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ARL 621 EKOLOGI LANSKAP

KORDINATOR: Prof. Dr. Ir. Hadi Susilo Arifin, MS. DOSEN ANGGOTA: Prof. Dr. Ir. Wahju Qamara Mugnisjah, M.Agr. Dr. Syartinilia, SP, MSi
BUKU RUJUKAN UTAMA: Forman, R.T.T. and M. Godron. 1986. Landscape Ecology. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 619p.

PART I 1 2 PART II 3 4 5 6 PART III 7 8 9 10 11 12 PART IV 13 14

FOREWORD PREFACE ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS OVERVIEW LANDSCAPE AND PRINCIPLES ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS IN BRIEF LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE PATCHES CORRIDORS MATRIX AND NETWORK OVERALL STRUCTURE LANDSCAPE DYNAMIC NATURAL PROCESSES IN LANDSCAPE DEVELOPMENT THE HUMAN ROLE IN LANDSCAPE DEVELOPMENT FLOWS BETWEEN ADJACENT LANDSCAPE ELEMENTS ANIMAL AND PLANT MOVEMENT ACROSS A LANDSCAPE LANDSCAPE FUNCTIONING LANDSCAPE CHANGE HETEROGENEITY AND MANAGEMENT HETEROGENEITY AND TYPOLOGY LANDSCAPE MANAGEMENT REFERENCES GLOSSARY INDEX

v vii xi 1 3 33 81 83 123 157 191 227 229 273 313 357 397 427 461 463 495 533 589 603

TABLE OF CONTENTS

WAHJU QAMARA MUGNISJAH

8 THE HUMAN ROLE IN LANDSCAPE DEVELOPMENT

All art, all education, can be merely a supplement to nature (Aristotle, 384-322 B.C.)

WQM, 2012

8. THE HUMAN ROLE IN LANDSCAPE DEVELOPMENT

8.1 MODIFICATION OF NATURAL RHYTHMS 8.1.1 Disturbance and Rhythms 8.1.2 Daily Rhythms 8.1.3 Seasonal Rhythms 8.1.4 Rhythms of Several Years or Centuries 8.2 METHODS OR TOOLS USED IN LANDSCAPE MODIFICATION 8.2.1 Natural Resource Extraction and Alteration 8.2.2 Introduction of Agricultural Methods 8.2.3 Decision Catalysts 8.3 A LANDSCAPE MODIFICATION GRADIENT

8.3 A LANDSCAPE MODIFICATION GRADIENT 8.3.1 Natural Landscapes 8.3.2 Managed Landscapes 8.3.3 Cultivated Landscapes 8.3.3.1 The Development of Cultivation 8.3.3.2 The Development of Villages 8.3.3.3 Characteristics of Cultivated Landscapes 8.3.4 Suburban Landscapes 8.3.4.1 A Historical Overview of Cities 8.3.4.2 Characteristics of Suburbia 8.3.5 Urban Landscapes 8.3.5.1 Specialization 8.3.5.2 Writing 8.3.5.3 Ecology of the Modern City 8.3.6 The Megalopolis

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THE THREE BASIC SHAPES OF LANDSCAPE ELEMENTS (THE AREA CONCEPT)

Patch (1) a nonlinear surface area differing in appearance from its surrounding; (2) a spatially separate instance of a given type of habitat the density of patches, or the fineness of a mosaic. (1) a narrow strip of habitat surrounded by habitats of different types; (2) a narrow strip of land that differs from the matrix on either side. (1) the dominant component of a landscape mosaic; (2) the most extensive and most connected landscape element type present, which play the dominan role in landscape functioning. Also, a landscape element surrounding a patch patches of different aged, trees.

Patchiness Corridor

Figure 8.1 Mont Saint Michel, an island on the northern coast of France as seen when rapidly rising tides cover the adjoining mud flats.

Photograph of Mont Saint Michel: A geologist would see it as an erosional outlier, a remnant of a former plateau that later served to support some buildings. A landscape architect would see it as a fortified abbey, built about 1450, taking advantage of a readily defended site.

Matrix

In a landscape with people, the human role and the role of nature may be alternatively emphasized but cannot be disentangled. To understand why a landscape looks as it does: We cannot limit ourselves to the natural or physical environment. We must also understand human influences and culture.
abbey = building(s) in which men (called monks) or women (called nuns) live as a community in the service of God disentangle = free from complications, tangles, or confusion

Mosaic

Most so-called natural ecosystems, and numerous species within them, have long been influenced by humans. With the exponential growth in human population, ecosystems without this influence are increasingly scarce. Rather than attempting to avoid human influences in ecology, or calling their study applied ecology, we must develop ecological principles based on the characteristics of most of the earth's ecosystems and species. Such principles will be far more powerful and useful. Nevertheless, rigor and caution are essential, because humans become simultaneously the observers and the objects of study.

8.1.1 DISTURBANCE AND RHYTHMS The horizontal structure of a landscape: When undisturbed tends to progress toward homogeneity. Moderate disturbance rapidly increases heterogeneity. Severe disturbance may increase or decrease heterogeneity. A landscape can therefore be said to be in a dynamic balance at a point in time; that is, it is subject to two opposing types of forces, development and disturbance. In such a balance, the most fundamental landscape characteristicsvertical structure, horizontal structure, and grain sizeshift rapidly when one group of forces becomes predominant over the other.
Grain = natural arrangement of the lines of fibre in wood, etc. as seen on a surface that has been sawn or cut

8.1 MODIFICATION OF NATURAL RHYTHMS

The most important ecological characteristic of a disturbance is its time lag or periodicity. When an environmental factor such as temperature, fire, or food supply oscillates with a regular rhythm, the genetic memory of organisms permits them to take note of the fluctuations. The species progressively adapt until, at some point, this factor can no longer be considered a disturbance. For animals, the daily rhythm produces a series of waking and steeping periods. Humans are so habituated to these that they suffer noticeably from disorientation of their biological clock when they cross several time zones in an airplane.

