The central nervous system (CNS) The CNS comprises the brain and the spinal chord.

The peripheral nervous system (PNS) comprises the spinal and cranial nerves that connect the CNS with the rest of the body. The ANS describes an important part of the CNS as it governs processes for energy expenditure and energy build-up. These two divisions are called the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system respectively. The term autonomic stresses the fact that the processes are self-regulatory and operate on a homeostatic basis. There are three main types of neurons that represent the communication system for the body. Sensory neurons carry information from sensory receptors to the CNS. Connector neurons are found mainly in the CNS and convey information from the senses or internal environment for subsequent activation. Motor neurons send information from the CNS to the muscles and activate bodily areas. You should be able to name the specific parts of a neuron (eg axon, dendrites, nucleus, terminal buttons) and explain how neurons are implicated with neurotransmitters. TIP: You need to be able to explain the role of the CNS and at least one of its component parts in terms of its contribution to a specific behaviour or psychological response. To make your understanding of this area easier you should adopt a similar approach with the following categories of neurotransmitters and the localization of function of the brain. Neurotransmitters A neurotransmitter is any substance that is found in the terminal buttons of a neuron although neurotransmitters are generally chemical in nature. When a neuron fires they are released across the synaptic cleft and are absorbed by the receptor cells of the receiving dendrites of another neuron. Thus communication within the brain can be regarded as an electrochemical process that underlies nervous transmission. Some neurotransmitters have an inhibitory action (ie they decrease firing) whilst others have an activating function (ie they increase firing) and a balance of inhibitory and activating functions is necessary to ensure that genuine messages are transmitted and adaptive responses ensue. TIP: You should be able to explain and apply the properties of at least TWO neurotransmitters. Some examples are provided. (Options: Dysfunctional Behaviour, Health Psychology) Dopamine tends to have an inhibitory function and is a transmitter for movement, attention and learning. Degeneration of neurons in the dopamine circuit can occur with age and if insufficient dopamine is produced, Parkinsons disease results. A synthetic form of dopamine can be given to alleviate the symptoms of Parkinsons disease. However high levels of this medication have been found to produce symptoms akin to schizophrenia, hence the dopamine hypothesis that states that schizophrenic episodes are produced by an overactive transmission of dopaminergic neurons. However cause and effect are problematic since the cause could be related to inappropriate dopamine transmission or a faulty re-uptake processes. It has also been hypothesised that a breakdown in other catecholamines could intervene in the chemical imbalance associated with symptoms of schizophrenia. In theory brain surgery involving the transplanting of dopaminergic neurons from human foetal material is possible. However there are strong ethical implications for

Interviews can either be controlled in the sense of having different levels of structure (structured or semi-structured) or be informal in the sense of being unstructured (non-directive or loose). There are generally two types of questions, open or closed. Clearly the degree of structure will reflect the type of data collected, so structured interviews are more likely to attract quantitative data whilst unstructured approaches are commensurate with qualitative data. However you should be aware that some qualitative methods use structured questionnaires. TIP: You need to be able to demonstrate to the examiner that you are aware of the implications of the type of interview method and the implications for data analysis and subsequent generalisation of findings. Open questions are designed to elicit as much information as possible from the interviewee and to allow the interviewee to give personal insights, accounts or explanations for the concept under investigation. They typically start with such phrases as How, what, can you tell me why, could you give me more information about. This type of phrasing encourages the interviewee to develop their thoughts and ideas. Closed questions are designed to seek specific information, perhaps biodata, or to establish yes/no/dont know responses. Structured Interviews In its extreme form a structured interview is represented by a set of questions that are asked in a pre-set order and should be phrased in the exact language of the question. Naturally this approach approximates to a questionnaire or, on a broader scale, a survey that can be carried on by phone, email or by post. However in interview terms, the compromise is usually a semi-structured interview that has some pre-set questions designed to collect biodata or data related to specific aspects of the concept under investigation. The rest of the interview is based on open questions that are adapted to the individual responses of the interviewee. This requires particular interviewer skills, inter alia listening for trigger words, themes or recurring phrases that suggest areas requiring more focused questioning. Furthermore the interviewer has to be able to establish rapport and trust with the interviewee otherwise the interviewee will fail to disclose more pertinent, and often personal, insights. Strengths of structured interviews Standardised format limits the level of training required by the interviewer (ticking boxes or merely recording closed answer responses) Pre-set questions and format allow for replication and thus results that appear reliable in quantitative terms can be generalised Structured interviews tend to be more time efficient (no scope for in-depth investigation of answers) so interviewees may be more inclined to participate for reasons of expediency and relatively low levels of disclosure pursued

Disadvantages/drawbacks of structured interviews Limited scope of data obtained owing to rigidity of standardised format that prevents investigation of particular responses or deviation from prescribed question order (validity issues) Lack of interpersonal rapport or empathy between interviewer and interviewee can also limit motivation of interviewee to give high calibre answers

experience and an appraisal or interpretation of the consequences of alternative sets of responses. Theoretical explanations of behavioural change Look under Applications for explanations of behavioural change related to human behaviour at a social and societal level. Reinforcement See classical and operant conditioning under Key concepts (pages 46-47) See observational learning and modelling (page 47) Learning set Learning sets were proposed to account for how trial and error learning can produce a cognitive appreciation of effective problem solving strategies. Harlow(1949) developed this theory to refute Kohlers (1925) view of insight learning as an active and original internal process. Harlow (1949) worked with non-human primates and gave them a series of tasks, all with the same underlying principle as to the solution although the elements leading to the solution may be different. The monkey was rewarded for each successful trial and the time taken to successfully solve the problems decreased as a function of the number of problems solved. Thus, Harlow maintained that an internal learning framework or set had been established since the elements of the problem differed each time although the principle remained the same. Learning sets are an example of the effect of practice and learning transfer that lead to a cognitive strategy of generalisation and discrimination of rules or problem solving techniques. Similarly Harlows work was used to support the theory that animals have an internal representation of their environment that can be reproduced in a more flexible way than pure S-R psychology would predict. Learned helplessness (Option: Dysfunctional Behaviour) Learned helplessness is commonly associated with Seligmans (1971) work that was originally based on non-human participant studies using dogs. More recent applications of Seligmans work have been used an explanation of stress (ie learning how not to cope) as well as an explanation of depression that may be engendered in such a situation when the person also reports low self-esteem and negative selfworth. Seligman (1978) stated that constructive learning may only take place if the person has control over the situation or is able to control potentially stressful or anxiety provoking events. He linked his findings with the early learning theorists concept of escape learning. If escape learning is not possible, ie the animal cannot avoid the noxious stimulus (usually a series of electric shocks), passive behaviour is shown. This continues even if the situation is modified whereby the animal can control the noxious stimulus by moving. This is an example of generalisation when an action that produced an unsuccessful outcome in one situation is transferred to a different situation. As indicated the analysis of learning helplessness as applied to humans implies a cognitive self-appraisal as well as an appraisal of the demands of situation or series