A guide to

university grammar of english

foreward

To the Vietnamese readers-students! Grammar is an indispensable and essential part of any language which any student and user of the language make a deep insight into. The famous book "A University Grammar of English" by R.Quirk and S.Greenbaum is a precise grammar book, suggested to be used by tertiary-level students of the English language. In the programme of study at university in Vietnam, this book has been proposed to be used as one of your chief reference books. However, the problems presented in the different chapters (fourteen chapters in all) of the book would be rather difficult to graps and memorize particulary for Vietnamese students if they were not systematised and shortened. This is the reason why were have, with the experiences of one of the pioneer researchers in the area, found it necessary to summarize, and emphasize the fundamental contents of the concepts used in the book. The precise book we compile here with can be considered as a guide book which summarizes, highlights and emphasizes, in a rather full manner, the basic and essential problems which any Vietnamese university student of the English language should firmly grasp and thoroughly understand, so that he/she can make use of the English language in a precise and expert way. In the process of finding accounts and explanations for these problems, we also use notes and the Vietnamese equivalent terms when necessary and possible. After each chapter we suggest the exercises that should be concentratedly done (taken from R.A Close's workbook). Therefore this guide book is aimed to serve Vietnamese students of English language at different universities throughout Vienam including open universities, part-time and distant education learners who wish to get a B.A degree, as well as anyone who wishes to grasp the English language. We sincerely hope that with the help of this guidebook, Vietnamese reader-students can read, digest, and more thoroughly interpret what has been written in the aforesaid book.
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Great successes to you all. Hanoi, 2000 Trn Hu Mnh, Assoc.Prof.Dr Nguyn Vn C, Senior Lecturer

Mc lc (contents)

Foreward An Introduction to Grammar Chapter I Chapter II Chapter III Chapter IV Chapter V Chapter VI Chapter VII Chapter VIII Chapter IX Chapter X Terminology Nouns, Pronouns and the Basic noun Phrase The Complex Noun Phrase Verbs and the Verb Phrase The complementation of the Verb Adjectives and Adverbs Prepositions and Prepositional Phrases The Simple Sentence Adjuncts, Disjuncts and Conjuncts Coordination and Apposition Subordination Complex Sentences

An introduction to grammar
I. What is grammar: I.1. Definition: Elements of grammar: * In tradition al concepts, grammar consists of two parts morphology and syntax. a. Morphology deals with these major problems: (i) Classes of word (different parts of speech) (ii) Different grammatical categories of different parts of speech. N: number, case + gender V: Tense, aspect, voice + mood b. Syntax deals with the combination of words to make larger units of language: phrase, clause and sentence. (i) phrases: treating the combination of words into noun phrases, phrases. (ii) clauses: different kinds of clauses; independent clauses, main/superordinate (dependent) (iii) Sentences: - Simple sentences; sentence with one clause sentences: more clauses. In modern concept, grammar may be defined as a set of morphological and syntactic rules which may be treated
5

verb

phrases,

adjectival

phrases,

prepositional

clauses

and

subordinate

clauses

Compound

sentences

and

complex

sentences

consisting of two or

together to make it essier for the learners - the users of the language to grasp and apply to concrete situations of usage.

I.2. Grammar and other branches of linguistics: a. Phonology: treating phonemes - (smallest linguistic units)

Segmental Vowels Consonant s

Supra segmental Stress rhythm Intonatio n

prosody b. Grammar: dealing with; Morphemes (smallest meaningful linguistic unit) Morphemes (made of phonemes) Words Phrases Clauses (parts of (NP, VP, etc) Independen speech) t Sentences Simple, compound

Main/dep.cl Complex (Largest grammatical unit) c. Semantics (also called semasiology) Treatments meanings of of Words Phrases Clauses Utterances speech) (unit of

Sentenc es d. Discourse analysis: + Largely concerned with larger units than sentence sentences - paragraphs - texts + Means of linking sentences: cohesion coherence II. Parts of sentences and sentence types 1. Traditional concepts Principal parts: Subject and predicate Secondary: Object, complement (predicative), Adverbial Attribute (modifier) E.g: My brother walked to the station (simple Predicate) S Predicate (V + A)

His sister is a teacher of English (compound nominal Predicate) S Predicate (V + NP = complement)

2. R.Quirk et al's concepts: Sentences elements are Subject, Verb, Object,

Complement and Adverbial (S.V.O.C and A for short) E.g: We all S They S V V went A know O to the station last week A these rules

We elected him President twice

S, V, O, C and A can be used to label clauses (see subsection 4 below) 3. Sentence types: (possible arrangements of S, V, O, A) a. S + V intransitive: E.g: She's coming. They're gone out. The planne took off b. S + Vintransitive + C: E.g: She's my sister. They look tired The milk turned sour c. S + Vintransitive + A: E.g: bus d. S + Vmonotrasitive + O: Eg: gave up tobacco This depends on you. We cut down on this e. S + V ditransitive+O+O: Eg: informed me of the news care of the children f. S + Vcomlextrans +O+C: E.g:We elected him our President. She painted the door green g. S + Vcomlextrans+O+A: E.g: I put it here They hung the picture on the wall. These are also clause types, parts of compound and We gave him a book . She He took great They built this house. He They were here. She got off the

complex sentences 4. Compound and complex sentences: These are sentences formed by two or more independent clause joined by "and", "but", "or" and others.
8

E.g: I told him this but he didn't believe me. SV O O S V O

1st indep.cl

2nd indep.cl.

She's a teacher and she's out of work S V C S V 2nd indep.cl. A

1st indep.cl

You can drive my car or you can walk S V O S 2nd indep.cl. V

1st indep.cl

b. Complex sentences: These are sentences joined by two or more clause of which one is the main clause and the other (s) - subordinate clause 9s) being part (S, O,C or A) of the former. E.g: I know that you're honest S S V V O C = sub. clause = main clause

What he likes isn't what I like O S V S V O S V C = sub.clause = main clause

III. Some basic concepts 1. Closed - system vs. Open class:

Parts of ech Open class Noun, Verb, Adjective, Adverb Closed - system Pronoun, Article, Preposition, Conjunction Demonstrative, Interjection - numerous - lexical meaning - Small in number - Exclusively used - Clearly defined in contrast with one another (grammatical meaning) However, the distinction between these two is not clearcut: E.g: Verb: open class: lexical verbs Closed-system: auxiliaries Prepositions: closed-system: simple preps Open class: compound: prep + N + prep 2. Dynamic vs. Stative: a. Verbs are: + Dynamic when denoting action; play, learn, speak, (often used in progressive tense). E.g: They're playing the piano She's been learning English for 5 years. + Stative when denoting state: be, appear, look, turn, know, understand, used in the Progressive). E.g: She is a teacher. She knows me.

10

b. Subclasses of lexical Stative Intensive Be, become Appear, turn (S+V+C) Transitive A

verb Dynamic

Extensive Intensive know, understand feel grow

Extensive

(S+V+O) (S+V+C) Intransitive

A (S+V)

come, go Monotrans Ditrans

Comp Buy, ask give, call Give up p (S+V+O) (SVC) c. Parts of eech Dynamic : V.Adv Stative 3. Optional vs. Obligatory: a. Obligatory elements of the sentences are those that must be present sentence strurcture. Without these, the meaning of the sentences is incomp and the sentence is unacceptable. E.g: She is a teacher S V C S They got off the bus V A : N.Adj (S+V+O+O) offer

In these sentences, S, V, C and A are obligatory.

11

b. Optional elements are those that are not necessary in the sentences structure. With out these, the meaning of the sentence is still complete: In most cases A is optional. E.g: She went to London last Sunday A A

The plane took off immediately A Exercises: U.G.E Work book (by R.A.Close) 4, 5, 8, 10, 12, 13, 15 (Chapter 2, pp, 5-11)

12

Chapter I

Nouns, pronouns and the basic noun phrases

(UGE, chapter 4, pp, 59 - 113)

I. Definition and classification I.1. Definition: A noun is a word use to name person, thing, animal or abstract conce. For example: - Name of persons: E.g: Tom, John, Bill Jones, Mr.Smith, people, m..... boy, woman, girl... - Names of things: E.g: bed, chair, table, house, earth, sun... - Names of animals; E.g: cat, dog, tiger, lion, dragon, cattle... names of abstract concepts: E.g: peace, war,

independence... I.2. Classification Nouns (i) Proper nouns (unique reference) Tom, John Mr.Smith, etc (ii) common nouns (generic/specific reference) (+) Count N man, boy,
13

Non-count N Water, oil,

people (+) Concrete man, boy, water b. Subclassification of proper nouns:

independence Abstract Peace, war, independence

(i) Personal names: E.g: Tom, John, Mr.Smith, Bill Clinton, Sir Jones, L B. Russel London, Vietnam,

(ii) Geographical names: E.g: England, China, the Unite Nile (iii) Names of institutions or organisations:

States of America, the

E.g: London University, the United Nations, FAO, UNICEF, etc. * Proper nouns have unique reference (i.e. they refer to a unique person, country, organisation or sometimes a group of these). c. Futher classification of common nouns: (i) The most important classification of common nouns is the distinciton between count and non-count nouns * Count nouns are those that vary in form Singular E.g: man, boy, ox Plural man, boys, oxen