The contrast between day and night permits the plants alternate daytime photosynthesis and evapotranspiration with nighttime cell expansion. The annual seasonal cycle in the temperate zone: launch the explosion of annual plants in spring, gradually build the sustained greenery in summer, lead the decreas leaves in fall to a final dormancy in winter. In climates with a severe dry season, where natural fires appear almost certain when biomass reaches a certain level. The plant species have had time to adapt to the frequent fires with varied mechanisms for resisting death or for rapidly regrowing, most of the animals either have the ability to burrow in the substrate or flee from the fire.

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Figure 8.2 Waste material from strip mining operations in La Salle County, Illinois, USA

Periodic variations in the environment can be absorbed by organisms, thanks to their genetic memory. It effectively notes regular fluctuations and permits an adaptation through reproductive cycles. Unpredictable and infrequent variations are disturbances, in the sense that they significantly alter the ecological system and result in a long recovery period.

8.1.2 DAILY RHYTHMS

To extend the daily temperature cycle, we construct greenhouses. Their effect on the landscape is considerable The other easily changed daily rhythm is the alternation of light and dark periods. Elongating days with artificial lights increases the production of eggs and chickens. Elongating nights accelerates the fattening of hogs. This type of modification is generally too localized to modify an entire landscape but it helps produce the large farmyards so distinctive and so repetitive. These human struggles against a strong regular daily rhythm require a heavy investment in a nearly permanent agricultural infrastructure that leaves a marked imprint on the landscape.
WQM: Green house; vinyl house Phytotron; biotron Photoperiodical alteration

These broad principles are recalled here, introducing a chapter on the influence of people, because human actions are sudden and unexpected in the scale of geological time. The period of human influence has been so brief that, in effect, other species have still not had time enough to adapt to it (Figure 8.2). Confronted with the massive activities of humans, and not having sufficient time to "resist" by adaptation, many species risk disappearing. Alternatively, species may evolve by benefiting from human construction. We thus begin this chapter by considering how human actions directed at altering the rhythm of natural processes lead to direct and widespread effects on landscapes.

8.1.3 SEASONAL RHYTHMS

The most spectacular revolution in human history arose from the idea of modifying natural seasonal rhythms. The change from the hunter-gatherer (Figure 8.3) to the cultivator-herder way of life near the end of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age has resulted in the transformation of more than three quarters of the global land surface.

Figure 8.3 Excavation of a Paleolithic site beneath an overhanging cliff. The Altiplano near Bogota, Colombia.

CONTOH POLA TANAM PEKARANGAN LAHAN KERING BERIKLIM KERING (Deptrans-PPH, 1994)

The principal object of plowing and working the soil is to modify the sequence of life cycle changes of perennial plant species In natural landscapes, a different set of species may be active and productive at each season. In the cultivated landscape, this sequence is replaced by a much more compact cycle.

The stockpiling of provisions to survive the difficult season was an even more basic revolution than the practice of seed planting for legumes and grain. The establishment of permanent settlements, the domestication of ruminants, and cultivation are three convergent means to escape the constraints of seasonal rhythms.
WQM: Agricultural landscape change in Cianjur JABAL system in Java Lakbok Irrigation Project

A single species produces at a single moment of the year. As a result, the landscape is transformed into a checkerboard on which each type of cultivation represents a square. This checkerboard of mixed plantings could be constructed at the scale of a field parcel, a farm, or an entire landscape. Ultimately, the landscape could appear as a monoculture, in which all the squares of the checkerboard are planted with the same crop.
WQM: Yearly cropping system: rotation Monoculture vs agroforestry/integrated farming system (agrosilvopasture; agrosilvofishery; SALT-1; SALT-2; SALT-3) Seed masting; defoliation;

The history of agriculture verifies this basic pattern of modifying seasonal rhythms. The Age of Copper and the Age of Bronze (the first human cultural and technological phases with a widespread use of metal, about 30001200 B.C. in the Middle East, and about 1800-600 B.C. in China), before the advent of iron farm instruments, were characterized more by temporary burned patches for crops than by permanent agricultural clearing. Not until the Iron Age (characterized by widespread use of iron, beginning about 1200 B.C. in the Middle East and 600 B.C. in China), could the roots of herbaceous grasses readily be cut by rigid cutting tools. A bronze spade that twists is of limited agricultural use in digging up and turning over the dense tangle of roots of a mature grassland. It was not until the iron hoe became widespread that the regular cultivation of grasslands or fallow fields became possible.

In the case of livestock grazing, the transformation of the landscape by modification of the seasonal sequence is less evident, but all ranchers and farmers know that the rhythm of pasturing is the key to good management. In general, overgrazing is basically the result of a poor seasonal or weekly distribution of livestock rather than an average excess of the total number of animals. Irrigation is generally used, in climates with a very distinct seasonal rhythm, to compensate for the water deficit in the dry season. The endless, monotonous appearance of the landscape in irrigated plains bears witness to the magnitude of investments needed to reduce the constraints of seasonal climatic cycles. In each irrigated landscape the form of the canal network, whether fern-likewith principal canals and smaller parallel branchesor hand-likewith canals radiating from a single pointprovides a nearly permanent imprint on landscape structure.

