing in Sri Lanka around 30 BCE.[254] Sri Lanka has the longest continuous history of Buddhism of any predominately Buddhist nation,[253] with the Sangha having existed in a largely unbroken lineage since its introduction in the 2nd century BCE. During periods of decline, the Sri Lankan monastic lineage was revived through contact with Thailand and Burma.[254]

The Nallur Kandaswamy Kovil, Jaffna is one of the most sacred places for Hinduism in Sri Lanka, 10th century.

Hinduism is the second most prevalent religion in Sri Lanka which also arrived from India. Hinduism is dominant in Northern, Eastern and Central Sri Lanka.[255] Islam is the third most dominant religion in the country, having first been brought to the island by Arab traders over the course of many centuries, most are Sunni who follow the Shafi'i school.[256] Most followers of Islam in Sri Lanka today are believed to be descendants of these Arab traders and the local women they married. In addition about 5% of the followers of Islam in the country comprise of Malays who descend from Malay Military regiments brought to the country during British colonial rule and political exiles from Indonesian islands and Malay peninsula during the same colonial period.
Sri Lanka religiosity
religion percent

Buddhism Hinduism Islam Christianity

69% 15% 8% 8%

Source: David, 1993[257]

Christianity was also brought into the country by Western colonists in the early 16th century.[258] Around 8% of the Sri Lankan population are Christians. Out of them, 88% are Roman Catholics, who trace their religious heritage directly to the Portuguese. Rest of the Christians are evenly split between the Anglican Church of Ceylon and other Protestant faiths.[259] There is also a small population ofZoroastrian immigrants from India (Parsis) who settled in Ceylon during the period of British rule.[260] But the community has steadily dwindled in recent years.[261] Religion plays a prominent role in the life and culture of Sri Lankans. The Buddhist majority observe Poya Days, once per month according to the Lunar calendar. The Hindus and Muslims also observe their own holidays. Sri Lanka was ranked the 3rd most religious country in the world by a 2008 Gallup poll, with 99% of Sri Lankans saying religion is an important part of their daily life.[262] [edit]Culture Main article: Culture of Sri Lanka

Hindu Devotess engaing in 'Kavadi' at a Vavuniya temple.

The culture of Sri Lanka dates back over 2500 years.[263] It is influenced primarily by Buddhism and Hinduism.[264] According to Islamic folklore, Adam and Eve were offered refuge on the island as solace for their expulsion from the Garden of Eden.[265]The island is the home to two main traditional cultures: the Sinhalese (centred in the ancient cities of Kandy and Anuradhapura) and the Tamil (centred in the city of Jaffna). In more recent times, the British colonial culture has also influenced the locals. Sri Lanka claims a democratic tradition matched by few other developing countries. [265]

The first Tamil immigration was probably around the 3rd century BC. Tamils co-existed with the Sinhalese people since then, and the early mixing [266] rendered the two ethnic groups almost physically indistinct. Ancient Sri Lanka is marked for its genius in hydraulic engineering and architecture. The rich cultural traditions shared by all Sri Lankan cultures is the basis of the country's long life expectancy, advanced health standards and high literacy [265] rate. [edit]Food

[264]

and festivals

Main articles: Cuisine of Sri Lanka, List of Sri Lankan sweets and desserts, and Festivals in Sri Lanka

Traditional dish of Kiribath with lunumiris

The customary diet in Sri Lanka are rice and curry, pittu (mixture of fresh rice meal, lightly roasted and mixed with fresh grated coconut, then steamed in a bamboo mould), Kiribath (cooked in thick coconut cream for this unsweetened rice-pudding which is accompanied by a sharp chili relish called "lunumiris"), Roti (made from stoneground wholemeal flour, traditionally known as Atta flour), String hoppers (prepared by mixing rice flour with hot water and salt), wattalapam (rich pudding of Malay origin made of coconut milk, jaggery, cashew nuts, eggs, and various spices including cinnamon cloves and nutmeg), kottu,hoppers ("appa"), etc.[267] Jackfruit may replace rice and curries at times. Traditional meals are usually served on plantain leaf. Middle Eastern influences and practices are found in traditional Moor dishes. While Dutch and Portuguese influences are found with the island's Burgher community preserving their culture through traditional favourites such as Lamprais (rice cooked in stock and baked in a banana leaf), Breudher (Dutch Christmas cake) and Bolo Fiado (Portuguese-style layer cake). Every year in mid April, Sri Lankans celebrate the Sinhalese and Hindu new year festival.[268] In addition, Esala Perahera, a symbolic Buddhist festival consisting of dances and richly decorated elephants, is held in Kandy, during the month of August.[269]Fire-dances, whip-dances, Kandian dances and various other cultural dances are integral parts of the festival. Tamils celebrate Thai Pongal, Maha Shivaratri and Muslims celebrate Hajj, Ramadan in their respective days of the year. [edit]Visual,

literary and performing arts

Main articles: Cinema of Sri Lanka, Music of Sri Lanka, Dances of Sri Lanka, Theatre of Sri Lanka, and Sri Lankan literature

A view of the Kandy Esala Perahera.

The movie Kadawunu Poronduwa (The broken promise), produced by S. M. Nayagam of Chitra Kala Movietone, heralded the coming of Sri Lankan cinema in 1947. Ranmuthu Duwa (Island of treasures, 1962) marked the transition cinema from black-and-white to color. It in the recent years has featured subjects such as family melodrama, social transformation and the years of conflict between the military and the LTTE.[270] Their cinematic style is similar to the Bollywood movies. In 1979, movie attendance rose to an all-time high, but recoded a gradual downfall since then.[271] Undoubtedly the most influential and revolutionary filmmaker in the history of Sri Lankan cinema is Lester James Peiris, who has directed a number of movies which led to global acclaim, including Rekava (Line of destiny, 1956), Gamperaliya (The changing village, 1964), Nidhanaya (The treasure, 1970) and Golu Hadawatha (Cold heart, 1968).[272]

The earliest music in Sri Lanka came from theatrical performances such as Kolam, Sokari and Nadagam. Traditional music instruments such as Bra, Thammtama, Dala and Rbn were performed at these dramas. The first music album, Nurthi, was released through Radio Ceylon, in 1903. Songwriters like Mahagama Sekara and Ananda Samarakoon and musicians such as W. D. Amaradeva, H. R. Jothipala and Clarence [274] Wijewardene have contributed much towards the upliftment of Sri Lankan music. Baila is another popular music genre in the country, originated [275] among Kaffirs or the or Afro-Sinhalese community.

[273]

A Low Country drummer, playing the traditional Yak Bra.

There are three main styles of Sri Lankan classical dance. They are, the Kandyan dances, low country dances and Sabaragamuwa dances. Out of these, the Kandyan style, which flourished under kings of the Kingdom of Kandy, is more prominent. It is a sophisticated form of dance,[276] that consists of five sub-categories: Ves dance, Naiyandi dance, Udekki dance, Pantheru dance and 18 Vannam.[277] An elaborate headdress is worn by the male dancers and a drum called Geta Braya is used to assist the dancer to keep on rhythm.[276] In addition, four folk drama variants named Sokri,Kolam, Nadagam, Pasu, and several devil dance variants such as Sanni Yakuma and Kohomba Kankariya can be also observed.[277]

An example of Sri Lankan handicrafts.

The history of Sri Lankan painting and sculpture can be traced as far back as to the 2nd or 3rd century BC.[278] The earliest mention about the art of painting on Mahavamsa, is to the drawing of a palace on cloth using cinnabar in the 2nd century BC. The chronicles have description of various paintings in relic-chambers of Buddhist stupas, and in monastic residence. Theatre moved into the country when a Parsi company from Mumbai introduced Nurti, a blend of European and Indian theatrical conventions to the Colombo audience in 19th century.[277] The golden age of Sri Lankan drama and theatre began with the staging of Maname, a play written by Ediriweera Sarachchandra in 1956.[279] It was followed by a series of popular dramas like Sinhabhu, Pabvat,Mahsra, Muudu Puththu and Subha saha Yasa. The history of Sri Lankan literature runs at least two millennia back, and is heir to the Aryan literary tradition as embodied in the hymns of the Rigveda.[280] The Pli Canon, the standard collection ofscriptures in the Theravada Buddhist tradition, was written down in Sri Lanka during the Fourth Buddhist council, at the Alulena cave temple, Kegalle, as early as 29 BC.[281] Ancient chronicles such as Mahvamsa, which was written in 6th century provide vivid descriptions of Sri Lankan dynasty. According to the German philosopher Wilhelm Geiger, the chronicles are based on Sinhala Atthakatha (commentary), that dates few more centuries back.[280] The oldest surviving prose work is the Dhampiya-Atuva-Getapadaya, compiled in the 9th century.[280] The greatest literary feats of medieval Sri Lanka include Sandesha Kvya (poetic messages) such as Gir Sandeshaya (Parrot message), Hansa Sandeshaya (Swan message) and Salalihini Sandeshaya (Myna message). Poetry including Kavsilumina, Kavya-Sekharaya (diadem of poetry) and proses such as Saddharma-Ratnvaliya, Amvatura (Flood of nectar) and Pujvaliya are also notable works of this period, which is considered to be the golden age of Sri Lankan literature. [280] The first modern-day novel, Meena, a work of Simon de Silva appeared in 1905,[277] and was followed by a number of revolutionary literary works. Martin Wickramasinghe, the author of Madol Doova is considered the iconic figure of Sri Lankan literature.[282] [edit]Education Main article: Education in Sri Lanka

Sarachchandra open air theatre ofUniversity of Peradeniya,named in memory of Ediriweera Sarachchandra, Sri Lanka's premium playwright.

With a literacy rate of 92.5%, Sri Lanka has one of the most literate populations amongst developing nations. Its youth literacy rate stands at [284] [285] [286] 98%, computer literacy rate at 35%, and primary school enrolment rate at over 99%. An education system which dictates 9 years of compulsory schooling for every child is in place. The free education system established in 1945,[287] is a result of the initiative of C. W. W. Kannangara and A. Ratnayake.[285][288] It is one of the few countries in the world that provides universal free education from primary to tertiary stage.[289] Kannangara led the establishment of the Madhya Maha Vidyalayas (Central Schools) in different parts of the country in order to provide education to Sri Lanka's rural children.[285] In 1942 a special education committee proposed extensive reforms to establish an efficient and quality education system for the people. However in the 1980s changes to this system saw the separation the of administration of schools between the central government and the provincial government. Thus the elite National Schools are controlled directly by the Ministry of Education and the provincial schools by the provincial government. Sri Lanka has approximately 9675 government schools, 817 private schools and Pirivenas.[226] The number of public universities in Sri Lanka is 15.[290] However, lack of responsiveness of the education system to labor market requirements, disparities in access to quality education, lack of an effective linkage between secondary and tertiary education remain major challenges for the education sector.[291] A number of private, degree awarding institutions have emerged in recent times to fill in these gaps. But still, the participation at tertiary level education hovers around 5.1%.[292] [edit]Sports Main article: Sport in Sri Lanka

[226]

[283]

Sri Lankan cricket team practicing ahead of a Twenty20 match against Australia atPallekele Cricket Stadium, August 2011.