* Non-count nouns are those that have only one form which is often used in the singular, E.g: Water, oil, silver, independence

14

(ii) Con nouns and non - count nouns can be concrete or abstract: Concrete Count Man, boy Non-count Water, gold Count War, activity II. Grammatical categories II.1. The category of number a. Number is grammatical category that distinguishes count nouns into: Abstract Non-count Peace, independence

Singular E.g: man, boy, War, activity

Plural man, boys, wars, activities

b. General classification of nouns in terms of number (i) Invariables (= Nouns that do not vary) Invariables Singular only Noncount NSubstantivi ending sed in-s Adj mater abstrac ial t Water Peace News Oil Freedo Physic m s (abstract) The true The beautiful Plural only N Pluralia Collecti Substanti with tantum ve ve plura s nouns Adj l meanin (concre g te) Scissor Custom People The s s poor Cattle Trouser Arms The s blind
15

(ii) Variables

Regular plural

+S

/-s/ books, stops /-z/ beds, stars /-iz/ boxes, brushes

Irregular plural + voicing (/f/ -> /vz/) -en ending + change of root vowel : leaf -> leaves : ox -> oxen : foot -> feet

+ foreign plural: phenomenon -> phenomena Zero plural: sheep, deer, fish, trout (the same form for both singular & plural) II.2. Case (N's: Genitive) (i) Two genitives: E.g: 's genitive & of - genitive

the boy's book the wheels of the car

(ii). Choice of 's genitive: with nouns of higher gender classes E.g: The boy's name, this cat's eyes, China's export. Choice of of-genitive: with nouns of lower gender classes (iii): Genitive meaning: Equivalents + Possessive: possession: E.g: My father's My father has a hat the legs of the sister has father hat

table Human relation: E.g: my sister's My friends + Subjective (+original): E.g: My father's s

friends My

permission permits The arrival of the bus The bus arrived

16

+ Objective:

E.g: The criminal's arrest

Someone arrested The criminal A visit that lasts Two days Vinh Yen is a

+ Descriptive: + Appositive

E.g: Two days'visit E.g: The town of Vinh

Yen town (iv) Double genitive: of & 's - genitive used together E.g: A friend of my father's

II. 3. Gender: (sometimes considered unimportant) Gender Masculine: man Feminine: woman Common teacher Neuter: table Sex (semantic concept) (male) (female) (both male and female)

In English, there is not any further morphological feature that helps distinguish gender (unlike Russian or French).

III. Elements of the basic noun phrase (NP) III.1. Diagram Basic NP Closed -system Premodifiers Head noun

17

Predetermin ers (3

Determiners (6 subclasses)

Potsdetermi ners (2

subclasses) subclasses) III.2. Determiners: 6 subclasses a. Article: definite a(n)/indefinite the, e.g: an old man, boys b. Possessive: my, your, his, her, their, e.g: my brother, their discussion. c. Demonstrative: this, that, these, those, e.g: this book, these boys. d. Interrogative: whose, which, what. E.g: which colour, whose books e. Indefinite: some, any, every, each, e.g: some water, any car (s), every student g. Quantifier: much, e.g: much water. In the basic NPs, these words are central elements of premodifiers. III.3. Pre-determiners (=words preceding Determiners): a. Inclusives: all, half, eg: all the books b. Multipliers: double, twice, three times, e.g: double your salary. c. Fractions: one-third, two-fifths, e.g: one-third (of) this book/the student III. 4. Post - determiners (=words coming after Determiners): a. Quantifiers: Closed-system: many, little, few E.g: many books, few apples
18

Open class: a lot of, good deal of, A great number of E.g: a lot of books, a great deal of oil b. Numerals: Cardinal: one, two, three, E.g: one book, two books Ordinal: first, second, third. E.g: first, second book More examples: water All these examples, all these fifty students Half that water, the first two books... Uses of head noun and close - system pre-modifiers 1. Common uses of Determiners and all classes of head Noun: Head Noun (in terms of number) a. Article: the, : b. Possessive: my, your c. Interrogative: whose, which 2. Restricted uses: a. Article: a(n) with singular count N: e.g: a book, an old man b. Demonstratives: * this/that with singular count N/non - count N. Count N Sing N Plural N-s Non-count N this book, your head, a boy, much

19

E.g: this books, this oil * these/those with plural count N. E.g: those books c. Indefinite: * some with non-count/ count plural N (stressed) with singular count N (stressed) * any, every/each with singular count N d. Quantifier: * much with non-count N only IV.3. Pre-determiners and head N: a. Inclusive: * all half with Non-count N Sing count N Volum e Volum e Plural N E.g: all/half the book (s) * both: with plural count nouns (optional use of of) E.g: both (of) my brothers b. Multiplier: often used singular count N (volume) or nocount N E.g: double /twice/three times your salary c. Fractions: with nouns denoting volume in the main E.g: one-third (of) your/the book IV. 4. Post - determiners: a. Numerals cardinal: - one with singular count N - two/three... with plural count N
20

(+N)

count

(+N-s)

(+N-s)

ordinal:

- with either singular or plural E.g: two books, the second book

9s) b. Quantifiers: little with non-count e.g: little water Few/many with plural count N e.g: many/few friends Other quantifiers, e.g: a great deal of books a large amount of cars IV. 5. Noun reference and article usage All the nouns in their concrete uses have reference of their own a. Proper N: unique reference
Without article ( ): e.g: Tom, China, Mr.Jones

With definite article the, e.g: the Smiths (family), the Congo, the Philipines With indefinite article., e.g: There's a Tom Smith here. I bought a Macintosh (proper N-> common N) b. common Nouns: Non - count N: Generic: e.g: Oil-floats on water The oil in this well

Specific: the e.g:

The wine of France Count N: * Singular Generic: a = (every), e.g: A tiger lives in the jungle
21

The (= whole class), e.g: The cat is a small domestic animal Specific: a (=one), e.g: There's a car here The e.g: The man in the car

You met * Plural Generic: , e.g: boys will be boys Specific: the, e.g: The boys of this group c. More uses of definite article, e.g: the first car, the right answer, the same left/right (side). Pronouns and numerals Subclasses of pronouns (used in replacement of NPs) a. Specific group includes: (i) Central they/them Reflexive: yourselves, himself, herself, themselves Reciprocal: one, another, each other (use with we, you, Possessive: their(s) (ii) Relative: who, which, that (iii) Interrogative: who, which, what they (plural) my(mine), our(s), your(s), myself, ourselves, yourself, Personal: I/m, we/us, you/you, his/him, room, to the

22

(iv) Demonstrative: this, that, these, those b. Indefinite group includes: (i) Universal: all, each, everyone, everything, everybody (ii) Partitive: somebody No-assertive: anyone, anything, anybody Negative: none, no one, nobody, nothing (iii) Quantifying pronouns: * much, many, (positive). E.g: Many didn't come. * little, few (negative), e.g: Little can be done now 2. Numerals: a. Both cardinals and ordinals can be used pronominally. E.g: Two are absent to day. first b. One can be used as: (i) Numerical "one" e.g: I need one One went this way, the other, than (ii) Replacive "one", e.g: Is this the one you mean? (iii) Indefinite "one", e.g: One can't be too careful, can one/you? IV. Syntactic functions of noun phrases (including pronouns) 1. Common syntactic functions: S, O, C a. Subject (S) E.g: My brother is a teacher S b. Direct Object (Od) Cs We only need the assertive: many, some, someone,

E.g: They like football

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S c. Indirect Object (Oi)

Od

E.g: We gave our friend a book S Oi Od

d. Subject complement (Cs)

E.g: My brother is a teacher S Cs elected him their

e. Object complement (Co) chairman

E.g:

They

Od

Co

2. Some other functions (also called minor functions): f. Prepositional complement (Cprep.) look at it Cprep g. Appositive (App.) come soon App g. Adverbial (A) him A (time) i. Adjectival Complement (Cadj) the candle Cadj Exercises: U.G>E. Work book (by R.A. Close) 45, 47, 48, 50, 51, 53, 57, 58, 59, 63, 64, 65, 66 (chapter 4, pp.28-38) E.g: The game isn't worth E.g: Last week we telephoned Cprep E.g: On the way we

E.g: My friend, a teacher, will

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Chapter II The complex noun phrase

I. Elements of complex noun phrase I.1. Diagram Complex NPs Premodifiers Closed-system Open-Class Verb Noun (These) Adj The approaching Det V-ing The beautiful girl Det Adj head N beautiful girls headN train head N sitting in the corner non-finite Head N Adv.or Pre.P Adjectiv e I.2. Examples: Nonfinites Postmodifiers Relative clause

I.3. Restrictive vs.non-restrictive modifiers: Restrictive: Essential information No - restrictive: Additional information Eg: My Restr. old mother Non-restr.