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8.1.4 RHYTHMS OF SEVERAL YEARS OR CENTURIES

Seruu.com [19 Apr 2012] - Hutan rakyat (3 ha) terbakar di Dusun Nogosari, Desa Selopamioro, Kecamatan Imogiri, Kabupaten Bantul, Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta

In environments where fire is a natural factor that controls assemblages of animals and plants, fires appear at relatively regular intervalswhen the amount of combustible material builds up to the level where fire spreads easily. When humans intervene, they generally accelerate the cadence or frequency of fires. The clearest example is the tropical savanna in parts of Africa and South America, where millions of hectares are deliberately burned each year. In some areas, foresters use control burns to help manage the forest for wood products. These are intentional, controlled fires undertaken only at certain seasons and at certain well-chosen stages of succession
Cadence = rhythm

Management of European forests provides a significant example of the modification of century-long rhythms. For example, the forest of Blois in the Loire Valley of France was oriented in the seventeenth century toward production of wood for the royal navy. It is still managed with a complete rotation of 240 years, giving the oaks fine-grained wood for producing deluxe furniture. This type of forest management produces a checkerboard of parcels usually of four identifiable types, by increasing age: (a) seedling brush, (b) sapling thicket, (c) pole stand, and (d) forest grove. Forests resulting from this process are very different from natural forests because woodcutters harvest some wood from the forest about every ten years. At each harvest the poorest growing trees are selected for removal, so the final forest grove is composed of beautiful, tall, productive trees that in turn give rise to the following forest generation.
Selected harvest by HPH

Another influence of civilization at the century scale is the increase in the level of atmospheric CO2. This increase affects the entire bio-sphere and is linked to landscapes because it depends on the annual production and decomposition rhythms of ecosystems. Deforestation of landscapes in the past two decades appears to be a particularly important factor in the overall CO2 increase.

8.2 METHODS OR TOOLS USED IN LANDSCAPE MODIFICATION

We could spell out other widespread and long-term effects of human actions on landscapes, such as desertification, deforestation, and erosion. It is more interesting now, however, to explore how the methods or tools used by people affect the landscape.

WQM: Pembukaan hutan untuk daerah transmigrasi Banjir bandang vs kekeringan

8.2.1 NATURAL RESOURCE EXTRACTION AND ALTERATION

Doubtless the first influence of prehistoric people was their predation on edible animals and plants. This predation did not modify the landscape much more than that of chimpanzees. Modification became somewhat more serious near the end of the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) with the invention of the bow. During this period, livestock and planted crops allowed some further increases in regular harvest production as well as in human population growth. However, domestication at its beginning probably had little genetic effect on the wild strains used. The earth supported only a few million people (estimates of 2 to 10 million) then, an average density of less than one person for every 20 square kilometers. The total predation effect was still minimal at this time.
Bow = a piece of wood curved by a tight string , used for shooting arrows.

It was mainly by using fire that humans came to exert a major influence. Traces of human use of fire have been found in deposits more than 200,000 years old, such as those near Aix-enProvence in southeastern France. Throughout history, sailors who navigated along shores inhabited by "indigenous savages" have described clouds of smoke that decorated the coastlines, both in such temperate regions as North America and such dry tropical regions as southern Africa. It is suggested that fire has been used in the Middle East since the middle Paleolithic for hunting and making clearings.
Savages = wild, primitive; cruel or barbarous person

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The extraction of minerals also transforms landscapes.

Quarries, sand and gravel extraction, open pit mines, and especially surface strip mining for coal and other mineral resources far exceed the abilities of the existing natural ecosystems to adjust and of their species to adapt. These pits and mining activities result in long-term marks on the land-scape.
Figure 8.5 Livestock as an introduced species bred and tended by humans.

8.2.2 INTRODUCTION OF AGRICULTURAL METHODS

Agriculture is not simply the harvest of usable production. It also involves the favoring of certain native species and the introduction of new species into selected ecosystems of a landscape (Figure 8.5). Since the middle Holocene, humans have intentionally introduced species or strains of plants and animals for domestication on a significant scale. Such species normally cannot compete with wild native species and require human effort to persist.

The mechanical energy necessary for cultivation has produced a major effect on the landscape, especially the utilization of draft animals such as oxen and horses. This innovation has still not reached its peak. The complex of species introductions and mechanical cultivating methods produces a human-driven process of landscape development

Innovation = a new technique or idea that causes a significant effect Green revolution in Indonesia Environment degradation

Quarries = place from which stone etc may be extracted

Throughout the historical period, the techniques used to harvest the annual increment of livestock and crop productivity have become ever more powerful. Nevertheless, the rise in human population and the increasing use of fossil fuel are the two main factors in the increase in the amount extracted each year. The inputs of fertilizers and pesticides are also effectively inputs of energy. Their influence on landscapes is often as conspicuous as that of mechanization, because they lead to increasing homogeneity of cultivated parcels with few patches of weeds or parasites evident. With these techniques, the long-term trade-off between higher crop productivity and soil erosion and impoverishment of the native biotabecomes increasingly clear. Despite the use of pesticides in many agricultural fields, pest explosions continue in landscapes. In some cases, the pests are both native species and nonnative ones.

8.2.3 DECISION CATALYSTS

The tools used for constructing buildings and cities, as well as transportation and communication routes, are powerful and diverse. How their effects in modifying landscapes. How political, economic, and social decisions affect the landscape. Nearly all characteristics of landscape structure, functioning, and change operate at levels ofand are confined by political, economic, and social forces. In such cases, specific human decisions act as triggers or decision catalysts that may be transmitted to another landscape (or landscape element) by communication, and cause change virtually overnight.

8.3 A LANDSCAPE MODIFICATION GRADIENT

Human influences on landscapes are numerous and it is neither possible nor useful to consider each of these in isolation. A more promising approach is to consider the combined effects of all human influences on a landscape. To do this, we can observe a gradient of landscape modification, extending from a natural landscape without significant human impact to an urban landscape (i.e. large city) -- and make historical observations, since each landscape is a product of its historical development. The natural landscape is in equilibrium with its (zonal) soil, while the city is the highest level of human-caused modification (or "artificialization") considered.