While the national sport in Sri Lanka is volleyball, by far the most popular sport in the country is cricket.[293] Rugby union also enjoys extensive popularity,[294] as do aquatic sports, athletics, football (soccer) and tennis. Sri Lanka's schools and colleges regularly organise sports and athletics teams, competing on provincial and national levels. The Sri Lanka national cricket team achieved considerable success beginning in the 1990s, rising from underdog status to winning the 1996 Cricket [295] [296] [297] [298] World Cup. They also became the runners up of the Cricket World Cup in 2007, 2011. and of the ICC World Twenty20 in 2009. Former Sri Lankan off-spinner, Muttiah Muralitharan has been rated as the greatest Test match bowler ever by Wisden Cricketers' Almanack.[299] Sri Lanka has won the Asia Cup in 1986,[300] 1997,[301] 2004[302] and2008.[303] Current world records for highest team score in all three formats of the game are also held by Sri Lanka.[304] The country co-hosted the Cricket World Cup in 1996 and 2011. Sri Lankans have won two medals at Olympic Games, both silver, by Duncan White at 1948 London Olympics for men's 400 metres hurdles[305] and by Susanthika Jayasinghe at 2000 Sydney Olympics for women's 200 metres.[306] In 1973, Mohammed Lafir won the World Billiards Championship, highest feat of a Sri Lankan in a Cue sport.[307] Aquatic sports such as boating, surfing, swimming, kitesurfing[308] and scuba diving on the coast, the beaches and backwaters attract a large number of Sri Lankans and foreign tourists. There are two styles of martial arts native to Sri Lanka, Cheena di and Angampora.[309] [edit]Media Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation (formerly Radio Ceylon) is the oldest-running radio station in Asia.[310] It was established in 1923 by Edward

Harper just three years after broadcasting was launched in Europe. The station broadcasts services in Sinhalese, Tamil, English and Hindi. Since the 1980s, a large number of private radio stations have also been introduced. Broadcast television was introduced to the country in 1979 when the Independent Television Network was launched. Initially all Television stations were state controlled, but private television networks began [311] broadcasts in 1992. As of 2010, 51 newspapers (30 Sinhala, 10 Tamil, 11 English) are published and 34 TV stations and 52 radio stations are [226] [312] operated in the country. However in the recent years, freedom of the press in Sri Lanka has been widely criticised by media freedom groups. [edit]Human

[310]

rights and media

Main articles: Human rights in Sri Lanka and Media in Sri Lanka Human rights as ratified by the United Nations are guaranteed by the constitution of Sri Lanka. However the human rights in Sri Lanka has also come under criticism by human rights groups such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch,[313] as well as the United States Department of State.[314] Both the separatist Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) and the government of Sri Lanka are accused of violating human rights. A report by an advisory panel to the UN secretary-general has accused both Sri Lankan government and the LTTE on alleged war crimes committed during final stages of the civil war.[315]

****************************************************************************** Australia
Etymology
Pronounced [stlj, -li] in Australian English,[17] the name Australia is derived from the Latin australis, meaning "southern". The country has been referred to colloquially as Oz since the early 20th century.[N 5] Aussie is a common colloquial term for "Australian". In neighbouring New Zealand the term "Aussie" is sometimes applied as a noun to the nation as well as its residents.[22] Legends of Terra Australis Incognitaan "unknown land of the South"date back to Roman times and were commonplace in medieval geography, although not based on any documented knowledge of the continent. Following European discovery, names for the Australian landmass were often references to the famed Terra Australis. The earliest recorded use of the word Australia in English was in 1625 in "A note of Australia del Espritu Santo, written by Sir Richard Hakluyt", published by Samuel Purchas in Hakluytus Posthumus, a corruption of the original Spanish name "Tierra Austral del Espritu Santo" (Southern Land of the Holy Spirit)[23] for an island in Vanuatu.[24] The Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia (Jakarta) in 1638, to refer to [25] the newly discovered lands to the south. Australiawas later used in a 1693 translation of Les Aventures de Jacques Sadeur dans la Dcouverte et le Voyage de la Terre Australe, a 1676 French novel by Gabriel de Foigny, under the pen-name Jacques Sadeur.[26] Referring to the entire South Pacific region, Alexander Dalrymple used it in An Historical Collection of Voyages and Discoveries in the South Pacific Ocean in 1771. By the end of the 18th century, the name was being used to refer specifically to Australia, with the botanists George Shawand Sir James Smith writing of "the vast island, or rather continent, of Australia, Australasia or New Holland" in their 1793 Zoology and Botany of New Holland,[27] and James Wilson including it on a 1799 chart.[28] The name Australia was popularised by the explorer Matthew Flinders, who pushed for it to be formally adopted as early as 1804. When preparing his manuscript and charts for his 1814 A Voyage to Terra Australis, he was persuaded by his patron, Sir Joseph Banks, to use the term Terra Australis as this was the name most familiar to the public. Flinders did so, but allowed himself the footnote: "Had I permitted myself any innovation on the original term, it would have been to convert it to Australia; as being more agreeable to the ear, and an assimilation to the names of the other great portions of the earth."[29] This is the only occurrence of the word Australia in that text; but in Appendix III, Robert Brown's General remarks, geographical and systematical, on the botany of Terra Australis, Brown makes use of the adjectival form Australian throughout,[30]the first known use of that form.[31] Despite popular conception, the book was not instrumental in the adoption of the name: the name came gradually to be accepted over the following ten years.[32] The first time that the name Australia appears to have been officially used was in a despatch to Lord Bathurst of 4 April 1817 in which Governor Lachlan Macquarie acknowledges the receipt of Capt. Flinders' charts of Australia.[33] On 12 December 1817 Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted.[34] In 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia.[35] The first map on which the word Australia occurs was published in St Petersburg in 1824. It is in Krusenstern's "Atlas de l'Ocan Pacifique". [36]

History
Main article: History of Australia

Exploration by Europeans till 1812 1606 Willem Janszoon 1606 Luis Vez de Torres 1616 Dirk Hartog 1619 Frederick de Houtman 1644 Abel Tasman 1696 Willem de Vlamingh 1699 William Dampier 1770 James Cook 17971799 George Bass 18011803 Matthew Flinders

Human habitation of the Australian continent is estimated to have begun between 42,000 and 48,000 years ago,[37] possibly with the migration of people by land bridges and short sea-crossings from what is now South-East Asia. These first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. At the time of European settlement in the late 18th century, most Indigenous Australians were hunter-gatherers, with a complex oral culture and spiritual values based on reverence for the land and a belief in the Dreamtime. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturalists and hunter-gatherers.[38] Following sporadic visits by fishermen from the Malay Archipelago,[39] the first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent were attributed to the Dutch navigatorWillem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula on an unknown date in early 1606, and made landfall on 26 February at the Pennefather River on the western shore of Cape York, near the [40] modern town of Weipa. The Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines of "New Holland" during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement.[40] William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer landed on the north-west coast of Australia in 1688 and again in 1699 on a return trip. In 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast of Australia, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain.[41] Cook's discoveries prepared the way for establishment of a new penal colony. Captain Arthur Phillip led the First Fleet into Port Jackson on 26 January 1788.[42] This date became Australia's national day, Australia Day. (The British Crown Colony of New South Wales was not formally promulgated until 7 February 1788, but 26 January has entered the popular consciousness as the effective date of its foundation.) Van Diemen's Land, now known as Tasmania, was settled in 1803 and became a separate colony in 1825.[43]The United Kingdom formally claimed the western part of Australia in 1828.[44] Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales: South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, and Queensland in 1859.[45] The Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia.[46] South Australia was founded as a "free province"it was never a penal colony.[47] Victoria and Western Australia were also founded "free", but later accepted transported convicts.[48][49] A campaign by the settlers of New South Wales led to the end of convict transportation to that colony; the last convict ship arrived in 1848.[50]

Port Arthur, Tasmania was Australia's largest gaolfor transported convicts.

The indigenous population, estimated at 750,000 to 1,000,000 at the time of European settlement, declined steeply for 150 years following [52] settlement, mainly due to infectious disease. The "Stolen Generations" (removal of Aboriginal children from their families), which historians such [53] [54] as Henry Reynolds have argued could be considered genocide, may have contributed to the decline in the Indigenous population. Such interpretations of Aboriginal history are disputed by conservative commentators such as former Prime Minister John Howardas exaggerated or [55] [56] fabricated for political or ideological reasons. This debate is known within Australia as the History wars. The Federal government gained the power [57] to make laws with respect to Aborigines following the 1967 referendum. Traditional ownership of landaboriginal titlewas not recognised until 1992, when the High Court case Mabo v Queensland (No 2) overturned the notion of Australia as terra nullius ("land belonging to no one") before [58] European occupation. A gold rush began in Australia in the early 1850s, and the Eureka Rebellion against mining licence fees in 1854 was an early expression of civil disobedience.[60] Between 1855 and 1890, the six colonies individually gained responsible government, managing most of their own affairs while remaining part of the British Empire.[61] The Colonial Office in London retained control of some matters, notably foreign affairs,[62] defence,[63] and international shipping.
[59]

[51]

The Last Post is played at an ANZAC Dayceremony in Port Melbourne, Victoria. Similar ceremonies are held in most suburbs and towns.

On 1 January 1901 federation of the colonies was achieved after a decade of planning, consultation, and voting.[64] The Commonwealth of Australia was established and it became a dominion of the British Empire in 1907. The Federal Capital Territory (later renamed the Australian Capital Territory) was formed in 1911 as the location for the future federal capital of Canberra. Melbourne was the temporary seat of government from 1901 to 1927 while Canberra was constructed.[65] The Northern Territory was transferred from the control of the South Australian government to the federal parliament in 1911.[66] In 1914, Australia joined Britain in fighting World War I, with support from both the outgoing Commonwealth Liberal Party and the incoming Australian Labor Party.[67]Australians took part in many of the major battles fought on the Western Front.[68] Of about 416,000 who served, about 60,000 were killed and another 152,000 were wounded.[69] Many Australians regard the defeat of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZACs) at Gallipoli as the birth of the nationits first major military action.[70][71] The Kokoda Track campaign is regarded by many as an analogous nation-defining event during World War II.[72]

Australia's national flag comprises theUnion Jack, the Commonwealth Star, and theSouthern Cross.

Britain's Statute of Westminster 1931 formally ended most of the constitutional links between Australia and the UK. Australia adopted it in 1942, but it [74][75] was backdated to 1939 to confirm the validity of legislation passed by the Australian Parliament during World War II. The shock of the UK's defeat [76] in Asia in 1942 and the threat of Japanese invasion caused Australia to turn to the United States as a new ally and protector. Since 1951, Australia [77] has been a formal military ally of the US, under the ANZUS treaty. After World War II Australia encouraged immigration from Europe. Since the [78] 1970s and following the abolition of the White Australia policy, immigration from Asia and elsewhere was also promoted. As a result, Australia's [79] demography, culture, and self-image were transformed. The final constitutional ties between Australia and the UK were severed with the passing of the Australia Act 1986, ending any British role in the government of the Australian States, and closing the option of judicial appeals to the Privy [80] Council in London. In a 1999 referendum, 55 per cent of Australian voters and a majority in every Australian state rejected a proposal to become a republic with a president appointed by a two-thirds vote in both Houses of the Australian Parliament. Since the election of the Whitlam Government in [81] 1972, there has been an increasing focus in foreign policy on ties with other Pacific Rim nations, while maintaining close ties with Australia's [82] traditional allies and trading partners.

[73]

Government
Main articles: Government of Australia, Politics of Australia, and Monarchy of Australia

Parliament House, Canberra was opened in 1988, replacing the provisional Parliament House building opened in 1927.

Government House, Canberra, also known as "Yarralumla", is the official residence of the Governor-General.

Julia Gillard, Prime Minister of Australiasince 2010

Australia is a constitutional monarchy with a federal division of powers. It uses a parliamentary system of government with Queen Elizabeth II at its apex as the Queen of Australia, a role that is distinct from her position as monarch of the otherCommonwealth realms. The Queen resides in the United Kingdom, and she is represented by her viceroys in Australia (the Governor-General at the federal level and by the Governors at the state level), who by convention act on the advice of her ministers. Supreme executive authority is vested by the Constitution of Australia in the sovereign, but [83][84] the power to exercise it is conferred by the Constitution specifically to the Governor-General. The most notable exercise of the Governor[85] General's reserve powers outside a Prime Minister's request was the dismissal of the Whitlam Government in the constitutional crisis of 1975. The federal government is separated into three branches:

The legislature: the bicameral Parliament, defined in section 1 of the constitution as comprising the Queen (represented by the GovernorGeneral), the Senate, and the House of Representatives; The executive: the Federal Executive Council, in practice the Governor-General as advised by the Prime Minister and Ministers of State;[86] The judiciary: the High Court of Australia and other federal courts, whose judges are appointed by the Governor-General on advice of the Council.