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II.1. Major classes of pre-modifiers: Adj Verb + Head N E.g: A good boy The approaching train This broken vase

My brother's letter This lecture hall II. 2. Minor classes of pre-modifiers: - Adv cottage - Prep.P - Clause e.g: e.g: On -the - job classes cottage Pop-down-for-the-weekend cottage e.g: The then minister, a far-away

Noun

II. 3. Pre-modification by Adjectives: a. Different classes of adjectives: Central Adj General Good Bad Age Old New Colour Black White Orange Shape/size Square Round Triangular

Beautiful Young E.g: These old cars

The beautiful old orange car * Attributive Adj: - Nationality: e.g: British/American radio - Denominal: e.g: political consciousness, physical conditions

26

b. Relative sequence:
Premodifiers Adj Gen This pretty triangular The extravagant Age old Color black Shape Verb V-ing/Ved Crumblin g social Church Tower life Denominal Adj N Head N

II.4. Pre-modification by Verbs: a. V-ing rticiple: train (= the train which is approaching) permanent, e.g: an interesting book temporary, e.g: the approaching

(= a book that interests readers)

a. V-ed2 participle: passive,

e.g: the broken vase (= the vase that was broken)

non-passive, e.g: a retired teacher ( = a teacher who has retired) II.5. Nouns used as pre-modifiers: a. N's (genitive) e.g: the boy's cottage

room b. N (common - case) e.g: the country cottage

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c. A series of N reduction

e.g:

the

black

market

meat

price

head N II.6. Multiple pre-modification: a. One head N with multiple pre-modifiers * Relative sequence:
Premodifiers Det Predet.Det + Pstdet Gen Adj Age Col Sha pe Verb V-ing/Ved2 Denominal Adj N Head N

Ex: This The

Beautiful new white Old Pentagonal

Japanese Car Church Towe r

crumbing * Change in sequence -> change in meaning E.g: This black old man This old black man His last interesting novel His interesting last novel b. Multiple head with one modifier E.g: Old men and women (i) old man and old women (ii) women and old men c. With modified modifiers E.g: The extremly beautiful pictures

The meat production increase measures

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The King of England's crown

III. Post-modification III.1. Major classes of post-modifiers: Adv./Prep.P: Head + N Nonfinites: Relative E.g: The man there The book on the left E.g: The first man to leave Elg: The boy who went with

clauses: you there III.2. Minor classes of post - modifier: E.g: Head + Adj The boys Easiest to teach

Nothing New III. Post - modification by Adverbs/Prepositional Phrase: - Place: e.g: The man in the car/at the desk upstairs/down there - Time: The meeting on Tuesday

- Manner: A problem of great significance A man of four children III. 4. Post - modification by non-finite verbs: - To V appositive, e.g: their hope to become teachers descriptive, e.g: the last bus to arrive

29

- V-ing there - V-ed

temporary character, e.g: the man standing

passive meaning, e.g:

The

vase

broken

during the row the words underlined III. 5. Post - modification by relative clauses: a. Restrictive vs. Non-restrictive relative clauses

Restrictive + Essential information + Head N: Specific reference + Wider choice of

Non-restrictive + Additional information + head N: Unique reference

relative + Narrower choice of relative pronouns

pronouns who (m) which that

who (m) which

IV. Premodification & postmodification in comparison: - Greater with post - modifier: E.g: The London trip Pre-mod The trip to London (+ direction)/around London Post-mod * Explicitness modifiers: varies with different classes of post-

30

E.g: The girl:

near the door (+ position) Sitting near the door

(+posture<action>+position) Who's sitting near the door

(+time+posture+position) IV.2. Other features: a. Permanence & temporariness Pre-modifiers - Temporary: E.g: the approaching train - Permanent: E.g: this surprising news b. Passive & non-passive Pre-modifiers - Passive: E.g: the broken vase - Non-passive: E.g: a retired teacher IV.3. Pre-modification combination: Examples: Pre-modification The pretty blackish The interlocking China Her interesting love The English Grammar The beautiful broken Head Girl Box Novel Book vase Post-modification (who) you met on the way here Which you'll see later. About war veterans There which I bought two years ago On the table which I bought
31

Post-modifiers - Temporary only: Eg: the approaching train at platrform 5

Post-modifiers - Passive only: E.g: the vase broken

during the now - and post-modification in

China These ancient

three

two months ago is still there nice Tower In the city centre which you s will come across later are of

pentagonal

crumbling church great his significance Exercise: U.G.E Work book (by R.A.Close) 245, 247, 250, 251, 254, 255, 257, 258, 259, 262 (chapter 13, p.p 123 - 131)

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Chapter III

Verbs and the verb phrase

(UGE, chapter 3, pp.26-58)

I. Definition and classification I.1. What is a verb? A verb is a word (or a part of speech) used to denote action or state, or, otherwise help to complete to meaning of the verb phrase. E.g: She goes there twice a week (action) She'll become a doctor (state) They're trying to finish the work I.2. Classification: a. Lexical verbs and auxiliary verbs. - Lexical (or main) verbs are those verbs that denote action or state. E.g: We speak Vietnamese They went there last night She looks tired today She's my teacher of English - Auxiliary verbs are those that help complete the meaning of the verbs phrase. E.g: You can go there now She did sit there with him We're learning a new lesson
33

(action)

(state)

b. Auxiliary verbs: primary and modal auxiliaries Auxiliaries Primary Periphrastic Do Often used in negative interrogative sentences Perfect Modal Can, may, must Ought to, dare, need

Progressi Passive ve Have Be 1 Be 2 Use to add the meaning of Used to add the aspect, voice of the verb meaning to the phrase verbs phrase

c. lexical verbs: dynamic and stative verbs: Dynamic verbs Stative verbs * Dynamic verbs are often * Are often verbs that denote verbs that denote action, but state (even transitive verbs): some may denote state: E.g: They're singing She's feeling tired now * Can be used * Not commonly used in the inthe progressive tense: E.g: She's weak He looks tired e.g: She knows me

progressive tense E.g: She learns Russian She's learning lesson

10 d. Lexical verbs: intensive and extensive verbs

34

Intensive verbs often denote intensive relationship, often between subject and complement. E.g: She's my sister. She looks cheerful today (one entity ins involved here) We're feeling tired now. Extensive verbs are those that extend their meaning to a new entity, of which the presence helps complete the meaning of the action or state. E.g: She knows me. We're learning a new lesson. We elected him president twice Sometimes, extensive verbs are intransitive: E.g: She has come They're living in a new world e. Lexical verbs - their classification in terms of their complementation Verbs Intensive (1) Intransitive Monotran(2) sitive(3) go, Ask, give turn Transitive Ditransitive Complex(4) transitive(5 ) Give, take, Call, elect, inform of make, put

Be, appear, Come, look, become, get, run live,

come answer, up, down

35

in, go out, get, give in

(SVC/SVA)

(S V)

(S V O)

(S V O O)

(S V O C/ S

V O A) f. Lexical verbs; Classification based on word formation: Verbs Simple Root only: * Derived Compound prefix + root: * Phrasal: come in,

redo, go out, give up, turn Ask, give, take, go, return, overdo, mistake down come, work * Root + suffix: Socialise, broaden * Prepositional: depend on, look for * Others: white -

wash I. Auxiliaries: Syntactic and Semantic Features II.1. Syntactic features of primary auxiliaries: a. Their forms: Periphrastic: Prese nt Past Do Do/does Did Perfect: Have Have/has Had Progressive: Be (be+) am/is/are Was/were (+been) b. Form of the verbs following them: Do + V lexical Have + V-ed2 Be + V-ing of Be of y like She's lexical/auxiliar y He does been We're talking
36

Passive: B Am/is/are Was/were (been being) + V-ed &

lexical/auxiliar lexical

This was done

coffee The don't go out often

here

It was being It built

has

been

finished

c. Used as operator: They there didn't go She done it hasn't She isn't coming He Where was it informed How done? you Are coming? they Was chosen? she she was it wasn't

Why did she come What has she going? late? got? d. Used as proform (pro-verb)

She went there but I Have didn't finished? Yes, I have

I'm sure they Certainly

are was e. Only "Do" can be used as emphatic auxiliary: E.g: Do come in and sit down He did go there last Sunday II.2. Modal auxiliaries: their syntactic features a. List of items: can, may, must, shall, will, ought to dare, need.

b. Their own forms: Present: dare Past: could, might, should, would can, may, shall, will must, ought to, need,

37

* For their present tense form, only one form is use for all persons and numbers, e.g: He/we... can go now c. Form of the verb following them: Modal + V (base) of the lexical/auxiliary verb following it. E.g: You can go They must have gone out She shouldn't be prompted He can't be arriving d. Used as operator: E.g: She can't do it now He couldn't swim What must we do now? Why shouldn't they have taken photographs then? e. Used as pro-form E.g: You must go there but they mustn't (needn't) Note: * "Dare" and "need" are modals when they are used as operator. E.g: She needn't attend the lecture. Dare you go to with him now? * Otherwise, they are lexical verb. E.g: We don't need to take care of him.