In a highly diversified region, five primary landscape types will be discussed 1. Natural landscapewithout significant human impact 2. Managed landscapefor example, pasture land or forest, where native species are managed and harvested. 3. Cultivated landscapewith villages and patches of natural or managed ecosystems scattered within the predominant cultivation. 4. Suburban landscapea town and country area with a heterogeneous patchy mixture of residential areas, commercial centers, cropland, managed vegetation, and natural areas. 5. Urban landscapewith remnant managed park areas scattered in a densely built up matrix several kilometers across. We will concentrate on the horizontal structure of the landscapes, noting also productivity, mineral nutrient cycling, and species diversity (i.e., species number).

Figure 8.7 Patch characteristics changing along a landscape modification gradient. The landscape modification levels are (1) natural, (2) managed, (3) cultivated, (4) suburban, and (5) urban.

Figure 8.8 Corridors and other features changing along a landscape modification gradient. Landscape modification levels are: (?) natural, (2) managed, (3) cultivated, (4) suburban, and (5) urban. The matrix of a cultivated landscape is extensive where a single crop predominates, but low where a few crops predominate in similar proportions.

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Figure 8.7 Patch characteristics changing along a landscape modification gradient. The landscape modification levels are (1) natural, (2) managed, (3) cultivated, (4) suburban, and (5) urban.

Figure 8.8 Corridors and other features changing along a landscape modification gradient. Landscape modification levels are: (?) natural, (2) managed, (3) cultivated, (4) suburban, and (5) urban.

8.3.1 NATURAL LANDSCAPES

In the natural landscapes we see a highly connected matrix (Figure 8.6) surrounding a relatively low density of natural patches and corridors. The grain of the landscape is usually rather coarse, and in many cases boundaries between landscape elements are indistinct. Most patches are environmental resource patches Figure 8.6 A highly connected rain forest matrix contrasted with a resulting from spatial variations in physical river corridor and agricultural factors, but disturbance-caused patches are also patches. present (Figure 8.7). The few corridors present are almost always stream corridors (Figure 8.8). In flat areas, boundaries between landscape elements are commonly parallel to topographic contours, while on slopes their limits are often linked to the depth of soil or water table, resulting in an inter-digitating pattern of the vegetation. In either case, boundaries are highly curved and rarely straight. Average patch size is large, but more striking is the high variability in patch size.
Natural landscape = An area where human effects, if present, are not ecologically significant to the landscape as a whole

Biomass, or potential energy accumulated by the vegetation, is almost always at its maximum. The rate of photosynthesis is high, but because so much energy is required to support the large biomass, and because decomposers are actively breaking down biomass, the net production available for sustained human harvest is minimal (without significantly changing the landscape). Nutrient runoff to streams is present but generally small. Species diversity is generally high and (in some natural landscapes) extremely rich.

The colonization of natural landscapes may involve nomadic grazing of livestock or the establishment of scattered clearings for cultivation (Figure 8.6). In either case, corridor and patch density increases and matrix connectivity decreases. The major consequence of these new landscape elements is that they serve as nuclei for the spreading of people and tools into the natural matrix of the landscape. Livestock, domestic animals, introduced plants, and people can move readily into the immediate surrounding area that had previously been remote. The other side of results, of course, is that those native animals that require remoteness or large tracts of undisturbed land decrease or are eliminated.

8.3.2 MANAGED LANDSCAPE

Major changes appear as we observe the managed landscape (pastureland, rangeland, or forests harvested for wood products ) (Figure 8.9). The matrix remains extensive, though it is now dominated by one or a few species that are managed for production. Humans affect the matrix primarily by harvesting products and by decreasing or increasing fire frequency. Hamletslittle clusters of homesare present. Line corridors associated with communication and harvest appear in abundance, cutting the connectivity of the matrix sharply (Figure 8.8) Patchiness continues to increase, and there are more disturbance patches, while average patch size and variability decrease (Figure 8.7).

Figure 8.9 Geometrization introduced into a managed range/and landscape near Crystal, Idaho (United States).

Managed landscape = A landscape, such as rangeland or forest, where native species are harvested

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Average net production for the whole landscape is positive, with patchy harvests, reflecting the locations of settlements. Harvest patterns also vary temporally, taking place annually in the case of sheep, for example, or at several-decade intervals in the case of wood products. Mineral nutrient cycles may be extensively disturbed as a result of widespread management and harvest activities along with the cumulative localized effects of clearings, hamlets, and roads. After logging, for example, mineral nutrient losses from an ecosystem typically increase sharply, and then soon drop as vegetative regrowth accelerates. However, if regrowth is inhibited for a period by disturbance, large mineral nutrient losses, especially of nitrate, can Figure 8.10 Dissolved ions leaching out of be expected (Figure 8.10). undisturbed (a) versus disturbed (b) forest ecosystems. Disturbance in these three forests of On slopes or highly permeable soils such southern Indiana (United states) is a root trenching technique with prevention of vegetation disturbance may lead to long-term soil regrowth. impoverishment.

Figure 8.10 Dissolved ions leaching out of undisturbed (a) versus disturbed (b) forest ecosystems. Disturbance in these three forests of southern Indiana (United states) is a root trenching technique with prevention of vegetation regrowth.

Species diversity in managed landscapes may increase or decrease.

Perhaps often the number of native species that disappear is greater than the number of nonnative species that are introduced in patches across the landscape. Even more striking is the relative homogenization of the matrix. While some native species, especially among the vertebrates, become rare, the few harvest species appear in repetitive monotony across the managed landscape.