In the Senate (the upper house), there are 76 senators: twelve each from the states and two each from the mainland territories (the Australian Capital [87] Territory and the Northern Territory). The House of Representatives (the lower house) has 150 members elected from single-member electoral [88] divisions, commonly known as "electorates" or "seats", allocated to states on the basis of population, with each original state guaranteed a minimum of five seats.[89] Elections for both chambers are normally held every three years, simultaneously; senators have overlapping six-year terms except for those from the territories, whose terms are not fixed but are tied to the electoral cycle for the lower house; thus only 40 of the 76 places in the Senate are put to each election unless the cycle is interrupted by a double dissolution.[87] Australia's electoral system uses preferential voting for all lower house elections with the exception of Tasmania and the ACT, which, along with the Senate and most state upper houses, combine it with proportional representation in a system known as the single transferable vote. Voting is compulsory for all enrolled citizens 18 years and over in every jurisdiction,[90] as is enrolment (with the exception of South Australia).[91] The party with majority support in the House of Representatives forms the government and its leader becomes Prime Minister. In cases where no party has majority support, the Governor-General has the power to appoint the Prime Minister, and if necessary dismiss one that has lost the confidence of Parliament.[92] There are two major political groups that usually form government, federally and in the states: the Australian Labor Party, and the Coalition which is a formal grouping of the Liberal Party and its minor partner, the National Party.[93][94] Independent members and several minor partiesincluding the Greens and the Australian Democratshave achieved representation in Australian parliaments, mostly in upper houses. Within Australian political culture, the Coalition is considered centre-right and the Labor Party is considered centre-left. Queensland in particular, along with Western Australia and the Northern Territory, are regarded as comparativelyconservative.[95][96][97][98][99][100] Victoria, South Australia, Tasmania, and the Australian Capital Territory are regarded as comparatively socially liberal.[101][102][103][104] New South Wales has often been regarded as a politically moderate bellweatherstate.[105][106] Following a partyroom leadership challenge, Julia Gillard became the first female Prime Minister in June 2010.[107] The most recent federal election was held on 21 August 2010 and resulted in the first hung parliament in over 50 years. Gillard was able to form a minority Labor government with the support of independents.

States and territories

Main article: States and territories of Australia

A clickable map of Australia's states and mainland territories

Australia has six statesNew South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria, and Western Australiaand two major mainland territoriesthe Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory (ACT). In most respects these two territories function as states, but the Commonwealth Parliament can override any legislation of their parliaments. By contrast, federal legislation overrides state legislation only in areas that are set out in Section 51 of the Australian Constitution; state parliaments retain all residual legislative powers, including those over schools, state police, the state judiciary, roads, public transport, and local government, since these do not fall under the provisions listed in Section 51.[108] Each state and major mainland territory has its own parliamentunicameral in the Northern Territory, the ACT, and Queensland, and bicameral in the other states. The states are sovereign entities, although subject to certain powers of the Commonwealth as defined by the Constitution. The lower houses are known as the Legislative Assembly (the House of Assembly in South Australia and Tasmania); the upper houses are known as the Legislative Council. The head of the government in each state is thePremier, and in each territory the Chief Minister. The Queen is represented in each state by a Governor; and in the Northern Territory, the Administrator.[109] In the Commonwealth, the Queen's representative is the GovernorGeneral.[110] The federal parliament directly administers the following territories:
[86]

Ashmore and Cartier Islands Australian Antarctic Territory Christmas Island and Cocos (Keeling) Islands Coral Sea Islands Heard Island and McDonald Islands Jervis Bay Territory, a naval base and sea port for the national capital in land that was formerly part of New South Wales

Norfolk Island is also technically an external territory; however, under the Norfolk Island Act 1979 it has been granted more autonomy and is governed locally by its own legislative assembly. The Queen is represented by anAdministrator, currently Owen Walsh.[111]

Foreign relations and military

Main articles: Foreign relations of Australia and Australian Defence Force Over recent decades, Australia's foreign relations have been driven by a close association with the United States through the ANZUS pact, and by a desire to develop relationships with Asia and the Pacific, particularly through ASEANand the Pacific Islands Forum. In 2005 Australia secured an inaugural seat at the East Asia Summit following its accession to the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia, and in 2011 attended the Sixth East Asia Summit in Indonesia. Australia is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, in which the Commonwealth Heads of Government meetings provide the main forum for co-operation.[112]

Australian Army soldiers conducting a foot patrol during a joint training exercise with US forces in Shoalwater Bay (2007).

Australia has pursued the cause of international trade liberalisation.[113][114][115] It led the formation of the Cairns Group and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation.[116][117] Australia is a member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and the World Trade [118][119] Organization, and has pursued several major bilateral free trade agreements, most recently theAustralia United States Free Trade Agreement[120] and Closer Economic Relations with New Zealand,[121] with another free trade agreement being negotiated with Chinathe Australia China Free Trade Agreementand Japan,[122] South Korea in 2011,[123][124] AustraliaChile Free Trade Agreement, ASEAN Australia New Zealand Free Trade Area, and the Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership. Along with New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Malaysia and Singapore, Australia is party to the Five Power Defence Arrangements, a regional defence agreement. A founding member country of the United Nations, Australia is strongly committed to multilateralism[125] and maintains an international aid program under which some 60 countries receive assistance. The 200506 budget provides A$2.5 billion for development assistance;[126] as a percentage of GDP, this contribution is less than that recommended in the UN Millennium Development Goals. Australia ranks seventh overall in the Center for Global Development's 2008Commitment to Development Index.[127] Australia's armed forcesthe Australian Defence Force (ADF)comprise the Royal Australian Navy (RAN), the Australian Army and the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF), in total numbering 80,561 personnel (including 55,068 regulars and 25,493 reservists).[128] The titular role of Commanderin-Chief is vested in the Governor-General, who appoints a Chief of the Defence Force from one of the armed services on the advice of the government.[129] Day-to-day force operations are under the command of the Chief, while broader administration and the formulation of defence policy is undertaken by the Minister and Department of Defence. In the 201011 budget, defence spending was A$25.7 billion,[130] representing the 13th largest defence budget.[131] Australia has been involved in UN and regional peacekeeping, disaster relief and armed conflict; it currently has deployed approximately 3,330 defence force personnel in varying capacities to 12 international operations in areas including East Timor, Solomon Islands and Afghanistan.[132]

Geography and climate

Main articles: Geography of Australia, Climate of Australia, and Geology of Australia

Climatic zones in Australia, based on theKppen climate classification.

Australia's landmass of 7,617,930 square kilometres (2,941,300 sq mi)[133] is on the Indo-Australian Plate. Surrounded by the Indian and Pacific oceans,[N 4] it is separated from Asia by the Arafura and Timor seas, with the Coral Sea lying off the Queensland coast, and the Tasman Sea lying between Australia and New Zealand. The world's smallest continent[134] and sixth largest country by total area,[135] Australiaowing to its size and isolationis often dubbed the "island continent",[136] and is sometimes considered the world's largest island.[137] Australia has 34,218 kilometres (21,262

mi) of coastline (excluding all offshore islands), and claims an extensive Exclusive Economic Zone of 8,148,250 square kilometres (3,146,060 [139] sq mi). This exclusive economic zone does not include the Australian Antarctic Territory. Excluding Macquarie Island, Australia lies between latitudes 9 and 44S, and longitudes 112 and 154E. The Great Barrier Reef, the world's largest coral reef, lies a short distance off the north-east coast and extends for over 2,000 kilometres [141] (1,240 mi). Mount Augustus, claimed to be the world's largest monolith, is located in Western Australia. At 2,228 metres (7,310 ft), Mount Kosciuszko on the Great Dividing Range is the highest mountain on the Australian mainland. Even taller are Mawson Peak (at 2,745 metres or 9,006 feet), on the remote Australian territory of Heard Island, and, in the Australian Antarctic Territory, Mount McClintock and Mount Menzies, at 3,492 [142] metres (11,457 ft) and 3,355 metres (11,007 ft) respectively.
[140]

[138]

Everlastings on Mount Hotham, located inVictoria

Australia's size gives it a wide variety of landscapes, with subtropical rain forests in the north-east, mountain ranges in the south-east, south-west and east areas, and a dry desert in its centre.[143] It is the flattest continent,[144] with the oldest and least fertile soils;[145][146] desert or semi-arid land commonly known as the outback makes up by far the largest portion of land.[147] The driest inhabited continent, only its south-east and south-west corners have a temperate climate.[148] The population density, 2.8 inhabitants per square kilometre, is among the lowest in the world,[149] although a large proportion of the population lives along the temperate south-eastern coastline.[150] Eastern Australia is marked by the Great Dividing Range that runs parallel to the coast of Queensland, New South Wales, and much of Victoria although the name is not strictly accurate, as in parts the range consists of low hills and the highlands are typically no more than 1,600 metres [151] (5,249 ft) in height. The coastal uplands and a belt of Brigalow grasslands lie between the coast and the mountains, while inland of the dividing range are large areas of grassland.[151][152] These include the western plains of New South Wales, and the Einasleigh Uplands, Barkly Tableland, and Mulga Lands of inland Queensland. The northern point of the east coast is the tropical rainforested Cape York Peninsula.[153][154][155][156]

Topographic map of Australia

The landscapes of the northern part of the countrythe Top End and the Gulf Country behind the Gulf of Carpentaria, with their tropical climate consist of woodland, grassland, and desert.[157][158][159] At the north-west corner of the continent are the sandstone cliffs and gorges of The Kimberley, and below that the Pilbara. South and inland of these lie more areas of grassland: the Ord Victoria Plain and the Western Australian Mulga shrublands.[160][161][162] At the heart of the country are the uplands of central Australia; prominent features of the centre and south include the inland Simpson, Tirari and Sturt Stony, Gibson,Great Sandy, Tanami, and Great Victoria deserts, with the famous Nullarbor Plain on the southern coast.[163][164][165][166]

The climate of Australia is significantly influenced by ocean currents, including the Indian Ocean Dipole and the El Nio-Southern Oscillation, which is [167][168] correlated with periodic drought, and the seasonal tropical low pressure system that produces cyclonesin northern Australia. These factors induce rainfall to vary markedly from year to year. Much of the northern part of the country has a tropical predominantly summer rainfall (monsoon) [169] [170] [169] climate. The southwest corner of the country has aMediterranean climate. Much of the southeast (including Tasmania) is temperate.

Environment
Main article: Environment of Australia Although most of Australia is semi-arid or desert, it includes a diverse range of habitats from alpine heaths to tropical rainforests, and is recognised as a megadiverse country. Because of the continent's great age, extremely variable weather patterns, and long-term geographic isolation, much of Australia's biota is unique and diverse. About 85 per cent of flowering plants, 84 per cent of mammals, more than 45 per cent of birds, and 89 per cent of in-shore, temperate-zone fish are endemic.[171] Australia has the greatest number of reptiles of any country, with 755 species.[172]

The koala and the eucalyptus form an iconic Australian pair

Australian forests are mostly made up of evergreen species, particularly eucalyptus trees in the less arid regions, wattles replace them in drier regions and deserts as the most dominant species.[173] Among well-known Australian fauna are themonotremes (the platypus and echidna); a host of marsupials, including the kangaroo, koala, and wombat, and birds such as the emu and the kookaburra.[173] Australia is home to many dangerous animals including some of the most venomous snakes in the world.[174] The dingo was introduced by Austronesian people who traded with Indigenous Australians around 3000 BCE.[175] Many plant and animal species became extinct soon after first human settlement,[176] including the Australian megafauna; others have disappeared since European settlement, among them the thylacine.[177][178] Many of Australia's ecoregions, and the species within those regions, are threatened by human activities and introduced plant and animal species.[179] The federal Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 is the legal framework for the protection of threatened species.[180] Numerous protected areas have been created under the National Strategy for the Conservation of Australia's Biological Diversity to protect and preserve unique ecosystems;[181][182] 65 wetlands are listed under the Ramsar Convention,[183] and 16 natural World Heritage Sites have been established.[184] Australia was ranked 51st of 163 countries in the world on the 2010 Environmental Performance Index.[185] Climate change has become an increasing concern in Australia in recent years, and protection of the environment is a major political issue.[186][187] In 2007, the Rudd Government signed the instrument of ratification of the Kyoto Protocol. Nevertheless, Australia's carbon dioxide emissions per capita are among the highest in the world, lower than those of only a few other industrialised nations.[188] Rainfall in Australia has slightly increased over the past century, both nationwide and for two quadrants of the nation,[189] According to the Bureau of Meteorology's 2011 Australian Climate Statement, Australia had lower than average temperatures in 2011 as a consequence of a La Nina weather pattern, however, "the country's 10-year average continues to demonstrate the rising trend in temperatures, with 2002-2011 likely to rank in the top two warmest 10-year periods on record for Australia, at 0.52 C above the long-term average".[190] Water restrictions are frequently in place in many regions and cities of Australia in response to chronic shortages due to urban population increases and localised drought.[191][192] Throughout much of the continent, major flooding regularly follows extended periods of drought, flushing out inland river systems, overflowing dams and inundating large inland flood plains, as occurred throughout Eastern Australia in 2010, 2011 and 2012 after the 2000s Australian drought.