II.3. Semantic features of modal verbs:

38

Semantically modal verbs form a sacle of modality when they are use with lexical verbs: Prese E.g: He can speak 3 foreign languages nt a. Ability (mental/physical) (~be able to Past V) She could talk with them in their native b. Possibility (~be possible) c. Permission (~be +to V) d. Obligation: (~be obliged+toV) e. Necessity: (~be necessary) f. Advisability: (~be advisable) g. Suggestion: Objective E.g: E.g: E.g: E.g: E.g: E.g: E.g: They had to attend 4 lectures She has to be very careful We needn't go there now You should do as you are told She ought to be very cautious Shall we go there with him now? Why shouldn't they ask for permission Casual: Subjective: E.g: Can I smoke in here E.g: You must keep silent now E.g: She mustn't do it (prohibition) allowed tongue Theoretic E.g: The roads can be blocked now al: Practical: E.g: He knew that the road might be Formal polite E.g: Might I come in, sir? blocked then + E.g: May I borrow your car, sir They can swim across the river E.g: He could play the guitar when he was 3

to go? h. Habituality: Past

E.g: They would sit there and welcome him home then

39

Present/Fut ure: i. Volition (willingness)

E.g: She will always say good bye to him at 4 o'clock

K. Futurity:

E.g: Water will boil at 900C at this height E.g: there'll be strong wind and cold weather E.g: They'll go there the other day We shall try our best

III. The different forms of lexical verbs: III.1. Five different forms of lexical verbs and their uses: a. A general look at verb forms: There are five verb form judged by their by used in the verb phrase: V (base) Ask Want Cut Bring Take Go Be V-s (3rd person) Asks Wants Cuts Brings Takes Goes Am, is, are V-ed (past) Asked Wanted Cut Brought Took Went Was, V-ing V-ed2 (participles) Asking Asked Wanting Cutting Bringing Taking Going Being Wanted Cut Brought Taken Gone Been

E.g:

were b. concrete uses of the verb forms: (i) Base form: Infinite VPs * Indicative mood Simple Present Tense with In no-finite VPs * To - infinitive E.g: To help him is my task
40

I/We/you/they/the boys E.g: I a week The boys * Imperative mood

They wanted to keep silent wanted there to find

go there twice They

better jobs * Bare infinitive. E.g: Run a way was all th**

E.g: Take a great care of the could do then children * Subjunctive mood E.g: God save the Queen! He suggested that she be

there (ii) V-s: used only infinite VPs- Indicative mood, simple Present Tense with 3rd person singular (He/She/It/The boy). E.g: He/she/It/The boy often comes early. (iii). V-ed (past): In finite VPs + In Indicative mood Simple Past Tense with all persons numbers: Eg: I/He.../They asked this question + In subjunctive mood (also called Past Subjunctive) Eg: If he went there, he'd certain see her (iv) V-ing (participle): + Infinite VPs With verbs in In no-finite VPs the E.g: Seeing is believing

progressive tense E.g: They're coming

They enjoyed watching T.V She's been living for 2 years Having
41

finished

work

they

If he'd been learning for a long home time he'd have known this (v) V-ed2 (participle) with verbs in the Perfect Tenses Infinite VPs + With verbs in the perfect tenses E.g: We've done all the work She'd met him before she went there In no-finite VPs E.g; having done all the work they are free now

+ In the passive voice they were asked a lot of

question II.2 Regular verbs with 4 actual verb forms: V, V-s, V-ed 1 = V-ed2, V-ing

/d/ borrowed, drilled onunciation of - ed /t/ asked, stopped /id/ wanted, needed E.g Ask Want Travel II.3. Irregular verbs Verbs with 3 actual forms: V = V - ed1 = V-ed2 V-s V-ing Eg: cut Cuts Cutting Ther verbs: bid, bet, burst, cast, cost, forecast, hit, hurt, let, put, set, spread, put, slit, split, upset.
42

Asks Wants Travelled

Asked Wanted Travelled

Asking Wanting Travelling

Verbs with 4 actual forms (i) V = V-ed V-s V-d E.g: become Becomes Became Other verbs: come, overcome, run, overun V-ing Becoming

(ii) V V-s V-ed1 = V-ed2 V-ing * with ending -1 (change of root vowel) E.g: bend Bends Bent Bending + bring, build, catch, creep, deal, feel, fight, keep, kneel, lend, leap, leave, lose, mean, rebuild, seek, send, sleep, spend, sweep, think, teach, weep. V V-s * Change of root vowel only V-ed1=V-ed2 V-ing

E.g: Baby-sit Baby-sits Baby-sat Baby-sitting + bleed, breastfeed, breed, cling, dig, feed find, fling, get, grind, hang, have hear, hold, lay, lead, make, meet, mislead, misunderstand, overhear, pay, repay, rewind, say, shine, sit, slide, speed, spin, stand, stick, sting, strike, swing, tell, understand, unwind, weave, wind, wring. c. Verbs with 5 different forms: V V-s V-ed1 V-ing V-ed2 Eg: arise Arises Arose Arising Arisen + Quake, bear, beat, begin, bite, blow, break, choose, do, draw, drink, drive, eat, fall, fly, forbid, foresee, forget, forgive, freeze, give, go, grow, hide, know, like, mistake, outgrow, overeat, overtake, overthrow, rewrite, ride, rise, see, shake, shrink, sing, sink, speak, steal, swear, swim, tear, tread, undergo, undertake undo, wake, wear, withdraw, write. III.4. Mixed type:

43

E.g: learned - learnt, show - shown

V. the grammatical categories of the english verb V.1. Four categories: tense, aspect, voice, mood (a general look) a. Tense - use of verb form to indicate time of action/state We make clear distinction of two tenses: Present: Past: V/v-se V-ed1 Ask/asks Asked Write/write s Have/has Had

Wrote b. Aspect; the aspect denotes the manner in which the action/state is performed (i.e. completion/in-completion of action) There are 4 subcategories of aspect: Simple Perfect Progressive Perfect Progressive V/V-s/V-ed1 Have+V-ed2 Be + V-ing E.g: She works here E.g: They're lived there for 8 years

Having been + V- E.g: We were dancing then ing E.g: She's been learning

English, for a long time c. Voice: Voice denotes the relationship between the subject and the verb. We distinguish two voice: Active: S - actor (agentive) + V-action (V/V-s...)

E.g: We built this house Passive: S-affected (recipient) + V - action (Be + V-ed2)

E.g: This house was built last year

44

She was given a booklet d. Mood: Mood indicates the speaker's attitude to the

predication (action/state). In his mind, the action may be thought of as: + Factual: E.g: He went there last night (Indicative)

+ Non - factual: * Desirous: E.g: Keep silent please (Imperative)

* Unreal: E.g: If he went there tomorrow he would meet her (subjunctive) IV. Tense and aspect a. Tense and aspect are closely related in the formation of the system a tenses

Tense s

Simple
(be) am is are

Perfect
Hav + e Has ed

Progressive
V- Am + V-ing Asking Hav e Has

Perfect progressive
bee n

Presen V/Vs t Ask/as k

asked Is Are Was Wer e

Past

V-ed1 Asked

Was Had Was Wer e + Were

+ Ving Had asking

Bee n

+Ving asking

v. In any finite verb phrases, we can notice the use of tense, aspect and mood well E.g: He went there last Sunday (tense: past: aspect: simple, mood: indicative)

45

She's been living here since she graduated from the college - Tense: present aspect; - Tense: past

perfect - aspect: simple - mood: indicative

progressive - mood: indicative I'd him before I came here - Tense: past - aspect: perfect

- Tense: past - aspect: simple

- mood: indicative If you had gone there you'd have met her - Tense: past - aspect: perfect - Tense: past - aspect: perfect

- mood: subjunctive - mood: subjunctive c. In the non-finite verb phrases, time of the action my be indicate by the perfect or progressive auxiliary. E.g: He seems to know her (simultaneous) To have met her (prior) To be attending the seminar (temporally

simultaneous) To have been living here for a longtime VI.3. concrete uses of basic tenses: * The simple present tense a. Forms Affirm: Ask/he asks (i) b. Uses Repeated/habitual action

I am, He is, You (timeless)

46

are eg: We do not Don't He does not ask Doesn't ask

E.g: We often go there. Every morning she does physical exercise (ii) characteristic action/state E.g: He speaks Vietnamese

Quest: Does he ask this They are teachers question? (iii) Action in progress

Where do they often E.g: He understands this now go? (iv) General statement & universal truth E.g: Two and two makes four The earth rotates around the sun (v) Future - time action E.g: The train leaves tomorrow When she comes she'll tell us the news (vi) Past time action E.g: Famous film star marries exPresident * The simple past tense a. Forms V-ed1: I/we... asked I/he/she We/you/they was were b. Uses (i) Past time action E.g: He went there yesterday In 1945 two million people died of (a time) (starvation)

(ii) habitual past activity:

47

E.g: They drank liquer very often (used to drink) (iii) Succession of past action E.g: He went in, took a chair and sat down (iv) Future action viewed from the past E.g: He said he would come when he had time * The present perfect tense a. Forms Have + V-ed2: I/we/you/they: have done He/she/it: has gone eg: We haven't gone They've not done it Quest: Have they finished? Where have you been? (ii) Action (i) b. Uses Past action with

consequence to present time: E.g: He's gone out They've just come. A time + already, recently...) whose duration

covers a pen of time up to the present: E.g: We've lived here for ten years She's cried for half an hour and sleeping (iii) Action completed before a for moment.