8.3.3 CULTIVATED LANDSCAPES

8.3.3.1 The Development of Cultivation
In flat temperate areas of Europe, agriculture developed and deciduous forest was removed. By late in the Iron Age (1250 to 1400 A.D.) , a so-called open-field landscape (Figure 8.11) had formed along with a social system that directly controlled land use practices. Extensive plains were often totally cultivated and typically underwent a system of three-field rotation. While one field was in winter wheat, one would be in summer grain, and one in fallowthat is, abandoned to natural vegetation, soil refertilization, and often a few livestock.
Cultivated landscape = A landscape dominated by plow land for crops, but ussually with patches of natural and managed land present

Animal species with large home ranges, and often those at high trophic or feeding levels are usually the first to disappear.
Mountain lions (Felis concolor) and wolves (Can/s lupus) were probably removed at an early date in the seventeenth century from the colonized landscapes of eastern North America. In a similar manner, bears (Ursidae) had been eliminated from Western Europe. Large primates disappeared from the Banco Forest Reserve in southern Ivory Coast.

The land around a village was divided into three relatively large homogeneous sections that were rotated nearly every year. A new section could be in fallow to prevent soil depletion, while in the other sections all the farmers had to work together to produce the same crop, and then cattle and sheep were permitted to graze those sections. The next phase took place when a network of hedgerows was constructed to form enclosures for pastures or cultivation. The establishment of enclosed fields that began to develop around the end of the fourteenth century was linked to an increase in livestock. The grazing of livestock was widespread and even high elevation parcels were carved out of the forest for enclosures. At the beginning of the sixteenth century, the spread of the field enclosures was accompanied, progressively, by the cultivation of crops such as peas, beans, clover, mustard, and carrots.
Yearly cropping pattern in Indonesia: IFS Agricultural land use in Sundanese: pekarangan dan talun

The rural agricultural system functioned in this manner in all middle European countries up to the nineteenth century. Extensive hedgerow removal then occurred in many of the open plain areas. Although traces of the former enclosure landscapes remain, today's plains have much larger fields and fewer hedgerows, as a consequence of the mechanization of farming. Agricultural systems can be quite stable in human hands, as those of plains in Europe and the Ukraine. Agricultural systems on plains, however, remain particularly subject to the hazards of geopolitics. There are numerous examples that have been ravaged or altered to become deserts.

Agricultural land conversion Recent trend to sustainable agricultural system

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8.3.3.2 The Development of Villages

A village is a cluster of homes in a rural area, somewhat larger than a hamlet, that includes at least one common building or a market place. The location of a village usually has to do with the presence of particular necessities such as access to well water or defense against ravaging during insecure periods (Figure 8.12). By the late Paleolithic, about 6000 B.C., a village was already installed at the "Iron Gates" site by the Danube River in Yugoslavia. In the Middle East, many traces of villages have been discovered that date to the second half of the fifth millennium B.C. (e.g., Tell Massuna in Mesopotamia, Saktchegozou in Syria, and Sialk in northwestern Iran). Egyptian sites apparently were still hamlets in the fourth millennium B.C.
Rural = in, of, characteristic of, suitable for, the country (opp. of urban)

Villages, of course, do not represent a landscape by themselves but rather represent a new type of landscape element. A village may be linear in shape (Figure 8.12), as is Marschufendorf today in Germany, for example, and the many settlements called "rangs" that line country roads in Quebec. However, most villages are somewhat circular as a result of a physical or social constraint, such as a fortified site or the hub of an open-field agricultural area. Villages may also be a loose cluster of hamlets, often connected by a hedgerow network. Whatever shape they have, villages cause an increase in the number of patches present in a landscape, leading in turn to a significant increase in corridors and networks, resulting in low connectivity of the matrix.

Figure 8.12 Linear village developed in a gorge for a religious community dating to the tenth century A.D. St. Cuilhem le Desert, Languedoc, southern France.
Gorge = narrow opening, usu. with a stream , between hills or mountains

This type of rural landscape with a village structure can be very stable and persist over several centuries or even millennia, as has been the case in Numidia and Switzerland. Ecological catastrophes such as floods, salinization of irrigated land (Jacobsen and Adams, 1958), and loss of fertility, as well as economic or military setbacks, can cause a long-term loss of the village structure from a landscape. It is recognized that a large number of widespread or "cosmopolitan" species "follow" human aggregations around the world. Several of such species are particularly abundant in villages and may be called village species. Village species provide ecological repeatability to the village landscape elements scattered across a rural landscape. A modification or extension of the village role in the landscape can be seen today in some landscapes in socialist and other countries where collectives have been built in the rural landscape. These are communally run aggregations of people, buildings, and land that are commonly larger than a farm and smaller than a village. The collectives result in an intense and relatively evenly distributed human influence across the landscape; large distinct patches often surround each collective.

8.3.3.3 Characteristics of Cultivated Landscapes

Agricultural development of a landscape usually progresses through three stages. 1. Traditional agriculture: a somewhat heterogeneous fine-grained matrix with scattered, irregularly-shaped field patchesthat have just been cultivatednext to grazed fallow patches. 2. Combined traditional and modern agriculture: similar except with wide, persistent, homogeneous patches on the best soils. 3. Modern agriculture with remnants of traditional agriculture: a matrix of large persistent homogeneous parcels with scattered patches of traditional agriculture and remnant natural patches. The most general characteristic of the cultivated landscape is that geometrizationthe formation of linear and polygonal featureshas been imposed on it, and straight lines are visible throughout. On flat plains, we see roads, field margins, furrows, and irrigation ditches extending in Straight lines to the horizon. When there is more topographic relief, the sharp geometric patterns are combined with curves of hills and natural drainage patterns (Figure 8.9).

The characteristics of the cultivated landscape based on the three basic shapes of landscape elements (area concept) Stream corridors are often destroyed, and fewer remain (Figure 8.13), while line corridors that connect villages or are used in cultivation and harvest are widespread (Figure 8.8). Corridor networks are usually conspicuous and predominant, and so matrix connectivity is low. If a single crop is prevalent, the matrix covers a large portion of the landscape area. In the case of a few major crops are intermingled and widespread, the matrix area is minimal, and it may be difficult to determine which type is the matrix.