Economy
Main article: Economy of Australia See also: Economic history of Australia and Median household income in Australia and New Zealand

The Super Pit gold mine in Kalgoorlie, Australia's largest open cut mine.[193]

Australia has a market economy with high GDP per capita and a low rate of poverty. The Australian dollar is the currency for the nation, including Christmas Island, Cocos (Keeling) Islands, and Norfolk Island, as well as the independent Pacific Island states of Kiribati, Nauru, and Tuvalu. After the 2006 merger of the Australian Stock Exchange and the Sydney Futures Exchange, the Australian Securities Exchange is now the ninth largest in the world.[194] Ranked third in the Index of Economic Freedom (2010),[195] Australia is the world's thirteenth largest economy and has the fifth highest per capita GDP at $66,984; significantly higher than that of the United States, United Kingdom, Germany, France, Canada, Japan, and New Zealand. The country was ranked second in the United Nations 2011 Human Development Index and first in Legatum's 2008 Prosperity Index.[196] All of Australia's major cities fare well in global comparative livability surveys;[197]Melbourne reached first place on The Economist's 2011 World's Most Livable Cities list, followed by Sydney, Perth, and Adelaide in sixth, eighth, and ninth place respectively.[198] Total government debt in Australia is about $190 billion[199] 20% of GDPin 2010.[200]Australia has among the highest house prices and some of the highest household debt levels in the world.[201]

Destination and value of Australian exports in 2006 [202]

An emphasis on exporting commodities rather than manufactured goods has underpinned a significant increase in Australia's terms of trade since the start of the 21st century, due to rising commodity prices. Australia has a balance of payments that is more than 7 per cent of GDP negative, and has had persistently large current account deficits for more than 50 years.[203] Australia has grown at an average annual rate of 3.6 per cent for over 15 years, in comparison to the OECD annual average of 2.5 per cent.[203] There are differing opinions based on evidence as to whether or not Australia had been one of the few OECD nations to avoid experiencing a recession during the late 2000s global financial downturn.[204][204][205] Six of Australia's major trading partners had been in recession which in turn affected Australia, and economic growth was hampered significantly over recent years.[206][207] The Hawke Government floated the Australian dollar in 1983 and partially deregulated the financial system.[208] The Howard Government followed with a partial deregulation of the labour market and the further privatisation of state-owned businesses, most notably in the telecommunications industry.[209] The indirect tax system was substantially changed in July 2000 with the introduction of a 10 per cent Goods and Services Tax(GST).[210] In Australia's tax system, personal and company income tax are the main sources of government revenue.[211] In July 2011, there were 11,450,500 people employed, with an unemployment rate of 5.1 per cent.[212] Youth unemployment (1524) rose from 8.7 per cent to 9.7 per cent over 20082009.[213] Over the past decade, inflation has typically been 23 per cent and the base interest rate 56 per cent. The service sector of the economy, including tourism, education, and financial services, accounts for about 70 per cent of GDP. [214] Rich in natural resources, Australia is a major exporter of agricultural products, particularly wheat and wool, minerals such as iron-ore and gold, and energy in the forms of liquified natural gas and coal. Although agriculture and natural resources account for only 3 per cent and 5 per cent of GDP respectively, they contribute substantially to export performance. Australia's largest export markets are Japan, China, the US, South Korea, and New Zealand.[215] Australia is the world's fourth largest exporter of wine, in an industry contributing $5.5 billion per annum to the nation's economy.[216]

Demography
Main articles: Demographics of Australia and Immigration to Australia

Nearly three quarters of Australians live in metropolitan cities and coastal areas. The beach is an integral part of the Australian identity.

[217]

For almost two centuries the majority of settlers, and later immigrants, came from the British Isles. As a result the people of Australia are mainly a mixture of British and Irish ethnic origin. In the 2006 Australian census, the most commonly nominated ancestry was Australian (37.13 per cent),[218] followed by English (32 per cent), Irish (9 per cent), Scottish (8 per cent), Italian (4 per cent), German (4 per cent), Chinese (3 per cent), and Greek (2 per cent).[219] Australia's population has quadrupled since the end of World War I,[220] much of the increase from immigration. Following World War II and through to 2000, almost 5.9 million of the total population settled in the country as new immigrants, meaning that nearly two out of every seven Australians were born in another country.[221] Most immigrants are skilled,[222] but the immigration quota includes categories for family members and refugees.[222] By 2050, Australia's population is currently projected to reach around 42 million.[223] In 2005, 24% of Australians were born elsewhere[224]; the five largest immigrant groups were those from the United Kingdom, New Zealand, Italy, Vietnam, and China.[215][225] Following the abolition of the White Australia policy in 1973, numerous government initiatives have been established to encourage and promote racial harmony based on a policy of multiculturalism.[226] In 200506, more than 131,000 people emigrated to Australia, mainly from Asia and Oceania.[227] The migration target for 201011 is 168,700, compared to 67,900 in 199899.[228]

The Barossa Valley is a wine-producingregion in South Australia. Fewer than 15 per cent of Australians live in rural areas.

The Indigenous populationmainland Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanderswas counted at 410,003 (2.2 per cent of the total population) in 2001, a [229] significant increase from 115,953 in the 1976 census. A large number of Indigenous people are not identified in the Census due to undercount and cases where their Indigenous status is not recorded on the form; after adjusting for these factors, the ABS estimated the true figure for 2001 to be around 460,140 (2.4 per cent of the total population).[230] Indigenous Australians experience higher than average rates of imprisonment and unemployment,[231] lower levels of education, and life expectancies for males and females that are 1117 years lower than those of non-indigenous Australians.[215][232][233] Some remote Indigenous communities have been described as having "failed state"-like conditions.[234][235][236][237][238] In common with many other developed countries, Australia is experiencing a demographic shift towards an older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. In 2004, the average age of the civilian population was 38.8 years.[239] A large number of Australians (759,849 for the period 200203)[240] live outside their home country.

Largest populated areas in Australia

(June 2011 Australian Bureau of Statistics estimate)[241]

Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 City Name Sydney Melbourne Brisbane Perth Adelaide Gold CoastTweed Newcastle CanberraQueanbeyan Wollongong State NSW VIC QLD WA SA QLD / NSW NSW ACT / NSW NSW Pop. 4,627,345 4,137,432 2,074,222 1,738,807 1,212,982 600,475 552,776 417,860 293,503 Rank 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 City Name Greater Hobart Geelong Townsville Cairns Toowoomba Darwin Launceston AlburyWodonga Ballarat State TAS VIC QLD QLD QLD NT TAS NSW / VIC VIC Pop. 216,656 180,805 176,347 153,075 132,936 128,073 106,655 107,086 97,810

view

talk

edit

Sydney

10

Sunshine Coast

QLD

254,650

20

Bendigo

VIC

92,934

Melbourne

Language
Main article: Australian English Although Australia has no official language, English is so entrenched that it has become the de facto national language.[2] Australian English is a major variety of the language with a distinctive accent and lexicon. General Australian serves as the standard dialect. Spelling is similar to that ofBritish English with a number of exceptions.[242] According to the 2006 census, English is the only language spoken in the home for close to 79 per cent of the population. The next most common languages spoken at home are Italian (1.6 per cent), Greek (1.3 per cent) and Cantonese (1.2 per cent);[243] a considerable proportion of first- and second-generation migrants are bilingual. A 20102011 study by the Australia Early Development Index found that the most common language spoken by children after English was Arabic, followed by Vietnamese, Greek, Chinese, and Hindi.[244] Between 200 and 300 Indigenous Australian languages are thought to have existed at the time of first European contact, of which only about 70 have survived. Many of these are exclusively spoken by older people; only 18 Indigenous languages are still spoken by all age groups.[245] At the time of the 2006 Census, 52,000 Indigenous Australians, representing 12 per cent of the Indigenous population, reported that they spoke an Indigenous language at home.[246] Australia has a sign language known as Auslan, which is the main language of about 5,500 deaf people.[247]

Religion
Main article: Religion in Australia

WR Thomas, A South Australian Corroboree, 1864, Art Gallery of South Australia. Aboriginal Australians developed the animist religion of the Dreamtime.

Australia has no state religion, and section 116 of the Australian Constitution prohibits the federal government from making any law to establish any

religion, impose any religious observance, or prohibit the free exercise of any religion. In the 2006 census, 64 per cent of Australians were counted as Christian, including 26 per cent as Roman Catholic and 19 per cent as Anglican. About 19 per cent of the population stated "no religion" (which includes humanism, atheism, agnosticism andrationalism), which was the fastest-growing group from 2001 to 2006, and a further 12 per cent did not answer (the question is optional) or did not give a response adequate for interpretation. The largest non-Christian religion in Australia is Buddhism (2.1 per cent), followed by Islam (1.7 per cent), Hinduism (0.8 per cent) and Judaism (0.5 per cent). Overall, fewer than 6 per cent of Australians identify [249] with non-Christian religions. Prior to European settlement in Australia, the animist beliefs of Australia's indigenous people had been practised for millennia. In the case of mainland Aboriginal Australians, their spirituality is known as The Dreamtime and it places a heavy emphasis on belonging to the land. The collection of stories that it contains shaped Aboriginal law and customs. Aboriginal art, story and dance continue to draw on these spiritual traditions. In the case of the Torres Strait Islanders who inhabit the islands between Australia and New Guinea, spirituality and customs reflected their Melanesian origins and [250] dependence on the sea. The 1996 Australian census counted more than 7000 respondents as followers of a traditional Aboriginal religion.

[248]

St Mary's Catholic Cathedral, Sydney, built to a design by William Wardell. About a quarter of Australians are Roman Catholic.

Since the arrival of the First Fleet of British ships in 1788, Christianity has grown to be the major religion. Consequently, the Christian festivals of Christmas and Easter are public holidays, the skylines of Australian cities and towns are marked by church and cathedral spires, and the Christian churches have played an integral role in the development of education, health and welfare services in Australia. TheCatholic education system operates as the largest non-government educator, accounting for about 21% of all secondary enrolments at the close of the 2000s (decade), with Catholic Health Australia similarly being the largest non-government provider. Christian welfare organisations also play a prominent role within national life, with organisations like the Salvation Army, St Vincent de Paul Society and Anglicareenjoying widespread support. Such contributions are recognised on Australia's currency, with the presence of Christian pastors like Aboriginal writer David Unaipon ($50); founder of the Royal Flying Doctor Service, John Flynn ($20); and Catherine Helen Spence ($5) who was Australia's first female candidate for political office. Other significant Australian religious figures have included St. Mary McKillop, who became the first Australian to be recognised as a saint by the Roman Catholic Church in 2010 and Church of Christ pastor Sir Douglas Nicholls, who, like Martin Luther King in the United States, led a movement against racial inequality in Australia and was also the first indigenous Australian to be appointed as a State Governor. For much of Australian history the Church of England (now known as the Anglican Church of Australia) was the largest religious affiliation, however multicultural immigration has contributed to a decline in its relative position, with the Roman Catholic Church benefiting from the opening of post-war Australia to multicultural immigration and becoming the largest group. Similarly, Islam, Buddhism, Hinduism and Judaism have all been expanding in the post war decades. Weekly attendance at church services in 2001 was about 1.5 million[251] (about 7.8 per cent of the population).[252] An international survey, made by the private, not-for profit German think-tank, the Bertelsmann Foundation, found that "Australia is one of the least religious nations in the western world, coming in 17th out of 21 [countries] surveyed" and that "Nearly three out of four Australians say they are either not at all religious or that religion does not play a central role in their lives."[253] A survey of 1,718 Australians by the Christian Research Association at the end of 2009 suggested that the number of people attending religious services per month in Australia has dropped from 23 per cent in 1993 to 16 per cent in 2009, and while 60 per cent of 15 to 29-year-old respondents in 1993 identified with Christian denominations, 33 per cent did in 2009.[254]