48

E.g: You won't be allowed to go unless have finished the work * Present progressive tense: a. Forms Be + V-ing I am doing (I'm cooking) We are dancing (We're joking) She's working (he's speaking) eg: I'm not joking We are not sleeping (aren't) He is not dancing (isn't) Quest; Are they listening? What's she doing? b. Uses (i) Action going on at present moment stative verbs): E.g: We're having a new the

(except

lesson. She's talking over the phone (ii) continual process: E.g: The earth's always

rotating around the sun (iii). Characteristic action (+ emotional colouring). E.g: You're always joking (iv) Future time action E.g: The train's leaving

tomorrow * Present Perfect Progressive Tense: a. Forms Have been + V-ing I/se have('ve) been living here. He/she has('s) been working Neg. We have not been (i) b. Uses Action whose duration

covers a period of time up to the present moment and is. + Still going on: E.g: We've been living in this

working Haven't

house for ten years (We're still

49

She has not been listening Hasn't

living here) + No longer going on: She's been crying for

Quest: What have they been E.g;

doing since then? hours and is now sleeping The uses of the Past Perfect, Past Progressive and Past Perfect Progressive tenses are largely dependent on those of the corresponding present tenses. IV.4. Means of expressing future time action: In English there is not a definite future tense with fixed dorms of verb shown in the contrast Present and Past. In fact, futurity, modality a aspect are closely associated in expressing future time action. future action thus can be denoted by:
a.

Modal auxiliary: shall/well+V'

E.g: We will go there next Sunday Shall He'll be more patient b. Modal structure: be going to = V E.g: We're going to finish our work. She's going to retire next year c. Be about to/be to + V E.g: They're about to leave the country He's to play against that man this afternoon. d. Present Progressive Tense (be + V-ing) (planned action) E.g: The train's leaving the station tomorrow. e. Modal verb + Progressive Tense (will be + V-ing)

(expectation):
50

E.g: They'll be building a new stadium in this area f. Present Simple (V/V-s) (with verbs of motion and a

time/condition) E.g: The coach starts early this evening from K.M. Station If she has time she'll come to see us. g. Present Perfect (have/has+V-ed2) (action completed before a future moment). E.g: You won't be allowed to leave until you have done all the exercises. IV.5. More on Voice and Mood a. Passive Voice with different sentence types: (i) Active: built last year SVOO-> Oi -> Spass: E.g: He was given a new book E.g: A new book was given to him E.g: She's been elected SVO -> Passive: E.g: This house was

Od -? "S": SVOC -> S + Cs: President twice SVOa -> S + A: the wall

E.g: The picture will be hung on

(ii) Passive voice is used when the agentive is neglected or emphasised: This house was built by my father, not by my brother (iii) The so-called middle voice: E.g: The door opened The dam blew up.
51

S = affected . Vintransitive In this case, according to some grammarians, the verb here is active in form but passive in meaning. b. Mood: the marked forms - Imperative and subjunctive (i) Imperative mood (use of V-base form) + The imperative mood is often used without S (or more exactly, with the understood S - you) to express command, request, or invitation. E.g: Keep silent. Be more patient ! Come in, please. + When Subject "you" is present emotional colouring (often anger indignation, etc.) is often attached with change of tone as well. E.g: You there keep silent! You there stop doing that! Don't you there say any more words or I'll put you out + Indefinite pronouns "someone, anyone" can be used as S of imperative sentences in a rather common way. E.g: Someone go out and tell him to go away! Don't anyone saw anything about this! (ii) Subjunctive mood, now considered less important, is used to expressive + A desired action/wish/ often with base form of verb): E.g: God save the Queen ! Far be it from me to contradict you! (formulaic subjunctive)

E.g: He Order

suggested (that)

everyone be resent at 6.00 a.m

(mandative subjunctive)
52

+ Unreal condition or comparison (with V-ed1 or had + V-ed2) E.g: If were in your shoes, I'd help her. He looks as if he didn't understand me She says this as thought she were my mother! If she had gone there she'd have met him (condition) ( consequence)

V. The structure of the verb phrase V.1. Finite and non-finite verb phrases Finite VPs Non-finite VPs a. finite VPs (V, V-s & V-ed1, Non-finite VPs (to V, V-ing & Vetc) E.g: They go there very often. He goes there twice a week (Tense; past, mood: indicative) We (Tense: past, mood: indicative) She enjoyed watching TV (Can be used either with ed2) Do not have tense and mood. E.g: They want to go there then

Present or Past tense) With four auxiliaries = lexical verb: ABCD + V-ed2: The students might have been being asked a lot questions. Note: In these complex finite VPs, attention should be paid to the use of the initial auxiliary as operator, the required form of the auxiliary in combination of 2/3/4 auxiliaries and that of the lexical verb. V.4. Complex non-finite VPs:

53

These complex VPs often have one auxiliary (except modal auxiliary) or sometimes two auxiliaries: E.g: He seemed: to have met her (perfect) (progressive)

To be following her exemple They appear

to have been met by a stranger

(perfect+passive) To be being met pass...) She happened to have been running after a cat (perf + progr) (prgr +

Exercises; U.G.E. workbook (by R.A.Close) 17, 24, 266, 29, 30, 31, 33, 34, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43) (Chapter 3, pp, 13-18)

54

chapter IV the complementation of the verb (Ch.12, pp.347 - 374)

I. Classification of verbs in terms of their complementation types:

There are five main groups of verbs in terms of their complementation types and each of these may be further subclassified I.1. Intranstive verbs: with complementation zero (sentence type SV) There are two subclasses of intransitive verbs: a. common Vintransitive: work, walk, die, fall Derived: disintegrate b. Phrasal Vintransitive: E.g: com in, go out, blow up, take off, come to, give in. I.2. Intensive verbs: With intensive complementation (sentence types, SVC and SVA). Two subgroups: a. Current intensive: E.g: be, appear, feel, look, smell, remain, keep. b. Resulting intensive: E.g; become, come, get, go, grow, turn, make. I.3. Monotransitive verbs: E.g: return, retire, Simple: E.g: come, go, live,

55

With monotransitive complementation (sentence types SVO). Four subgroups (the largest ones) a. Simple Vtransitive: E.g: ask, answer, buy, build, speak, write. b. Phrasal: E.g: give up, make up, turn down, switch on, set off c. Prepositional: E.g: depend on, look for, look after, think of d. Phrasal prepositional: E.g: cut down on, look down upon, get on with, catch up with, live up to. I.4. Ditransitive verbs: With ditransitive complementation (sentences type SVOO). Three subgroups: a. Simple Vditrans: E.g: give, get, bring, take, buy, do, lend, find, make, offer owe, pay. b. Prepositional Vdistrans: E.g: inform of, accuse of, provide with, remind of, compare to. c. Idiomatic Vditrans: E.g: make use of, pay attention to, catch sight, give way to, make fun of, make room for, put an end to, set fire to, take advantage of. I.5. Complex transitive verbs With complex transitive complementation (sentence types SVOC and SVOA)
56

a. With SVOC type: (i) Factual verbs: E.g: feel, find, imagine, knows, suppose, think, like. (ii) Causative verbs: E.g: have, let, make (iii) Verbs of perception; E.g: feel, hear, notice, observe, see, watch (iv) other verbs: E.g: optional) accept, class, intend, interpret... (always with as) elect, appoint, name, consider (with

II. Zero complementation III. 1. Intransitive verbs are often used with complete zero E.g: She's come. They are dancing

They danced and danced. She came to The plane took off just before lunch time II.3. There may also be place Adjunct which seems to be closely associate with the verbs: E.g: She comes from Leeds We're living in London III. intensive complementation (CS and A) a. subject complement (Cs) (in intensive relation with S) III.1. Cs = a noun phrase (basic or complex): This often comes after such verbs as be, become, turn, make

57

E.g: She is a teacher of Russian They'll soon become engineers in construction. He turned traitor. She'll make a good wife III.2. Cs = adjective or adjectival phrase: E.g: They are good She's good at grammar.

We're afraid of fierce dogs (Adj + Prepositional) The game isn't worth the candle (Adj = NP) III.3. Adjectival clauses as Cs:

a. Cs = Adjective = to infinitive. There are five subtypes here. Adjectival clause E.g: he's wise to stay at home He's slow to react He's glad to see you again He was reluctant to leave He's hard to deal with Corresponding structure It's wise of him to stay at home He reacts slowly To see you again makes him glad

It's hart to deal with him b. Cs = Adjective + V-ing participle E.g: She was busy doing her home work This book is worth reading many times c. Cs = Adjective + Finite clause E.g: I'm sure that he will win the match (that clause) We weren't certain whether he would come or not

58

She wasn't aware who he was clause) I wasn't clear about whatever he said clause)

(wh-interrogative

(nominal

relative

B. Adverbial (as intensive complementation) III.4. Adverbial expression: a. an adverb: E.g: He was here/upstairs. b. a prepositional phrase: E.g: She was in the car c. a clause: E.g: He's nowhere to be seen They are exactly where they went the other day III.5. Meaning of these adverbials: a. Place (most common) E.g: He was here/in the car They kept off the grass b. Time: E.g: The meeting will be on next Monday c. Manner/Description: E.g: The matter is of great importance He's (a man) of great fame IV. Monotransitive complementation (Od) IV.1. O = a noun phrase E.g: We bought this book This depended on you On the way here we met a man with a very large ear The man who went with you
59