Intensive cultivation that nearly eliminates a stream corridor. The result is high levels of nutrient loss, stream bank erosion, flooding, stream sedimentation, water temperature, and fish disappearance.

Compared with managed landscapes, in cultivated landscapes: Patch density increases, Variability in patch size decreases (Figure 8.7). A marked shift in the causes of the patches emerges. Fewer disturbance patches and more introduced cultivated patches are evident, More remnant patches appear as the natural Managed vegetation is cut into increasingly fine residual parcels.

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8.3.4 SUBURBAN LANDSCAPES

Suburbs are the most heterogeneous and least ecologically understood landscapes. Since they develop around and are linked to cities, we must begin by considering urbanization. Urban landscapes have always been highly varied, undoubtedly because cities assume several major functions.

8.3.4.1 A Historical Overview of Cities

The oldest town site known today is Jericho, founded in the late Paleolithic around 6000 B.C., in the Middle East. The first city-states of the Sumerian civilization were also holy cities. The Sumerian civilization had four-sided pyramids with five levels. The oldest known sanctuary (about 3700 B.C.?) was found at Eridou near the gulf between Iran and Saudi Arabia. The landscapes of Mesopotamia (now primarily Iraq) were dominated by rounded pyramids with exterior staircases (ziggurats). At Our (Ur), which dates to the third millennium B.C., trees and shrubs formed an island of protective shadeor a sacred wood on the highest level of the pyramid. In the eighth century B.C. at the same site (then called Assour), Sennacherib (landscape architects or botanists) built a sort of botanical garden, covering local species, as well as those from territories to the north, the east, and the Mediterranean shores.

Suburb = outlying district of a town or a city The suburbs = all these districts collectively Suburban = of or in a subsuburb Suburban landscape = A town and country area with a heterogenous patchy mixture of residential areas, commercial centers, cropland, managed vegetation, and natural areas

The combination of architecture and plants reached its zenith in the suspended gardens of Babylon. The gardens were almost certainly constructed by Nebuchadnezzar II (604 to 561 B.C.) and were to have been dedicated to Amouhid, daughter of King Midas, who languished for the green forests of her childhood. These gardens, 120m on a side, had the form of an amphitheater and were bounded by exterior colonnades 25 m high. Trees 4 m in circumference and 60 m high were reported to grow there. Three wells were found in the center of the suspended gardens during excavations. The water was originally brought up to the summit by an endless chain of buckets.

Egypt is no longer considered the sole progenitor of urban civilizations but it played a key role in the development of the city form. Around the beginning of the third millennium B.C., the peoples of Upper Egypt near the Nile and Lower Egypt accepted a common sovereign, Menes, who initiated an architecture of a gradiose scale. The terraced 60 m pyramid of Djeser dates from just before 2600 B.C. The great pyramids and the Sphynx (built during the fourth dynasty, 2600-2480 B.C.) attained a maximum height of 146 mas high as the much later Cathedral of St. Peter in Rome. These brief examples of landscape development in Mesopotamia and Egypt illustrate the process of sequent occupance. This term refers to the landscape changes produced when a sequence of different cultures occupies the same area. The sequence is commonly a series of stages where predominantly natural conditions, often characterized by low productivity, alternate over time with landscapes that bear a heavy human imprint.
Sovereign = supreme ruler, esp. a monarch Gradiose = ?

Similar trends doubtless took place in other parts of the world. The early Chinese town Liang Chengzhen, dating to about 3500 B.C.), whereas astronomy (or geomancy) may also have played a role in the design of some cities. The Greek name for townpolisexpresses the idea that there politics, the process of governing, came into being (Plato, 428-348 B.C. The Republic). The politically powerful almost inevitably made their role sacred and erected monumental buildings that reflected a new holy or religious mentality. The large cathedrals of Europe, the Mayan temples (Figure 8.15a), the forbidden city of Peking, and the sacred steps of Benares along the River Ganges in India all are sacred monuments. In modern times, political power is manifested directly in the buildings that symbolize governmentgovernment monuments such as the Kremlin (Figure 8.15b), Versailles, the Hofburg Imperial Palace, and the Capitol in Washington. Construction now is focused more on "temples to a new god, moneythat is, financial monuments, including skyscrapers like the World Trade Center in New York, the Sears Tower in Chicago (Figure 8.15c), andc commercial buildings in Tokyo and Sao Paulo. From this history, we see that cities quickly produced monuments of large size which had a unique social significance. That is, the city constituted a novel and special landscape feature.

8.3.4.2 Characteristics of Suburbia

The characteristics of the suburban landscape based on the three basic shapes of landscape elements (area concept) (Figure 8.16). Line corridors and networks continue to increase, while stream corridors decrease (Figure 8.8). Matrix area and connectivity are minimal. Patchiness is nearly at its maximum in the suburban landscape (Figure 8.7). The richness of types of landscape elements is very great, and almost all the patches are either introduced or remnants.

Figure 8.16 New housing developments and woodland corridors in a suburban landscape. Undeveloped areas in suburbia are usually under enormous competing land-use pressures, including shopping, industrial, housing, waste disposal, and nature reserve interests.