Education
Main article: Education in Australia School attendance is compulsory throughout Australia. Education is the responsibility of the individual states and territories[255] so the rules vary between states, but in general children are required to attend school from the age of about 5 up until about 16.[256][257] In at least some states (eg, WA)[258] children aged 1617 are required to either attend school or participate in vocational training, such as an apprenticeship. Australia has an adult literacy rate that is assumed to be 99 per cent. In the Programme for International Student Assessment, Australia regularly scores among the top five of thirty major developed countries (member countries of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). Catholic education accounts for the largest non-government sector. Australia has 37 government-funded universities and two private universities, as well as a number of other specialist institutions that provide approved courses at the higher education level.[259] The University of Sydney is Australia's oldest university, having been founded in 1850, followed by theUniversity of Melbourne three years later. Other notable universities include those of the Group of Eight leading tertiary institutions, including the University of Adelaide (which boasts an association with five Nobel Laureates), the Australian National University located in the national capital of Canberra, Monash University and the University of New South Wales. The OECD places Australia among the most expensive nations to attend university.[260] There is a state-based system of vocational training, known [261] as TAFE, and many trades conduct apprenticeships for training new tradespeople. Approximately 58 per cent of Australians aged from 25 to 64 have vocational or tertiary qualifications,[215] and the tertiary graduation rate of 49 per cent is the highest among OECD countries. The ratio of international to local students in tertiary education in Australia is the highest in the OECD countries.[262]

Health
See also: Health care in Australia Life expectancy in Australia in 2006 was 78.7 years for males and 83.5 years for females.[263] Australia has the highest rates of skin cancer in the world,[264] while cigarette smoking is the largest preventable cause of death and disease.[265] Australia has one of the highest proportions of overweight citizens among developed nations.[266] Total expenditure on health (including private sector spending) is around 9.8 per cent of GDP.[267] Australia introduced universal health care in 1975.[268] Known as Medicare it is now nominally funded by an income tax surcharge known as the Medicare levy, currently set at 1.5 per cent.[269] The states manage hospitals and attached outpatient services, while the Commonwealth funds the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (reducing the costs of medicines) and general practice.[268]

Culture
Main article: Culture of Australia

The Royal Exhibition Building in Melbourne was the first building in Australia to be listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2004[270]

Since 1788, the basis of Australian culture has been strongly influenced by Anglo-Celtic Western culture.[271][272] Distinctive cultural features have also arisen from Australia's natural environment and Indigenous cultures.[273][274] Since the mid-20th century, American popular culture has strongly influenced Australia, particularly through television and cinema.[275] Other cultural influences come from neighbouring Asian countries, and through large-scale immigration from non-English-speaking nations.[275][276]

Arts
Main articles: Visual arts of Australia, Theatre of Australia, and Dance in Australia

Sunlight Sweet by Australianlandscape artist Arthur Streeton.

Australian visual arts are thought to have begun with the cave and bark paintings of its Indigenous peoples. The traditions of Indigenous Australians are largely transmitted orally, through ceremony and the telling ofDreamtime stories.[277] From the time of European settlement, a theme in Australian art has been the natural landscape,[273] seen for example in the works of Albert Namatjira,[278] Arthur Streeton and others associated with the Heidelberg School,[273] and Arthur Boyd.[279] The country's landscape remains a source of inspiration for Australian modernist artists; it has been depicted in acclaimed works by the likes of Sidney [280] [281] [282] [283] Nolan, Fred Williams, Sydney Long, and Clifton Pugh. Australian artists influenced by modern American and European art include cubist Grace Crowley,[284] surrealist James Gleeson,[285] and pop artist Martin Sharp.[286] Contemporary Indigenous Australian art is the only art movement of international significance to emerge from Australia[287][288] and "the last great art movement of the 20th century";[289] its exponents have included Emily Kngwarreye.[290][291] Art critic Robert Hughes has written several influential books about Australian history and art, and was described as the "world's most famous art critic" by The New York Times.[292] The National Gallery of Australia and state galleries maintain Australian and overseas collections.[293] Australia has one of the world's highest attendances of art galleries and museums per head of populationfar more than Britain or America.[294] Many of Australia's performing arts companies receive funding through the federal government's Australia Council.[295] There is a symphony orchestra in each state,[296] and a national opera company, Opera Australia,[297] well-known for its famous soprano Joan Sutherland.[298] At the turn of the 19th to 20th century, Nellie Melba was one of the world's leading opera singers.[299] Ballet and dance are represented by The Australian Ballet and various state companies. Each state has a publicly funded theatre company.[300][301][302]

Performance of Aboriginal song and dance in the Australian National Maritime Museum in Sydney

Australian literature has also been influenced by the landscape; the works of writers such as Banjo Paterson, Henry Lawson, and Dorothea [303] Mackellar captured the experience of the Australian bush. The character of the nation's colonial past, as represented in early literature, is popular [273] [304] with modern Australians. In 1973, Patrick White was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, the first Australian to have achieved [305] [306] this. Australian winners of the Man Booker Prize have included Peter Carey and Thomas Keneally; David Williamson, David Malouf, and J. M. [307] Coetzee, who recently became an Australian citizen, are also renowned writers, and Les Murray is regarded as "one of the leading poets of his [308] generation".

Media
Main articles: Television in Australia, Cinema of Australia, Media of Australia, Australian literature, and Music of Australia The Australian cinema industry began with the 1906 release of The Story of the Kelly Gang, which is regarded as being the world's first featurelength film;[309] but both Australian feature film production and the distribution of British-made features declined dramatically after World War I as American studios and distributors monopolised the industry,[310] and by the 1930s around 95 per cent of the feature films screened in Australia were produced in Hollywood. By the late 1950s feature film production in Australia had effectively ceased and there were no all-Australian feature films made in the decade between 1959 and 1969.[311] Thanks to initiatives by the Gorton and Whitlam federal governments, the New Wave of Australian cinema of the 1970s brought provocative and successful films, some exploring the nation's colonial past, such as Picnic at Hanging Rock and Breaker Morant,[312] while the so-called "Ocker" genre [313][314][315] produced several highly successful urban-based comedy features including The Adventures of Barry McKenzie and Alvin Purple. Later hits included Mad Max and Gallipoli.[316][317] More recent successes included Shine and Rabbit-Proof Fence.[318][319] Notable Australian actors include Judith Anderson,[320] Errol Flynn,[321] Nicole Kidman, Hugh Jackman, Heath Ledger, Geoffrey Rush, and Cate Blanchettcurrent joint director of the Sydney Theatre Company.[322][323] Australia has two public broadcasters (the Australian Broadcasting Corporation and the multicultural Special Broadcasting Service), three commercial television networks, several pay-TV services,[324] and numerous public, non-profit television and radio stations. Each major city has at least one daily newspaper,[324] and there are two national daily newspapers, The Australian and The Australian Financial Review.[324] In 2010, Reporters Without Borders placed Australia 18th on a list of 178 countries ranked by press freedom, behind New Zealand (8th) but ahead of the United Kingdom (19th) and United States (20th).[325] This relatively low ranking is primarily because of the limited diversity of commercial media ownership in Australia;[326] most print media are under the control of News Corporation and Fairfax Media.[327]

Cuisine
Main article: Australian cuisine The food of Indigenous Australians was largely influenced by the area in which they lived. Most tribal groups subsisted on a simple hunter-gatherer diet, hunting native game and fish and collecting native plants and fruit. The general term for nativeAustralian flora and fauna used as a source of food [328][329] [330] is bush tucker. The first settlers introduced British food to the continent which much of what is now considered typical Australian food is based on the Sunday roast has become an enduring tradition for many Australians.[331] Since the beginning of the 20th century, food in Australia has increasingly been influenced by immigrants to the nation, particularly from Southern European and Asian cultures.[330][331] Australian wine is produced in 60 distinct production areas totaling approximately 160,000 hectares, mainly in the southern, cooler parts of the country. The wine regions in each of these states produce different wine varieties and styles that take advantage of local climates and soil types. The predominant varieties are Shiraz, Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay, Merlot, Smillon, Pinot noir, Riesling, andSauvignon blanc.[332][333][334][216][335][336] In 1995, an Australian red wine, Penfolds Grange, won the Wine Spectator award for Wine of the Year, the first time a wine from outside France or California achieved this distinction.[337]

Sport
Main article: Sport in Australia

Cricket has been an important part of Australia's sporting culture since the 19th century. [338]

Around 24 per cent Australians over the age of 15 regularly participate in organised sporting activities in Australia. [215] Australia has strong international teams in cricket, field hockey, netball, rugby league, and rugby union, having been Olympic or world champions at least twice in each sport in the last 25 years for both men and women where applicable.[339][340][341][342][343][344][345][346] Australia is also powerful in track cycling, rowing, and swimming, having consistently been in the top-five medal-winners at Olympic or World Championship level since 2000.[347][348][349] Swimming is the strongest of these sports; Australia is the second-most prolific medal winner in the sport in Olympic history.[350][351][352]

Some of Australia's most internationally well-known and successful sportspeople are swimmers Dawn Fraser, Murray Rose, Shane Gould, and Ian [353] Thorpe; sprinters Shirley Strickland, Betty Cuthbert, and Cathy Freeman; tennis players Rod Laver,Roy Emerson, Ken Rosewall, Evonne Goolagong, and Margaret Court; cricketers Donald Bradman and Shane Warne; three-time Formula One world champion Jack Brabham; five-time [354] motorcycle grand prix world champion Mick Doohan; golfers Greg Norman and Karrie Webb; cyclist Hubert Opperman; and prodigious billiards [355] player Walter Lindrum. Nationally, other popular sports include Australian rules football, horse racing, squash, surfing, soccer, and motor racing. The annual Melbourne Cup horse race and the Sydney to Hobart yacht race attract intense interest. Australia has participated in every summer Olympics of the modern era, and every Commonwealth Games. Australia hosted the 1956 Summer [358] [359] Olympics in Melbourne and the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, and has ranked among the top six medal-takers since 2000. Australia has [360] also hosted the 1938, 1962, 1982, 2006 Commonwealth Games and will host the 2018 Commonwealth Games. Other major international events held in Australia include the Australian Open tennisgrand slam tournament, international cricket matches, and the Australian Formula One Grand Prix. Sydney hosted the 2003 Rugby World Cup and the annual AustraliaNew Zealand Bledisloe Cup is keenly watched. The highest-rating television programs include sports telecasts such as the summer Olympics, FIFA World Cup, Rugby League State of Origin, and the grand finals of the National [361] Rugby League and Australian Football League. Skiing in Australia began in the 1860s and snow sports take place in the Australian Alps and parts ofTasmania. ***************************************************************************************************************************************************************************
[356] [357]

Etymology
The first formal use of the name "Antarctica" as a continental name in the 1890s is attributed to the Scottish cartographer John George Bartholomew[8]. The name Antarctica is the romanized version of the Greek compound word (antarktik), feminine of (antarktikos),[9]meaning "opposite to the Arctic", "opposite to the north".[10]

History of exploration
Main article: History of Antarctica See also: List of Antarctic expeditions

An iceberg dwarfs a ship in this 1920s English magazine illustration of a whaler in the Antarctic.

Belief in the existence of a Terra Australis a vast continent in the far south of the globe to "balance" the northern lands of Europe, Asia and North Africa has existed since the times of Ptolemy (1st century AD), who suggested the idea to preserve thesymmetry of all known landmasses in the world. Even in the late 17th century, after explorers had found that South America and Australia were not part of the fabled "Antarctica", geographers believed that the continent was much larger than its actual size. European maps continued to show this hypothetical land until Captain James Cook's ships, HMS Resolution and Adventure, crossed the Antarctic Circle on 17 January 1773, in December 1773 and again in January 1774.[11] Cook came within about 75 miles (121 km) of the Antarctic coast before retreating in the face of field ice in January 1773.[12] The first confirmed sighting of Antarctica can be narrowed down to the crews of ships captained by three individuals. According to various organizations (theNational Science Foundation,[13] NASA,[14] the University of California, San Diego,[15] and other sources),[16][17] ships captained by three men sighted Antarctica in 1820: Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen (an Estonian-born captain in the Imperial

Russian Navy), Edward Bransfield (an Irish-born captain in the Royal Navy), and Nathaniel Palmer (an American sealer out of Stonington, Connecticut). Von Bellingshausen saw Antarctica on 27 January 1820, three days before Bransfield sighted land, and ten months before Palmer did so in November 1820. On that day the expedition led by Von Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev on ships Vostok and Mirny reached a point within 32 km (20 mi) of the Antarctic mainland and saw ice fields there. The first documented landing on mainland Antarctica was by the American sealer John [citation needed] Davis in West Antarctica on 7 February 1821, although some historians dispute this claim . On 22 January 1840, two days after the discovery of the coast west of the Balleny Islands, some members of the crew of the 1837-40 expedition [18] of Jules Dumont d'Urville disembarked on the highest islet , of a group of rocky islands about 4 km fromCape Geodesie on the coast of Adlie [19] land where they took some mineral, algae and animal samples. In December 1839, as part of the United States Exploring Expedition of 183842 conducted by the United States Navy (sometimes called the "Ex. Ex.", or "the Wilkes Expedition"), an expedition sailed from Sydney, Australia, into the Antarctic Ocean, as it was then known, and reported the discovery "of an Antarctic continent west of the Balleny Islands" on 25 January 1840. That part of Antarctica was later named "Wilkes Land", a name it maintains to this day.