We put off the meeting IV.2. O = a non-finite clause E.g: She wanted to set the house on fire (to V) They enjoyed watching the program clause) His singing the song IV.3. O = a finite clause: E.g: I know that she didn't go there with him (that clause) We can't make out what he says clause) He didn't remember whoever had met him first at the station (nominal relative clause) He didn't say whether he would come or not (yes/no (wh-interrogative (V-ing participle

interrogative) They cut down on what they had to spend everyday (wh - relative clause)

v. Ditransitive complementation (Oi + Od) V.1. Oi = NP1 = Od = NP2: E.g: We didn't give him any book She informed the boy of the terrifying news V.2. Oi = NP + Od = non-finite clause: E.g: She told the criminal to lay down his gun (to V) They accused him of having stolen the sum of money (v-ing) V.3. Oi = NP - Od - finite clause:

60

E.g: They told us that they had won the match (that clause) She asked him why he hadn't come on her birthday (wh-interrogative clause) He didn't tell her whether he would be able to go there with her (yes/no interrogative) You can accuse me of whatever I have done against you (nominal relative clause) VI. complex transitive complementation (Od + Co) VI.1. Od = Np1 + co - NP2 E.g: We consider him our younger brother They looked upon us as their brother and sisters She regarded us as her enemies VI.2. Od = NP + co = Adj. Phrase/clause E.g: We painted the door red This made her afraid of these animals

Whoever came near VI.3. Od = Np + Co = non-finite clause E.g: We wanted him to finish his work in time (to V) Her story made them laugh all the time (V - bare infinitive) We saws them entering the supermarket (V-ing) They watched the house broken into without doing anything (Ved2) VI.4. Od = NP + Co = finite clause (nominal relative clause) E.g: You can cal me whatever name you like
61

They painted the doors and windows whichever colour they wanted VII. Complex transitive complementation (Od + A) VII.1. Od = NP + A = Adverb E.g: I put my bag here We led them upstairs VII.2. Od = NP + A = prepositional phrase E.g: She hung the pictures on the wall They rowed their boat up the stream The officer marched the soldiers through the yard VII.3. Od = NP + A = as finite clause E.g: You can put it wherever you like She hung it where she had hung the day before VII.4. Od = finite clause + A = prepositional phrase E.g: Dont put off till tomorrow what you can do to day VIII. some remarkable comparisons

VIII.1.1. Phrasal and Prepositional verbs a. Phrasal verbs Formation Prepositional verbs and V + Preposition

subclassification V + article (-> adverb)

62

Intransitive

Monotrasitive

Monotrasitive

Ditransitive of,

Com in, go out Turn on, switch Rely on, depend Inform Come to, take off, off on, Look for, charge look With, care of

take

after b. Similarity in case of montrasitive verbs: E.g We turned on the lights They gave up tobacco smoking O = NP c. Differences; in position of O E.g: We turned the lights on We turned them on Pronoun VIII.2. Ditranitive complementation Transitive complementation: a. Confusion is easily made especially when with (i) Oi = Np + Od = NP E.g: We gave him a book She told us the news (ii) O + NP + O = to V E.g: We told him to close the door (iii) O = NP + prep + O = NP E.g: We informed her of the news

We depended on your help They looked after the children O = NP

they looked after them pronoun and complex

Od = NP + Co = NP We consider him our brother They called it a spade O = NP + Co = to V We want him to close the door O = NP + A = prep.Phrase She took him off the roar

63

b. Differentiation: (ii). E.g: We gave a book to him She told us the news Him & a book = two entities Us & the news (ii) by asking questions: E.g: What did you tell him? We told him that he should close the door Vditrans + Oi + Od (iii). E.g: We informed her of it pronou n IX. Multiple class verbs IX.1. Verbs can participate in different clause types. Most typically, the verb GET can be - intransitive: - intensive: E.g: She got up rather late E.g: We got tired/pale She got out of the car - monotransitive: - ditransitive: (SV) (SVC) (SVA) (SVO) What did you want? We wanted that he should close the V monotrans + Od She took him there adverb We consider him our brother It was a spade Him & our = one ent**** brother It & a spade

E.g: We got a letter this morning

e.g: I got her a chair

(SVOO) (SVOC)

- Complex transitive: E.g: they get everything ready

Youve got your self into serious trouble IX. Complementation type transformation

64

O + O <=> O + A: We gave him a book <--> We gave a book to him Exercise: 211, 214, 215, 219, 220, 221, 222, 225, 226. 230, 231, 236, 243 (chapter 12, pp, 109-121)

65

chapter V adjectives and adverbs (UGE, chapter 5, pp, 114 142)

I. Adjectives I.1. Definition Characteristic features: a. Definition: An adjective is a word belonging to an open class which generally denotes quality, e.g: good, hot, little, young, fat, etc: colour: black, white, etc. or shape: e.g: square, round. b. Four features characteristic of adjectives: (i) They can freely occur in an attributive position, i.e. They can pre-modify a noun E.g. : the happy children; this good old man (ii). They can freely occur in predicative position, i.e. They can function as Subject complement E.g.: the man seemed old Milk turns sour; Object Complement E.g: They painted the door blue;

He thought the painting ugly (iii). They can be pre-modified b intensifiers: every, quite, rather. E.g: The children are very happy; This is rather difficult (iv). They can take comparative and superlative forms whether inflectional
66

E.g: the children are happier now They are the happiest people (cf. Beautiful more beautiful the most beautiful) I.2. Syntactic functions of adjectives: a. Pre-modifier and post-modifier - Adjectives are attributive when they pre-modify nouns E.g: this beautiful painting... The only child.. His main argument... - Sometimes, adjectives can be post-modifier (or postpositive attribute): E.g: Anyone intelligent can do it Theres nothing new... I have a house larger than yours b. Complement both Cs and Co: Predicative adjectives can be: (i) Cs (in intensive relationship with S): E.g: Your daughter is intelligent. Hes rather careless (ii). Co. (in intensive relationship with O): E.g: I consider him foolish c. Head of a noun phrase: Substantivised adjectives (the + adj) can function as heads of NPs as S, C, O and Cprep): E.g: S: concern
67

The poor are causing the nations leaders great

O:

They will help only the humble poor.

Cprep: There is lack of communication between the young and the old The wise look to the wiser for advice. C: We are the humble poor who suffer greatly now

d. Supplementive adjective clause: E.g: Nervous, the man opened the letter The man, quietly assertive, spoke to the assembled workers When ripe, the apples are sweet. Whether right or wrong, he always comes off worst in an argument e. Exclamatory adjective sentences: E.g: How good of you ! Excellent! I.3. Sub-classification of adjectives: a. According to syntactic function: central, attributive, How wonderful!

predicative. (i). Central adjectives can function both attributively and predicatively. E.g: A hungry man The man in hungry

(ii). Attributive can be attributive (modifier) only, e.g E.g: An utter fool... The political situation...

68

My former friend... (iii). Predicative adjectives can be predicative (=complement) only. E.g: Hes afraid to do it Thats tantamount to an ultimatum b. Semantic sub-classification.: (i) Stative/dynamic adjectives + Adjectives are characteristically stative, e.g: good, old, beautiful, tall, round, square, etc. + Many adjectives, however, can be seen as dynamic, especially careless, when e.g: foolish, they are susceptible ambitious generous, to subjective careful, jealous measurement, abusive, friendly, awkward, impatient,

reasonable, etc. Dynamic adjectives can be used either. - With verb in the progressive tense E.g: He's being careful They're feeling tired (jealous) - With verb in the imperative mood: E.g: Be careful Don't be afraid Jealous (ii) Gradable/non-gradable adjectives: + Most adjectives are gradable, i.e. They can be modified by intensifiers and include comparison. E.g: very young, so plain, extremely useful, rather old Young - younger - youngest
69

Useful - more useful - most useful These include all dynamic adjectives and most stative

adjectives. + Some adjective, principally technical adjectives and

adjectives denoting provenance, are non-gradable. E.g: atomic, hydrocholoric, British I.4. Semantic sets and adjectival order: Semantic sets have been proposed to account for the usual order of adjectives for their - occurrence (often in NPs). (i) Intensifying adjectives; E.g: a real hero, a perfect idiot... (ii) Postdeterminer + limited adjectives: E.g: The fourth student. The only occasion (iii). General adjectives: E.g; careful, naughty, lovely (subjective measure) Wealthy, poor, bat (objective measure) Large, square (size & shape) (iv) Adjectives denoting age, e.g: young, old, new (v) Adjectives denoting colour, e.g: black, red, white... (vi) Adjectives denoting material, e.g: woolen, wooden,

metallic... (vii) Adjectives denoting provenance, e.g: British, Parisian... II. Adverbs: II.1. Definition - Characteristics of adverbs: a. An adverb, also belonging to an open class, is often used as adverbial

70

E.g: They're waiting outside I can now understand it He spoke to me about it briefly Or, otherwise, as modifier: E.g: That was a very funny film. She has a really beautiful face b. Characteristics of the adverb: (i) A great number of adverbs have the derivational suffix - ly: E.g: briefly, really, beautifully, awkwardly, historically, etc. (ii) Two syntactic functions that characterise adverbs are adverbial and modifier of an adjective/adverb. An adverb need have only one of these. E.g: he spoke briefly about it. They're smoking very heavily II.2. More on syntactic functions of adverbs: a. As adverbial: Either go out Or (ii) Disjunct: E.g: Frankly, I', tired, Fortunately, no one (i) Adjunct: E.g: They're waiting outside. You can now

complained Or (iii) conjunct: E.g: We have complained about the

noise, and yet he does nothing about it. They tried to listen. However, they heard nothing