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Average net productivity for the landscape is always patchy and often low. In the face of increasing human population pressure, cultivated fields and managed remnant patches in suburban landscape may soon be gobbled up for other land uses (Figure 8.16). The suburban landscape has a special kind of dynamics since it continues to creep outward from cities, maintaining a consistent form. Mineral nutrient cycling in suburban landscapes is essentially unstudied and difficult to characterize because of the extreme landscape heterogeneity. Species diversity is high, perhaps usually greater than that of the natural landscape. Many species characteristic of natural and cultivated landscapes are present overall. The plants and animals from nurseries, florists, and pet stores that are associated with human aggregations are also a large source of species richness. Only some of these species can successfully colonize the more natural portions of the suburban landscape, but those that do often become significant pests. In the built-up portions of the landscape a large biota of nonnative species is present, including pests, parasites, and weeds.
Gobble up = eat (up) fast, noisy, and greedily Creep = move along with the body close to the ground or floor

8.3.5 URBAN LANDSCAPES Cities are a type of organization totally different from the late Paleolithic encampments and hamlets. The development of hamlet into city occurred when a relatively unorganized homogeneous ensemble transforms itself into an organized structure that cycles objects, information, and energy within itself
Encamp = settled in a camp Ensemble = a thing view as the sum of its parts Urban = of or in a town Urbanize = change from a rural to an urban character Urban Landscape = A landscape with a densely built-up matrixs

8.3.5.1 Specialization
A city has a large human population and functions by having a series of specialized objects flow through a network. A primary difference between a city and a group of huts is that in a city people have specialized or diversified roles.
In villages of Eskimos in the Arctic, Indians of the Matto Grasso in Brazil, and Aborigines of central Australia, each family produces its own needs such as food, clothing, house, tools, ornaments, traps, arms, and the like. Where bronze or iron making has developed, it is a specialized activity reserved for persons with special wisdom, technical knowledge, and (often) magical power. The blacksmith's products are exchanged for food, and such a person can only live in a group sufficiently large to provide a market for the metal products. Other specialized artisan activities operate in the same fashion A town is born when all these exchanges produce a relatively stable system. The city-states of Mesopotamia developed in this manner in the late Paleolithic, as early as the fifth millennium B.C.

8.3.5.2 Writing
The above vision of the birth of cities is reinforced by a remarkable concurrent event. Writing was born when cities appeared. The origins of these two revolutionary developments were not unrelated. Traces of the first of many writings have been found at Ourouk in Sumeria along the Euphrates River. These texts of commercial dealings and inventories are preceded only by trading chips or stones from the late Paleolithic. Scholarly classes arose along with the erection of sanctuaries and the origin of holy cities in this epoch. In this manner Mexico City was organized around the temples of the Sun and the Moon, and remained so as late as 1525 when the Spanish soldiers arrived.
Potters wheel = horizontal revolving disk to carry clay during moulding Mould = make (an object) in a required shape or from certain ingredients Sanctuary = holy place

Hut = small simple or crude house or shelter Blacksmith = ? Artisan = skilled manual worker or ceaftsman

8.3.5.3 Urban Structure and Function

The city has a network of circulatory structures wherein the exchanges occur (Figure 8.17). The circulation routes or streets, which were paved even in Babylon, carry nourishments such as water, electricity, coal, and wood to the homes. The circulation routes also serve as channels for wastes, where sewers carry liquids, and waste disposal vehicles carry solids.

Figure 8.17 Circulatory network underpinning the urban block or patch structure. Each block is unique and depends on the inputs from, and outputs to, the particular circulatory configuration surrounding it.

The urban structures that result from this functioning seem to some designers analogous to biological structures. The architect Saarinen (1965) suggests that the physical order of urban communities compares fundamentally to the organic order of organisms. Doxiadis (1968) hypothesizes that all human settlements are composed
of four indispensable elementsnature, man, society, buildingsand of networks.
Indispensable = that cannot be dispensed with; necessary. Dispend = deal out

Pave = cover (a street, floor, etc.) with a durable surface Sewer = conduit, usu. undergound, for carrying off drainage water and sewage Conduit = channel or pipe conveying liquids Underpin = support, sthrengthen

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Urban landscapes are largely composed of two general types of landscape elements, streets and city blocks, with a scattering of parks and other uncommon landscape features. Districts, distinctive groupings of these landscape elements, are usually evident and not uniformly distributed, as illustrated in the following three models of urban spatial structure. In the concentric zone model, the sequence of districts surrounding a central business district is similar in all directions (Figure 8.18a). In the wedge-shaped sector model, a particular type of district, often extends from the central business district to the city limit, so different sides of the city have different districts (Figure 8.18b). In the multiple nuclei model, an asymmetric patchwork of districts surrounds the central business district (Figure 8.18c).

Such differing spatial patterns result partially from the underlying geomorphic configuration, but primarily from the cultural characteristics and the political system. Hence, the present pattern reflects any previous imprint or plan ranging from, for example, the routes chosen by cows (some claim) before Boston arose, to the highly planned city of Brasilia.

Figure 8.18 Three patterns of urban spatial structure

8.3.5.4 Ecology of the Modern City

Relatively few animal and plant species thrive and reproduce in the modern city. The biological system is totally polarized around the needs of the human species. While unplanned assemblages of species always exist in the city, artificial communities of plants and animals are constructed as a depauperate symbol or reminder of nature.
These depauperate species assemblages are important symbols of nature to people, partially fulfilling their biophilia need. A compelling example is the effect of a view of nature from a hospital room in speeding up a patient's recovery rate.

The accumulation of household wastes in dumps is one of the consequences of urbanization that directly affects landscapes, especially the suburban landscape.
In the suburbs or shanty towns of the great cities of the developing nations waste accumulation, often forming distinct landscape elements, is becoming striking in the landscape. Thrive = grow strong and healthy Depauperate = ? Biophilia = affinity and need for plants and animals Conduit = channel or pipe conveying liquids Underpin = support, sthrengthen Shunty = poorly made hut, shed, or cabin.