Nimrod Expedition South Pole Party (left to right): Wild, Shackleton, Marshall and Adams

Explorer James Clark Ross passed through what is now known as the Ross Sea and discovered Ross Island (both of which were named for him) in 1841. He sailed along a huge wall of ice that was later named the Ross Ice Shelf. Mount Erebus and Mount Terror are named after two ships from his expedition: HMS Erebus and Terror.[20] Mercator Cooper landed in East Antarctica on 26 January 1853.[21] During the Nimrod Expedition led by Ernest Shackleton in 1907, parties led by Edgeworth David became the first to climb Mount Erebus and to reach the South Magnetic Pole. Douglas Mawson, who assumed the leadership of the Magnetic Pole party on their perilous return, went on to lead several expeditions until retiring in 1931.[22] In addition, Shackleton himself and three other members of his expedition made several firsts in December 1908 February 1909: they were the first humans to traverse the Ross Ice Shelf, the first to traverse the Transantarctic Mountain Range (via the Beardmore Glacier), and the first to set foot on the South Polar Plateau. An expedition led by Norwegian polar explorer Roald Amundsen from the ship Fram became the first to reach the geographic South Pole on 14 December 1911, using a route from the Bay of Whales and up the Axel Heiberg Glacier.[23] One month later, the doomed Scott Expedition reached the pole. Richard E. Byrd led several voyages to the Antarctic by plane in the 1930s and 1940s. He is credited with implementing mechanized land transport on the continent and conducting extensive geological and biological research.[24] However, it was not until 31 October 1956 that anyone set foot on the South Pole again; on that day a U.S. Navy group led by Rear Admiral George J. Dufek successfully landed an aircraft there.[25] The first person to sail single-handed to Antarctica was the New Zealander David Henry Lewis, in a 10-meter steel sloop Ice Bird.

Geography
Main article: Geography of Antarctica See also: Extreme points of Antarctica and List of Antarctic and subantarctic islands

Labelled map of Antarctica.

Centered asymmetrically around the South Pole and largely south of the Antarctic Circle, Antarctica is the southernmost continent and is surrounded by the Southern Ocean; alternatively, it may be considered to be surrounded by the southern Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans, or by the southern waters of the World Ocean. It covers more than 14,000,000 km2 (5,400,000 sq mi),[1] making it the fifth-largest continent, about 1.3 times as large as Europe. The coastline measures 17,968 km (11,165 mi)[1] and is mostly characterized by ice formations, as the following table shows:

Coastal types around Antarctica[26]

Type

Frequency

Ice shelf (floating ice front)

44%

Ice walls (resting on ground)

38%

Ice stream/outlet glacier (ice front or ice wall)

13%

Rock

5%

Total

100%

Antarctica is divided in two by the Transantarctic Mountains close to the neck between the Ross Sea and the Weddell Sea. The portion west of the Weddell Sea and east of the Ross Sea is called West Antarctica and the remainder East Antarctica, because they roughly correspond to the Western and Eastern Hemispheres relative to the Greenwich meridian.

Elevation colored by relief height

About 98% of Antarctica is covered by the Antarctic ice sheet, a sheet of ice averaging at least 1.6 km (1.0 mi) thick. The continent has about 90% of the world's ice (and thereby about 70% of the world's fresh water). If all of this ice were melted, sea levels would rise about 60 m (200 ft).[27] In most of the interior of the continent, precipitation is very low, down to 20 mm (0.8 in) per year; in a few "blue ice" areas precipitation is lower than mass loss by sublimation and so the local mass balance is negative. In the dry valleys the same effect occurs over a rock base, leading to a desiccated landscape. West Antarctica is covered by the West Antarctic Ice Sheet. The sheet has been of recent concern because of the real, if small, possibility of its collapse. If the sheet were to break down, ocean levels would rise by several metres in a relativelygeologically short period of time, perhaps a matter of centuries. Several Antarctic ice streams, which account for about 10% of the ice sheet, flow to one of the many Antarctic ice shelves. East Antarctica lies on the Indian Ocean side of the Transantarctic Mountains and comprises Coats Land, Queen Maud Land, Enderby Land, Mac. Robertson Land, Wilkes Land and Victoria Land. All but a small portion of this region lies within theEastern Hemisphere. East Antarctica is largely covered by the East Antarctic Ice Sheet.

Mount Erebus, an active volcano on Ross Island

Vinson Massif, the highest peak in Antarctica at 4,892 m (16,050 ft), is located in the Ellsworth Mountains. Antarctica contains many other mountains, both on the main continent and the surrounding islands. Located on Ross Island, Mount Erebus is the world's southernmost active volcano. Another well-known volcano is found on Deception Island, which is famous for a giant eruption in 1970. Minor eruptions are frequent and lava flow has been observed in recent years. Other dormant volcanoes may potentially be active.[28] In 2004, an underwater volcano was found in the Antarctic Peninsula by American and Canadian researchers. Recent evidence shows this unnamed volcano may be active.[29] Antarctica is home to more than 70 lakes that lie at the base of the continental ice sheet. Lake Vostok, discovered beneath Russia's Vostok Station in 1996, is the largest of these subglacial lakes. It was once believed that the lake had been sealed off for 500,000 to one million years but a recent survey suggests that, every so often, there are large flows of water from one lake to another.[30] There is some evidence, in the form of ice cores drilled to about 400 m (1,300 ft) above the water line, that Lake Vostok's waters may contain microbial life. The frozen surface of the lake shares similarities with Jupiter's moon Europa. If life is discovered in Lake Vostok, this would strengthen the argument for the possibility of life on Europa.[31] On 7 February 2008, a NASA team embarked on a mission to Lake Untersee, searching for extremophiles in its highly alkaline waters. If found, these resilient creatures could further bolster the argument for extraterrestrial life in extremely cold, methane-rich environments.[32]

Geology

Main article: Geology of Antarctica

Subglacial topography and bathymetry of bedrock underlying Antarctica ice sheet

Geological history and paleontology

More than 170 million years ago, Antarctica was part of the supercontinent Gondwana. Over time, Gondwana gradually broke apart and Antarctica as we know it today was formed around 25 million years ago. Antarctica was not always cold, dry and covered in ice sheets. At a number of points in its long history it was farther north, experienced a tropical or temperate climate, was covered in forests, and inhabited by various ancient life-forms.

Paleozoic era (540250 Ma)

During the Cambrian period, Gondwana had a mild climate. West Antarctica was partially in the Northern Hemisphere, and during this period large amounts of sandstones, limestones and shales were deposited. East Antarctica was at the equator, where sea floor invertebrates and trilobites flourished in the tropical seas. By the start of the Devonian period (416 Ma), Gondwana was in more southern latitudes and the climate was cooler, though fossils of land plants are known from this time. Sand and siltswere laid down in what is now the Ellsworth, Horlick and Pensacola Mountains. Glaciation began at the end of the Devonian period (360 Ma), as Gondwana became centered around the South Pole and the climate cooled, though flora remained. During thePermian period, the plant life became dominated by fern-like plants such as Glossopteris, which grew in swamps. Over time these swamps became deposits of coal in the Transantarctic Mountains. Towards the end of the Permian period, continued warming led to a dry, hot climate over much of Gondwana.[33]

Mesozoic era (25065 Ma)

As a result of continued warming, the polar ice caps melted and much of Gondwana became a desert. In Eastern Antarctica, the seed fern became established, and large amounts of sandstone and shale were laid down at this time. Synapsids, commonly known as "mammal-like reptiles", were common in Antarctica during the Late Permian and Early Triassic and included forms such as Lystrosaurus. The Antarctic Peninsula began to form during the Jurassic period (206146 Ma), and islands gradually rose out of the ocean. Ginkgo trees and cycads were plentiful during this period. In West Antarctica, coniferous forests dominated through the entire Cretaceous period (14665 Ma), though Southern beech began to take over at the end of this period. Ammonites were common in the seas around Antarctica, and dinosaurs were also present, though only three Antarctic dinosaur genera (Cryolophosaurus and Glacialisaurus, from the Hanson Formation,[34] and Antarctopelta) have been described to date.[35] It was during this period that Gondwana began to break up.

Gondwanaland breakup (16023 Ma)

The cooling of Antarctica occurred stepwise, as the continental spread changed the oceanic currents from longitudinal equator-to-pole temperatureequalizing currents to latitudinal currents that preserved and accentuated latitude temperature differences. Africa separated from Antarctica around 160 Ma, followed by the Indian subcontinent, in the early Cretaceous (about 125 Ma). About 65 Ma, Antarctica (then connected to Australia) still had a tropical to subtropical climate, complete with a marsupial fauna. About 40 Ma Australia-New Guineaseparated from Antarctica, so that latitudinal currents could isolate Antarctica from Australia, and the first ice began to appear. During the Eocene-Oligocene extinction event about 34 million years ago, CO2 levels have been found to be about 760 ppm[36] and had been decreasing from earlier levels in the thousands of ppm. Around 23 Ma, the Drake Passage opened between Antarctica and South America, resulting in the Antarctic Circumpolar Current that completely isolated the continent. Models of the changes suggest that declining CO2 levels became more important.[37] The ice began to spread, replacing the forests that then covered the continent. Since about 15 Ma, the continent has been mostly covered with ice,[38] with the Antarctic ice cap reaching its present extension around 6 Ma.

Neogene Period (230.05 mya)

In 1986, Peter Webb and a team of paleontologists at Ohio State University discovered the remains of an extensive temperate forest that flourished [39][40][41] 640 kilometres (400 mi) from the South Pole 3 million years ago.

Geology of present-day Antarctica

The geological study of Antarctica has been greatly hindered by the fact that nearly all of the continent is permanently covered with a thick layer of ice. However, new techniques such as remote sensing, ground-penetrating radar and satellite imagery have begun to reveal the structures beneath the ice. Geologically, West Antarctica closely resembles the Andes mountain range of South America.[33] The Antarctic Peninsula was formed by uplift and metamorphism of sea bed sediments during the late Paleozoic and the early Mesozoic eras. This sediment uplift was accompanied by igneousintrusions and volcanism. The most common rocks in West Antarctica are andesite and rhyolite volcanics formed during the Jurassic period. There is also evidence of volcanic activity, even after the ice sheet had formed, in Marie Byrd Land and Alexander Island. The only anomalous area of West Antarctica is the Ellsworth Mountains region, where the stratigraphy is more similar to the eastern part of the continent. East Antarctica is geologically varied, dating from the Precambrian era, with some rocks formed more than 3 billion years ago. It is composed of a metamorphic and igneous platform which is the basis of the continental shield. On top of this base are various modern rocks, such as sandstones,limestones, coal and shales laid down during the Devonian and Jurassic periods to form the Transantarctic Mountains. In coastal areas such as Shackleton Range and Victoria Land some faulting has occurred. The main mineral resource known on the continent is coal. It was first recorded near the Beardmore Glacier by Frank Wild on the Nimrod Expedition, and now low-grade coal is known across many parts of the Transantarctic Mountains. The Prince Charles Mountains contain significant deposits of iron ore. The most valuable resources of Antarctica lie offshore, namely the oil and natural gas fields found in the Ross Sea in 1973. Exploitation of all mineral resources is banned until 2048 by the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty.
[38]

Climate
Main article: Climate of Antarctica

The blue ice covering Lake Fryxell, in theTransantarctic Mountains, comes fromglacial meltwater from the Canada Glacierand other smaller glaciers.