71

b. As modifier: (i) Modifier of adjective: E.g: It is extremely good of you to say this They are very/quite tired now (ii) Modifier of adverb: E.g: They smoked very heavily They left him well behind. They knocked the man right out (iii) Modifier of prepositional phrase: E.g: The nail went right through the wall This deals exactly with the right answer (iv) Modifier of determiner: Eg: About a week is enough for this practice. I paid more than ten pounds for it She gave me almost the largest piece of cake (v) Modifier of noun phrase: E.g: He told such a funny story He was quite some player It was rather a mess How tall a man he is

c. As complement of preposition (Cprep): (i) Preposition + Adverbs (time)

since Till/until

+ +

Lately, recently, then, today, yesterday Now, tomorrow, tonight, after, afterwards
72

After/by/

Then, today, tomorrow

Before/from For + Always, ever, once, afterwards, later (ii) Preposition + Adverbs (place) Long, around, Down, in, Never, over, Through, under, Up III. comparison and intensification III.1. Three degrees of comparison Applied to gradable adjectives and adverbs: Adjs: Advs Absolute Young Beautiful Hard Comparative Younger More beautiful Harder More easily Superlative Youngest Most beautiful Hardest Most easily on from, + here/there From + Above, abroad, Below, downstairs, Indoors, inside, Outside, upstairs..

Easily III.2. Basis of comparison: a. Between two entities: E.g Adjs: John is

Younger More Stupid Less Intelligent

Than Bob (is)

John as

is Young

73

stupid

As (is)

Bob

John the

is Younger more Stupid intelligent

Of the two boys

Advs:

John

Works harder than bob (does Behaves more politely than his wife

John

Works as hard

As Bob (does)

Behave as politely Of the two boy John behaves the more politely b. Among three or more entities: E.g Adjs: : John the is Younges t Most Stupid intelligent Advs: John Behaves stupidly the most Of the boys of this group Of these (three) boys

Works the hardest As we see above, the most common ways of doing this include. - Correlative construction introduced by than (with more/est/er) or by as (correlative to as) - And prepositional phrases with of III.3. Inflection of adverbs and adverbs of comparison a. Adjectives: Positiv
74

Comparati

Superlativ

(i)

Adjectives

e with You Old Big Early

ve Younger Older Bigger Earlier Braver Simpler Poorer Better Worse Funnier More funny Feebler More feeble

e Youngest Oldest Biggest Earliest Bravest Simplest Poorest Best Worst Funniest Most funny Feeblest Most feeble

inflectional suffixes - ER + EST + With changes in spelling

+ +

With Formed

changes from

Brave in Simple

pronunciation stems

Poor different Good bad

(ii) Disyllabic adjectives: + with inflected forms: funny + With periphrastic forms (noisy, friendly, hollow, Feeble shallow, clever, gentle, mature, feeble, common,

handsome, quiet, etc) (iii) Adjectives (polysyllabic Relucta ones) with periphrastic forms nt b. Adjectives: Tiring Positiv

More reluctant More tiring Comparati ve Better Worse Less More Further

Most reluctant Most tiring Superlativ e Best Worst Least Most Furthest

e (i) With inflected forms (=- Well er/-est) + From different stems Badly Little Much Far
75

+ Those identical in form Early with Long

Farther Earlier Longer

Farthest Earliest Longest Soonest

Most beautifully

adjs: early, late, hard, slow, Soon Soonner fast, quick, long & soon Beautiful More (ii) With periphrastic forms
ly beautifully

III.4.

formulas

of

cases

of

comparison:

degree

of

comparison: Degree of comparison Examples a. Equal comparison As + Adj (positive) + As long as as As = Adv (positive) + b. Superior/inferior comparison: as Adj than Adv c. (comparative) (comparative) + Bigger than More + than The youngest of politely As hard as

than Superlative The + Adj (superlative) The + of

comparison

Adj all The beautifully most of

(superlative)

them all III.5. Unmarked term in "How" questions and measure phrases: a. common questions: E.g: How efficient is he? How beautiful is she? How efficiently does he work? How old is that man?

76

How long did they dance? And exclamations: e.g: How beautiful she is! How beautifully she danced!

b. Adjectives (and adverbs) with the unmarked/marked terms: (Unmarked term in "how" question) (i) Measure adjectives: U M Deep Shallow High Low Long Short U M Old Young Tall Short Thick Thin Wide Narrow (ii). Other adjectives: Big Small bright Dim Fat Thin Unmarked (iii) Adverbs: How much did they complain? (often) (quickly) III.6. Modification of comparatives and superlatives (of adjs & advs): a. Comparatives pre-modified: By intensifiers (that) much (so) (very) (all) the far
77

Heavy Light Large Little Strong Weak

or

By downtoners Rather Better Somewhat Sooner More careful Less

Better Sooner

A little A (little) bit

a good bit/a More careful lot a deal/a great deal/lots b. Inflectional superlative; modified by very or by far E.g: The very best She put on her very best dress He is funniest by far IV. correspondence between adjectives and adverbs IV.1. Equivalent constructions: E.g He : liked to Mary ~ He liked Less good carefully

careful

Mary

to

considerably He spoke

considerable extant John ~ He spoke to John in a sharp

sharply manner Politically, it is a bad ~ From the political point of via it decision is a bad decision

IV.2. Other regular correspondences: E.g a He loved her ~ His deep love for her ~ His legible writing ~ A dance who is beautiful ~ A person who dances beautifully

deeply He writes legibly A beautiful dancer

78

A real idiot

~ He's really an idiot

The main reason ~ It's mainly the reason V. Adjectives, adverbs and other word classes: V.1. Adjective and adverbs with prefix a-: Ablaze, a- adjectives afloat, alert, a- adverbs alike, Abroad, around, away

alive, alone, aloof, ashamed, asleep, averse, awake, aware Common uses: E.g: The patient was asleep E.g: The patient was abroad

The journalist seemed asleep The journalist went abroad V.2. Some other uses of adjectives and adverbs: E.g His loud and clear voice : ~ He spoke loud and clear Such animals have long had to defend themselves They still can't make up their minds

They made very long # speeches Still water runs deep #

V.3. Adjectives and nouns: A Adj.-s E.g The attack : N-s seemed E.g The criminals pleaded guilty to all charges There was only one black in my class The king greeted his nobles

criminal to us Those black boys are very active We admired his noble ideas
79

b. Nouns used as pre-modifiers: E.g: August weather; the city council; a love poem V.4. Adjectives and participles: a. ing b. V- His views were seemed very ~ very His surprising views The offended man

surprising V- The man

ed2 offended Exercises; 67, 68, 70, 72, 74, 77, 78 (Chapter 5, pp, 40-45)

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chapter Vi preposition and prepositional phrase (UGE, chapter 6, pp, 143 - 165)

I. Definition - classification I.1. What is a preposition? Prepositions are words belonging to closed-system parts of speech which are used to express relationships between two entities, one being prepositional complement. E.g: He went Prep+Cprep to London in November

prep+Cprep (place & time relationships) (place) (time)

In accordance with these rules you should be present before 10 a.m Prep + Cprep (manner) I.2. Classification of prepositions: a. According to their composition, prepositions fall under two groups: (i) Simple prepositions: those that consist of one word. They are very small in number (as compared to open class parts of speech); as, by, at, on, in, to, of, of, for, since, with, between, like, against, under, up, down. We may also include here some derived prepositions: during, concerning... (ii). Compound prepositions: These include two subgroups: prep + Cprep

81

+ prepositions with two components linked closely: into, onto, behind, below, beneath, underneath, until, within, without, upon. + Prepositions with separate components: - Adv + prep: out of, away from, according to, thanks to, up to. - Prep: + N + Prep: in font of, on top of, at the back of, in spite of, account of, in accordance with, with the exception of, etc.. b. According to the meanings of the prepositional phrases (or meaning preposition for short), we have: Prepositions of place: at, on, in, up, down, off, ect Time: at, on, in, for, since, during, pending... Reason: out of, because of, due to, on account of Manner: like, as, in accordance with.. Concession: in spite of, despite, in defiance of II. prepositional meanings II.1. Place: Prepositions of place may be further classified into: a. Prepositions denoting position: Point: E.g: at the post office, at the grocer's At the doctor's, off the road Surface/line: E.g: on the wall, on a straight line

On the way (to)... Volume: E.g: in the car, in that house

b. Prepositions denoting destination and direction: E.g: to the post office, to London, to the market Onto the floor, off the road

82

Into the room, out of the car c. Prepositions denoting passage: Eg: Across the street, down the road, up the stream.