By the year 2000, UNESCO estimates that three billion people will have squeezed in around urban zones. Most of these inhabitants will be in 60 cities of more than five million people, 47 of which will be in the developing nations. Thus, urban landscapes are rapidly increasing in number, and unique circulation and structural patterns are emerging for each. Characteristics or urban landscape: an extensive corridor network of streets perforates the urban landscape, producing a tremendous density of tiny equal-sized introduced patches (Figure 8.17); all other patch and corridor types are at a minimum (Figures 8.7 and 8.8); those that remain, such as the occasional stream corridor, urban woodlot, golf course, or cemetery are conspicuous and of exceptional importance to the biota.
Squeeze = exert pressure on Exert = bring to bear, use (a quality, force, influence, etc) Conspicuous = easily seen; attracting attention; remarkable

Average net productivity for the landscape is negative, as the entire ecosystem is fundamentally based on massive imports of plant and animal food. o Inputs include sunlight, water, fuel, food, manufactured goods, and atmospheric deposits usually containing high pollutant levels. o Outputs include sewage, solid wastes, water, heat, and various pollutants. Species diversity of most animal and plant groups is low, although in spots it may be relatively high where nonnative species are abundant. The city is two ecological systems, spatially superimposed but with generally minor linkages. o The primary productivity of the city grass, trees, and other plants supports a rather simplified trophic structure that involves a few herbivores or carnivores such as squirrels and birds. o The other system, centered around humans, involves food and water inputs, waste and sewage outputs, carnivores such as fleas and bedbugs, and decomposers such as bacteria and gulls (Larus). A small subsystem centered on pets like monkeys, cats, and canaries is tied into the human ecological system.

8.3.6 THE MEGALOPOLIS The magnitude of inputs and outputs and of services within a city cannot increase indefinitely without creating problems. The following activities disrupt the urban ecological system effectively, rapidly, and critically: severe drought spells, disruptions in the availability of oil, coal, and electricity, air pollution build-ups, military attacks, and strikes of truckers, railroaders, waste disposal workers, and sewage treatment personnel. The political system responds to disruption in varying degrees of rapidity and effectiveness. The larger the magnitudes of inputs and outputs relative to production or storage within a system, the less stable the system.
Megalopolis is the tying together of two unlike landscapes that serve different major functions, i.e. city and suburban, as a result of of increasing human concentration. .

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An alternative to indefinite urbanization, where a city continues to spread in all directions, is megalopolization. The end product of this process is an enormous suburban landscape, on an order of magnitude larger than before, within which cities are scattered. The smaller city centers are simply a distinctive type of landscape element within suburbia. The large cities, as nuclei giving rise to megalopolization, are urban landscapes in their own right and are surrounded by the gigantic suburban landscape.

Megalopolization = the process of forming a number of cities surrounded by suburbia.

The two types of landscapes within the megalopolis are tightly bound together. For example: flows of commuters, information, and pollutants between the landscapes are extensive. Thus, the megalopolis appears to be a distinctive point along the gradient of concentrating and specializing human processes that began with scattered homes and hamlets. Characteristics of megalopolis The megalopolis is anything but the pinnacle of stability. With its enormous inputs and outputs, the megalopolis is more dependent than ever on other landscapes. Massive amounts of fossil fuel sustain the megalopolis. In its unique political system, many governmental bodies (most of which are in competition) make decisions. Hence, responses to or recovery from disruption are slower, patchier, and less effective. Pinnacle = culmination or climax

One worries about the risk of a degeneration. The ultimate point in the aggregation process has been termed an "ecumenopolis" or "planetopolis," or world city. These ideas seem to be academic exercises in planning without the constraints of universal ecological principles.

SUMMARY
Human influences (except where extremely heavy) increase landscape heterogeneity in three primary ways. First, rhythms of natural disturbances, ranging from one day to a few centuries long, are modified through agricultural and forestry practices. Second, the methods of landscape modificationfor example, extracting renewable resources, developing agriculture, and constructing buildings and communication routeshave increased in number and effectiveness. Such methods range from early hunting and use of fire to modern machinery and chemical inputs. Third, the aggregation process, from hamlets to cities, is related to the centralization of necessities, the diversification or specialization of human roles, the construction of sacred and other monuments, and the development of politics.

An ecumenopolis (pl. ecumenopoleis) was a type of planet, or in some cases a moon, whose entire surface was covered with a single worldwide city (http://starwars.wikia.com/wiki/Ecumenopolis [18 Apr 2012])

SUMMARY
In the cultivated landscape, two prominent features are geometrization and the abundance of villages that develop where special resources exist. Villages contain characteristic species and serve as nuclei for effects on the landscape. The megalopolis is composed of two linked landscapes, the urban and the suburban, with huge inputs, outputs, and internal cycling. It is subject to many disturbances and has a relatively ineffective political system to respond to the disturbances. When each of the structural characteristics of landscapes is separately examined along a human modification gradient from natural to urban, patterns emerge. Introduced patches increase, whereas disturbance and environmental resource patches decrease. Patch density and regularity in shape increase, whereas patch size and variability decrease. Line corridors and networks increase, and stream corridors decrease.. The changes in the landscapes are therefore a product of both human influences and natural processes
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

QUESTIONS
How is it that a particular environmental change is a disturbance in one landscape but not in another? To back up your answer, cite and explain examples of two quite different types of natural environmental changes. When were the various human cultural and technological phases? How did humans affect landscapes during each phase? Does altering the periodicity of natural rhythms produce minor or major effects on a landscape? Why? Is it possible for a particular type of human influence to alter natural rhythms of different lengths? Explain. Describe, in the order of their introduction, the major types of agricultural methods that have changed landscapes over time. How do patch origins change along a landscape modification gradient? How about average patch sizes and shapes? How do corridor types change along a landscape modification gradient? How would a geographer describe the patterns of geometrization along the gradient? How does net production change along a landscape modification gradient? How do mineral nutrient outputs change? What characteristics differentiate a hamlet, a village, a city, and a megalopolis? What changes in species diversity and composition take place in proceeding from a natural to a managed landscape? In what order? What major recommendations can you make for biological conservation in this process? What are the ecological advantages and disadvantages for a landscape in the open-field system? Why was it usually replaced by an enclosure landscape? What were the major steps in the historical development of cities? Cite examples. Explain how urban structure and flows would be important to an urban forester; to an urban wildlife manager.

10. 11. 12.

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