Antarctica is the coldest place on Earth. The coldest natural temperature ever recorded on Earth was 89.2 C (128.6 F) at the Russian Vostok Station in Antarctica on 21 July 1983.[42] For comparison, this is 11 C (20 F) colder than subliming dry ice. Antarctica is a frozen desert with little precipitation; the South Pole itself receives less than 10 cm (4 in) per year, on average. Temperatures reach a minimum of between 80 C (112 F) and 90 C (130 F) in the interior in winter and reach a maximum of between 5 C (41 F) and 15 C (59 F) near the coast in summer. Sunburn is often a health issue as the snow surface reflects almost all of the ultraviolet light falling on it.[43] East Antarctica is colder than its western counterpart because of its higher elevation. Weather fronts rarely penetrate far into the continent, leaving the center cold and dry. Despite the lack of precipitation over the central portion of the continent, ice there lasts for extended time periods. Heavy snowfalls are not uncommon on the coastal portion of the continent, where snowfalls of up to 1.22 metres (48 in) in 48 hours have been recorded. At the edge of the continent, strong katabatic winds off the polar plateau often blow at storm force. In the interior, however, wind speeds are typically moderate. During summer, more solar radiation reaches the surface during clear days at the South Pole than at the equator because of the 24 hours of sunlight each day at the Pole.[1]

The snow surface at Dome C Station is typical of most of the continent's surface.

Antarctica is colder than the Arctic for two reasons. First, much of the continent is more than 3 kilometres (2 mi) above sea level, and temperature decreases with elevation. Second, the Arctic Ocean covers the north polar zone: the ocean's relative warmth is transferred through the icepack and prevents temperatures in the Arctic regions from reaching the extremes typical of the land surface of Antarctica. Given the latitude, long periods of constant darkness or constant sunlight create climates unfamiliar to human beings in much of the rest of the world.[43] The aurora australis, commonly known as the southern lights, is a glow observed in the night sky near the South Pole created by the plasma-full solar winds that pass by the Earth. Another unique spectacle isdiamond dust, a ground-level cloud composed of tiny ice crystals. It generally forms under otherwise clear or nearly clear skies, so people sometimes also refer to it as clear-sky precipitation. A sun dog, a frequent atmospheric optical phenomenon, is a bright "spot" beside the true sun.[43]

Population
See also: Demographics of Antarctica and Research stations of Antarctica

The "ceremonial" South Pole, atAmundsen-Scott Station

Antarctica has no permanent residents, but a number of governments maintain permanent manned research stations throughout the continent. The number of people conducting and supporting scientific research and other work on the continent and its nearby islands varies from about 1,000 in winter to about 5,000 in the summer. Many of the stations are staffed year-round, the winter-over personnel typically arriving from their home countries for a one-year assignment. An Orthodox church, Trinity Church, opened in 2004 at the Russian Bellingshausen Station is also manned year-round by one or two priests, who are similarly rotated every year.[44][45] The first semi-permanent inhabitants of regions near Antarctica (areas situated south of the Antarctic Convergence) were British and American sealers who used to spend a year or more on South Georgia, from 1786 onward. During the whaling era, which lasted until 1966, the population of that island varied from over 1,000 in the summer (over 2,000 in some years) to some 200 in the winter. Most of the whalers were Norwegian, with an increasing proportion of Britons. The settlements included Grytviken,Leith Harbour, King Edward Point, Stromness, Husvik, Prince Olav Harbour, Ocean Harbour and Godthul. Managers and other senior officers of the whaling stations often lived together with their families. Among them was the founder of Grytviken, CaptainCarl Anton Larsen, a prominent Norwegian whaler and explorer who, along with his family, adopted British citizenship in 1910. The first child born in the southern polar region was Norwegian girl Solveig Gunbjrg Jacobsen, born in Grytviken on 8 October 1913, and her birth was registered by the resident British Magistrate of South Georgia. She was a daughter of Fridthjof Jacobsen, the assistant manager of the whaling station, and of Klara Olette Jacobsen. Jacobsen arrived on the island in 1904 and became the manager of Grytviken, serving from 1914 to 1921; two of his children were born on the island.[46]

Emilio Marcos Palma was the first person born south of the 60th parallel south (the continental limit according to the Antarctic Treaty), as well as the [48][49] first one born on the Antarctic mainland, in 1978 at Base Esperanza, on the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula; his parents were sent there along with seven other families by the Argentine government to determine if family life was suitable on the continent. In 1984, Juan Pablo Camacho was born at the Frei Montalva Station, becoming the first Chilean born in Antarctica. Several bases are now home to families with children attending schools at the [50] [51] station. As of 2009, eleven children were born in Antarctica (south of the 60th parallel south): eight at the Argentinean Esperanza Base and three [52] at the Chilean Frei Montalva Station.

[47]

Biodiversity
See also: Antarctic ecozone and Antarctica Microorganisms

Emperor Penguins in Ross Sea, Antarctica

Few terrestrial vertebrates live in Antarctica.[53] Invertebrate life includes microscopic mites like the Alaskozetes antarcticus, lice, nematodes, tardigrades, rotifers, krill and springtails. The flightless midge Belgica antarctica, up to 6 millimetres (0.2 in) in size, is the largest purely terrestrial animal in Antarctica.[54] The Snow Petrel is one of only three birds that breed exclusively in Antarctica.[55] A variety of marine animals exist and rely, directly or indirectly, on the phytoplankton. Antarctic sea life includes penguins, blue whales, orcas, colossal squids and fur seals. The Emperor penguin is the only penguin that breeds during the winter in Antarctica, while the Adlie Penguin breeds farther south than any other penguin. The Rockhopper penguin has distinctive feathers around the eyes, giving the appearance of elaborate eyelashes. King penguins, Chinstrap penguins, and Gentoo Penguins also breed in the Antarctic. The Antarctic fur seal was very heavily hunted in the 18th and 19th centuries for its pelt by sealers from the United States and the United Kingdom. The Weddell Seal, a "true seal", is named after Sir James Weddell, commander of British sealing expeditions in the Weddell Sea. Antarctic krill, which congregates in large schools, is the keystone species of the ecosystem of the Southern Ocean, and is an important food organism for whales, seals, leopard seals, fur seals, squid, icefish, penguins, albatrosses and many other birds.[56] A census of sea life carried out during the International Polar Year and which involved some 500 researchers was released in 2010. The research is part of the global Census of Marine Life (CoML) and has disclosed some remarkable findings. More than 235 marine organisms live in both polar regions, having bridged the gap of 12,000 km (7,456 mi). Large animals such as some cetaceans and birds make the round trip annually. More surprising are small forms of life such as mudworms, sea cucumbers and free-swimming snails found in both polar oceans. Various factors may aid in their distribution fairly uniform temperatures of the deep ocean at the poles and the equator which differ by no more than 5 C, and the major current systems or marine conveyor belt which transport egg and larvae stages.[57]

About 400 species of lichen-forming fungi are known to exist in Antarctica.

The climate of Antarctica does not allow extensive vegetation. A combination of freezing temperatures, poor soil quality, lack of moisture, and lack of sunlight inhibit plant growth. As a result, the diversity of plant life is very small and limited in distribution. Excluding organisms which are not plants (algae and fungi, including lichen-forming species), the flora of the continent largely consists of bryophytes (there are about 100 species ofmosses and 25 species of liverworts), with only two species of flowering plants, both found in the Antarctic Peninsula: Deschampsia antarctica (Antarctic hair grass) and Colobanthus quitensis (Antarctic pearlwort). Growth generally occurs in the summer, and only for a few weeks at most. [58][59] About 1150 species of fungi have been recorded from Antarctica, of which about 750 are non-lichen-forming and 400 are lichen-forming.[60][59] Some of these species are cryptoendoliths as a result of evolution under extreme conditions.[61] Seven hundred species of algae exist, most of which are phytoplankton. Multicolored snow algae and diatoms are especially abundant in the coastal regions during the summer.[58] Recently ancient ecosystems consisting of several types of bacteria have been found living trapped deep beneath glaciers.[62] The autotrophic community is made up of mostly protists.[58]

Conservation

The dumping of waste (even old vehicles), such as here at the RussianBellingshausen Station in 1992, is prohibited since the entry into force of the Protocol on Environmental Protection in 1998.

The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (also known as the Environmental Protocol or Madrid Protocol) came into force in 1998, and is the main instrument concerned with conservation and management of biodiversity in Antarctica. The Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting is advised on environmental and conservation issues in Antarctica by the Committee for Environmental Protection. A major concern within this committee is the risk to Antarctica from unintentional introduction of non-native species from outside the region.[63] The passing of the Antarctic Conservation Act (1978) in the U.S. brought several restrictions to U.S. activity on Antarctica. The introduction of alien plants or animals can bring a criminal penalty, as can the extraction of any indigenous species. The overfishing of krill, which plays a large role in the Antarctic ecosystem, led officials to enact regulations on fishing. The Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), a treaty that came into force in 1980, requires that regulations managing all Southern Ocean fisheries consider potential effects on the entire Antarctic ecosystem.[1] Despite these new acts, unregulated and illegal fishing, particularly of Patagonian toothfish (marketed as Chilean Sea Bass in the U.S.), remains a serious problem. The illegal fishing of toothfish has been increasing, with estimates of 32,000 tonnes (35,300 short tons) in 2000.[64][65]

Politics

Emblem of the Antarctic Treaty since 2002.

Antarctica has no government, although various countries claim sovereignty in certain regions. While a few of these countries have mutually recognised each other's claims,[66] the validity of these claims is generally not recognised universally.[1] New claims on Antarctica have been suspended since 1959 and the continent is considered politically neutral. Its status is regulated by the 1959 Antarctic Treaty and other related agreements, collectively called the Antarctic Treaty System. Antarctica is defined as all land and ice shelves south of 60 S for the purposes of the Treaty System. The treaty was signed by twelve countries including the Soviet Union (and later Russia), the United Kingdom, Argentina, Chile, Australia, and the United States.[67] It set aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve, established freedom of scientific investigation and environmental protection, and banned military activity on the continent. This was the first arms control agreement established during the Cold War. In 1983, the Antarctic Treaty Parties began negotiations on a convention to regulate mining in Antarctica.[68] A coalition of international organisations[69] launched a public pressure campaign to prevent any minerals development in the region, led largely by Greenpeace International[70] which established its own scientific stationWorld Park Basein the Ross Sea region[71] and conducted annual expeditions to document environmental effects of humans on the continent.[72] In 1988, the Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resources (CRAMRA) was adopted.[73] The following year, however, Australia and France announced that they would not ratify the convention, rendering it dead for all intents and purposes. They proposed instead that a comprehensive regime to protect the Antarctic environment be negotiated in its place.[74] The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (the Madrid Protocol) was negotiated as other countries followed suit and on 14 January 1998 it entered into force.[74][75] The Madrid Protocol bans all mining in Antarctica, designating the continent as a natural reserve devoted to peace and science.

HMS Endurance: the Royal Navy'sAntarctic patrol ship

The Antarctic Treaty prohibits any military activity in Antarctica, including the establishment of military bases and fortifications, military manoeuvers, and weapons testing. Military personnel or equipment are permitted only for scientific research or other peaceful purposes.[76] The only documented military land manoeuvre was Operation NINETY by the Argentine military.[77] The United States military issues the Antarctica Service Medal to military members or civilians who perform research duty in Antarctica. The medal includes a "wintered over" bar issued to those who remain on the continent for 2 six-month seasons.[78]

Antarctic territories

Main article: Territorial claims in Antarctica

Date

Country

Territory

Claim limits

Map

1908

United Kingdom

British Antarctic Territory

20W to 80W

1923

New Zealand

Ross Dependency

150W to 160E

1924

France

Adlie Land

1422'E to 13611'E

1929

Norway

Peter I Island

6850S 9035W

1933

Australia

Australian Antarctic Territory

160E to 1422'E and 13611'E to 4438'E

1939

Norway

Queen Maud Land

4438'E to 20W

1940

Chile

Antrtica

53W to 90W

1943

Argentina

Argentine Antarctica

25W to 74W

None

Unclaimed territory (Marie Byrd Land)

90W to 150W (except Peter I Island)

The Argentine, British, and Chilean claims all overlap, and have caused friction. The areas shown as Australia's and New Zealand's claims were British territory until they were handed over following the countries' independence. Australia currently claims the largest area. The claims of Britain, Australia, New Zealand, France and Norway are all recognised by each other. Other countries participating as members of Antarctic Treaty have a territorial interest in the Antarctic continent but the provisions of the Treaty do not allow them to make their claims while it is in force.[79][80]

Economy

Brazil has a designated 'zone of interest' that is not an actual claim.[81] Peru has formally reserved its right to make a claim.[79][80] Russia has inherited the Soviet Union's right to claim territory under the original Antarctic Treaty.[82] South Africa has formally reserved its right to make a claim.[79][80] United States reserved its right to make a claim in the original Antarctic Treaty.[82]

Main article: Economy of Antarctica

The illegal capture and sale of thePatagonian toothfish has led to several arrests. Pictured here is the Antarctic toothfish, a sister species.

Although coal, hydrocarbons, iron ore, platinum, copper, chromium, nickel, gold and other minerals have been found, they have not been in large enough quantities to exploit. The 1991 Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty also restricts a struggle for resources. In 1998, a compromise agreement was reached to place an indefinite ban on mining, to be reviewed in 2048, further limiting economic development and exploitation. The primary economic activity is the capture and offshore trading of fish. Antarctic fisheries in 200001 reported landing 112,934 tonnes. Small-scale "expedition tourism" has existed since 1957 and is currently subject to Antarctic Treaty and Environmental Protocol provisions, but in effect self-regulated by the International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators (IAATO). Not all vessels associated with Antarctic tourism are members of IAATO, but IAATO members account for 95% of the tourist activity. Travel is largely by small or medium ship, focusing on specific scenic locations with accessible concentrations of iconic wildlife. A total of 37,506 tourists visited during the 200607 Austral summer with nearly all of them coming from [83][84] commercial ships. The number is predicted to increase to over 80,000 by 2010. There has been some concern over the potential adverse environmental and ecosystem effects caused by the influx of visitors. A call for stricter [85] regulations for ships and a tourism quota has been made by some environmentalists and scientists. The primary response by Antarctic Treaty Parties has been to develop, through their Committee for Environmental Protection and in partnership with IAATO, "site use guidelines" setting landing limits and closed or restricted zones on the more frequently visited sites. Antarctic sight seeing flights (which did not land) operated out of Australia and New Zealand until the fatal crash of Air New Zealand Flight 901 in 1979 on Mount Erebus, which killed all 257 aboard. Qantas resumed commercial overflights to Antarctica from Australia in the mid-1990s.

Research
See also: Research stations of Antarctica

A full moon and 25-second exposure allowed sufficient light for this photo to be taken at Amundsen-Scott South Pole Stationduring the long Antarctic night. The station can be seen at far left, the power plant in the center and the mechanic's garage in the lower right. The green light in the background is the Aurora Australis.

Each year, scientists from 28 different nations conduct experiments not reproducible in any other place in the world. In the summer more than 4,000 scientists operate research stations; this number decreases to just over 1,000 in the winter.[1] McMurdo Station, which is the largest research station in Antarctica, is capable of housing more than 1,000 scientists, visitors, and tourists. Researchers include biologists, geologists, oceanographers, physicists, astronomers, glaciologists, and meteorologists. Geologists tend to study plate tectonics, meteorites from outer space, and resources from the breakup of the supercontinentGondwanaland. Glaciologists in Antarctica are concerned with the study of the history and dynamics of floating ice, seasonal snow, glaciers, and ice sheets. Biologists, in addition to examining the wildlife, are interested in how harsh temperatures and the presence of people affect adaptation and survival strategies in a wide variety of organisms. Medical physicians have made discoveries concerning the spreading of viruses and the body's response to extreme seasonal temperatures. Astrophysicists atAmundsen-Scott South Pole Station study the celestial dome and cosmic microwave background radiation. Many astronomical observations are better made from the interior of Antarctica than from most surface locations because of the high elevation, which results in a thin atmosphere, low temperature, which minimizes the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere, and absence of light pollution, thus allowing for a view of space clearer than anywhere else on Earth. Antarctic ice serves as both the shield and the detection medium for the largest neutrino telescope in the world, built [86] 2 km (1.2 mi) below Amundsen-Scott station. Since the 1970s, an important focus of study has been the ozone layer in the atmosphere above Antarctica. In 1985, three British Scientists working on data they had gathered at Halley Station on the Brunt Ice Shelf discovered the existence of a hole in this layer. It was eventually determined that the destruction of the ozone was caused by chlorofluorocarbons emitted by human products. With the ban of CFCs in the Montreal Protocol of 1989, it is believed that the ozone hole will close up by around 2065.[87] In September 2006, NASA satellite data showed that the Antarctic ozone hole was the largest on record, covering 27.5 million km2 (10.6 million sq mi).[87] On 6 September 2007, Belgian-based International Polar Foundation unveiled the Princess Elisabeth station, the world's first zero-emissions polar science station in Antarctica to research climate change. Costing $16.3 million, the prefabricated station, which is part of International Polar Year, was shipped to the South Pole from Belgium by the end of 2008 to monitor the health of the polar regions. Belgian polar explorer Alain Hubert stated: "This base will be the first of its kind to produce zero emissions, making it a unique model of how energy should be used in the Antarctic." Johan Berte is the leader of the station design team and manager of the project which conducts research in climatology, glaciology and microbiology.[88]

In January 2008, the British Antarctic Survey (BAS) scientists, led by Hugh Corr and David Vaughan, reported (in the journal Nature Geoscience) that 2,200 years ago, a volcano erupted under Antarctica's ice sheet (based on airborne survey with radar images). The biggest eruption in Antarctica in the [89] last 10,000 years, the volcanic ash was found deposited on the ice surface under the Hudson Mountains, close to Pine Island Glacier.

Meteorites

Antarctic meteorite, named ALH84001, from Mars

Meteorites from Antarctica are an important area of study of material formed early in the solar system; most are thought to come from asteroids, but some may have originated on larger planets. The first meteorites were found in 1912. In 1969, a Japanese expedition discovered nine meteorites. Most of these meteorites have fallen onto the ice sheet in the last million years. Motion of the ice sheet tends to concentrate the meteorites at blocking locations such as mountain ranges, with wind erosion bringing them to the surface after centuries beneath accumulated snowfall. Compared with meteorites collected in more temperate regions on Earth, the Antarctic meteorites are well-preserved.[90] This large collection of meteorites allows a better understanding of the abundance of meteorite types in the solar system and how meteorites relate to asteroids and comets. New types of meteorites and rare meteorites have been found. Among these are pieces blasted off the Moon, and probably Mars, by impacts. These specimens, particularly ALH84001 discovered by ANSMET, are at the center of the controversy about possible evidence of microbial life on Mars. Because meteorites in space absorb and record cosmic radiation, the time elapsed since the meteorite hit the Earth can be determined from laboratory studies. The elapsed time since fall, or terrestrial residence age, of a meteorite represents more information that might be useful in environmental studies of Antarctic ice sheets.[90] In 2006, a team of researchers from Ohio State University used gravity measurements by NASA's GRACE satellites to discover the 300-mile (480 km)wide Wilkes Land crater, which probably formed about 250 million years ago.[91]

Ice mass and global sea level

See also: Current sea level rise

The motion of ice in Antarctica

Due to its location at the South Pole, Antarctica receives relatively little solar radiation. This means that it is a very cold continent where water is mostly in the form of ice. Precipitation is low (most of Antarctica is a desert) and almost always in the form of snow, which accumulates and forms a giant ice sheet which covers the land. Parts of this ice sheet form moving glaciers known as ice streams, which flow towards the edges of the continent. Next to the continental shore are many ice shelves. These are floating extensions of outflowing glaciers from the continental ice mass. Offshore, temperatures are also low enough that ice is formed from seawater through most of the year. It is important to understand the various types of Antarctic ice to understand possible effects on sea levels and the implications of global warming.

Sea ice extent expands annually in the Antarctic winter and most of this ice melts in the summer. This ice is formed from the ocean water and floats in the same water and thus does not contribute to rise in sea level. The extent of sea icearound Antarctica has remained roughly constant in recent [92][93] decades, although the thickness changes are unclear. Melting of floating ice shelves (ice that originated on the land) does not in itself contribute much to sea-level rise (since the ice displaces only its own mass of water). However it is the outflow of the ice from the land to form the ice shelf which causes a rise in global sea level. This effect is offset by snow falling back onto the continent. Recent decades have witnessed several dramatic collapses of large ice shelves around the coast of Antarctica, especially along the Antarctic Peninsula. Concerns have been raised that disruption of ice shelves may result in increased glacial outflow from the [94] continental ice mass. On the continent itself, the large volume of ice present stores around 70% of the world's fresh water. This ice sheet is constantly gaining ice from snowfall and losing ice through outflow to the sea. West Antarctica is currently experiencing a net outflow of glacial ice, which will increase global sea level over time. A review of the scientific studies looking at data from 1992 to 2006 suggested that a net loss of around 50 gigatonnes of ice per year [95] was a reasonable estimate (around 0.14 mm of sea level rise). Significant acceleration of outflow glaciers in the Amundsen Sea Embayment may [96] have more than doubled this figure for 2006. East Antarctica is a cold region with a ground base above sea level and occupies most of the continent. This area is dominated by small accumulations of snowfall which becomes ice and thus eventually seaward glacial flows. The mass balance of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet as a whole is thought to be [95][96] [96][97] slightly positive (lowering sea level) or near to balance. However, increased ice outflow has been suggested in some regions.
[27]

Effects of global warming

Warming trend from 19572006

Some of Antarctica has been warming up; particularly strong warming has been noted on the Antarctic Peninsula. A study by Eric Steig published in 2009 noted for the first time that the continent-wide average surface temperature trend of Antarctica is slightly positive at >0.05 C (0.09 F) per decade from 1957 to 2006. This study also noted that West Antarctica has warmed by more than 0.1 C (0.2 F) per decade in the last 50 years, and this warming is strongest in winter and spring. This is partly offset by fall cooling in East Antarctica.[98] There is evidence from one study that Antarctica is warming as a result of human carbon dioxide emissions.[99] However, the small amount of surface warming in West Antarctica is not believed to be directly affecting the West Antarctic Ice Sheet's contribution to sea level. Instead the recent increases in glacier outflow are believed to be due to an inflow of warm water from the deep ocean, just off the continental shelf.[100][101] The net contribution to sea level from the Antarctic Peninsula is more likely to be a direct result of the much greater atmospheric warming there.[102] In 2002 the Antarctic Peninsula's Larsen-B ice shelf collapsed.[103] Between 28 February and 8 March 2008, about 570 square kilometres (220 sq mi) of ice from the Wilkins Ice Shelf on the southwest part of the peninsula collapsed, putting the remaining 15,000 km2 (5,800 sq mi) of the ice shelf at risk. The ice was being held back by a "thread" of ice about 6 km (4 mi) wide,[104][105] prior to its collapse on 5 April 2009.[106][107] According to NASA, the most widespread Antarctic surface melting of the past 30 years occurred in 2005, when an area of ice comparable in size to California briefly melted and [108] refroze; this may have resulted from temperatures rising to as high as 5 C (41 F).

Ozone depletion

Image of the largest Antarctic ozone holeever recorded due to CFCs accumulation (September 2006)

Main article: Ozone depletion Each year a large area of low ozone concentration or "ozone hole" grows over Antarctica. This hole covers almost the whole continent and was at its largest in September 2008, when the longest lasting hole on record remained until the end of December.[109] The hole was detected by scientists in 1985[110] and has tended to increase over the years of observation. The ozone hole is attributed to the emission of chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs into the atmosphere, which decompose the ozone into other gases.[111] Some scientific studies suggest that ozone depletion may have a dominant role in governing climatic change in Antarctica (and a wider area of the Southern Hemisphere).[110] Ozone absorbs large amounts of ultraviolet radiation in the stratosphere. Ozone depletion over Antarctica can cause a cooling of around 6 C in the local stratosphere. This cooling has the effect of intensifying the westerly winds which flow around the continent (the polar vortex) and thus prevents outflow of the cold air near the South Pole. As a result, the continental mass of the East Antarctic ice sheet is held at lower temperatures, and the peripheral areas of Antarctica, especially the Antarctic Peninsula, are subject to higher temperatures, which promote accelerated melting.[110]Models also suggest that the ozone depletion/enhanced polar vortex effect also accounts for the recent increase in sea-ice just offshore of the continent.[112]