See the figure (VI.10 below: Point Positive Direction Position To Line/surfac e Area/volum e On (to) In to x On In Fig. VI.1: Place prepositions (Direction and position) d. Relative position: (i). Vertically relative: above, over, on top of, under, At x Negative Direction Position From x Off Out of away From x Off Out of

underneath, ... (ii). Horizontally relative: before, in front of, behind, after... A: above D: behind x B: below
83

C: In front of

Fig. VI.2. Relative position II.2. Time: a. Point (when) b. duration c. At Christmas , at noon, at night, at dawn, at dusk At 12.00 sharp, at 4.30 a.m On Tuesday(s), on holidays, on Sunday morning In simmer, in 1920, in June, i the XIX century For 20 years, since 1979, for another six weeks Up to that time, during the last war After the war, before 1986

Relationship Between five and six o'clock, from three to five By the end of October, until last year II.3. Manner, cause, purpose and others: a. Manner Lie a brother to me, as a child/boy... By doing so, without saying anything With a knife in his hand Because of ill health, on account of your absence Due to your carelessness... c. Instrument: With that knife d. Purpose: For freedom, for a better life e. Opposition: Against their rule III. Prepositional phrases: III.1. Structure of prepositional phrases: Preposition E.g: + For
84

(means)

b. Cause:

Prepositional complement Freedom

Against During

Exploitation and injustice The resistance war

According to These rules III.2. Prepositional complement may be realised by: a.Noun phrase: Basic: Comple x: In accordance with the regulations With his greatest efforts In his deepest gratitude of his teacher's

help b. V-ing participle clause: by doing so without being accepted at his coming late c. Wh-interrogative clause: on what the Government will decide in why you want to do that d. Yes-no interrogative clause: (aware) of whether our salaries have been increased (dependent) on whether he would win the match or not e. Nominal relative clause: (interested) in whatever he was saying at the time. IV. syntactic functions of prepositional phrases: IV.1. Adverbials: a. Adjunct: (i) Obligatory Adjunct:

85

E.g: - Place: - Time:

They were in the car then The meeting will be on Monday

- Manner: The problem is of great importance. (ii) Optional Adjunct: E.g: - Place: - Time: In the car they fought fiercely In 1945, two million people died of hunger

- Manner: They went into the room without saying any word - Purpose: We fought heroically for our own liberation - Cause: ill b. Disjunct: E.g: - To my surprise, the doctor phoned - In general, this is difficult matter c. Conjunct: E.g: On the other hand, they made no attempt to help the victors In addition, he failed to keep his promise IV.2. Other functions: d. Post modifier in a noun phrase: E.g: The people on the bus were singing This is a problem of great significance e. Comlementation of a verb (also call) E.g: We depend on you (c.f. we depend on you) We're looking for the little boy
86

He couldn't come on account of getting suddenly

f. complementation of an adjective E.g: I am sorry for his parents He wasn't conscious of his own strength They weren't interested in what he was saving

Exercise: 79, 80, 85, 86, 89, 91, 94, 95, 96 (Chapter 6, pp 46-54)

87

Chapter VII The simple sentence (UGE, chapter 7, p, 166-206)

I. Sentence - it's elements and types I.1. Working definition of sentence: A sentence is the combination of words or phrases (often noun phrase and other type and possibly other phrase(s) on the basis of: - Concords between Subject (often a NP) and verb (often a verb phrase) and other type) nouns or pronouns use as S, O, C, etc) - Order of words in the phrase and sentence structure; and this serves to express a complete idea for the purpose of communication. E.g: He's my brother He knows your intention He wants to help (to) complete your thesis (3 sentences) I.2. Five sentence elements: S, V, O, C and A Sentence may be, compound or complex 1. All the three kinds of sentence can be analysed in terms of S, V, O, C and A a. Simple sentence; E.g: He' s S V a teacher of English C two years ago

We bought this car

88

A (optional)

They hung the picture on the wall S b. Compound sentence: E.g: S V O A

They said this and went away V O V A 2nd indep.cl

1st indep cl

She's a teacher but she's very rich S V C S V C

1st indep cl c. Complex sentences: watching TV A S V E.g: When we

2nd indep.cl came they were

A = clause O

Main/superordinate clause We know that you're honest S S V V C

O = clause

Superordinate clause I.3. Basic sentence (or clause) types: - These are the possible arrangements of sentence elements in the language In English there are seven sentence types a. S + V intransitive: E.g: The bird sang. She's come
89

They were dancing. They talked and talked S V S V V

b. S + Vintensive + C: E.g: He's my student. They look tired S V C S V C

They'll become teachers of English S V C

c. S + V intensive + A E.g: They were here, too. S V A (A) S She got off the bus V A

c. S + V monotrans + O: E.g: My sister bought this car last year S V O (A)

They gave up drug addiction S V O

We depended much on your help S V (A) O

e. S + Vditrans + O + O E.g: They gave him this book S V O O

We informed them of the news S V O O

They took great care of the children S V O O

90

f. S + Vcomplextrans + O + C E.g: We elected him president of the company S V O C

They left the house empty S V O C

g. S + Vcomplextrans + O + A E.g: She led them upstairs S V O A

We hung these pictures on the wall S V O A

I.4. Decisive factor on sentence types determination: the Verb Five different groups of verbs and seven sentences types Verb

Transitive( 1)

Intensive( 12)
Monotransiti ve

Transitive

Ditransitive( 4)

Complex transitive (5)

Simpl e

Phras al Go out

Curre nt be

Resuiti ng becom e

Simpl e buy

Phras al Give up

Prep Simpl Prep Percept Causat Depend e Infrom of See, hear Make, put on give

(for more, see chapter IV)

91

II. Syntactic features and semantic roles (of S, O, C and A) II.1. Syntactic features of S, O, C and A: Elem ents S NP Expression Basic Position + initial completely before + Medial Identificatio n + determin S

Complex (simple sentence) NCl Non-finite (to Ving) finite That clause Wh-clause If/what cl (complex sentence) Example for illustration: My brother teachers S = basic NP Where does (Vsing) is V-

(after S-Vcone Ssingular+V (V-****)

Operator) - in questions

- in case of subject - Splur + V operator in version in emphatic (with (V

sentence

stressed O, C or A) + Final: with

introductory "it"

a teacher of English.

They

are

Splur live?

Vplur

your poor old mother

Operator S = complex NP It is may task to help him. S = to infinitive clause

(V-ing) It is said that he's still single S = that clause

Only by so doing can we help him successfully

92

Operator S Here comes the winner V-ing S = basic NP

O (bot

NP

Basic

+ after V transitive (monotrasitive, transitive)

O assumes

easily

Complex h Od (simple sentence) Non-finite and NCl Oi) (to Ving) finite That w-, If/whether cl (complex sentence) E.g: We know this man Vmonotran She asked questions V-

ditrans and complex The status of S in the + After another O (in passive sentence case of Oi + Od) + Initial with wh-

question on O I emphatic

sentences

----> This man we know O some interesting

O = basic NP her brother

Oi = basic NP Od = complex NP

93

We want to ask him a lot of questions Od \= to infinitive clause We all know that he's telling the truth Od - that clause We can't make out what he's dealing with Od = wh-interrogative clause

C (bot h Cs and Co)

NP

Basic Complex

+ intensitive verb

after -C

is

in

co-

referential

Adj.P

Adj

Adj + Prep.P (simple sentence) NCl Non-finite Finite wh-cl) Adj + finite Adj + finite. (complex sentence)

(sentence relation with S (denoting the type S V Cs) entity) + after Od (sentence type S - Not involve passive transformatio n

(that, V O Co) + initial position non+in wh-question on C -in emphatic

sentence Our task was to help him

94

E.g; He is

my brother

Cs = basic NP They were expert at grammar

Cs = to V

Cs = adjectival phrase Our plan was becoming a teacher Cs = V-ing clause We found him innocent of all charges Co = adjectival phrase I'm sure that they will succeed Adjectival phrase (Adj + that c.)

Adv. Prep.P (simple sentences) Finite Clause Nonfinite

mobile

in -

is

****

sentence structure - initial - medial - final

optional in *** structure A is

obligatory sentence ***** and S V O She's now

Verbless (complex sentences) E.g: He went there yesterday upstairs Aplace A time = adv

A Where did

They were in the car then you go?

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A = Prep.P He's nowhere to be seen where you like A = adv. Clause (non-finite) finite clause When in Rome do as Rome does You

A can hang it

A = verbless clause A = finite clause II.2. Semantic roles of S, O and C: S, O and C often play the following semantic roles in the sentences (of which the one(s) listed first being the most common: a.S E.g: - agentive - instrumental - affected She opened the door This key can open the door The door opened (with Vintrans) - recipient - locative - temporal - eventive - empty IT b. Object E.g: Od - affected: - effected: - locative: Oi - recipient: She has a new skirt This room accommodates 20 people Tomorrow will be fine The meeting ended success fully It's (very) wonderful to meet you We opened the door He did the exercises They entered the room We bought him a new house

96

- affected: c. Complement: attribute E.g: Cs - current atr: - resulting attr: - current attr:

We paid him a visit She looks cheerful today They became teachers We found the room empty

- resulting attr: She left the house empty * A: locative/temporal/conditional/concessive, etc (types) III. concord between sentence elements Concord is the agreement between sentence elements III.1. Different types: + S - V concord: It He/she agrees I/we agree

doesn't agree They don't agree She looked at herself in the mirror.

+ Pronominal concord:

They're teachers of English III.2. S - V concord: The most important type

a. Grammatical concord (formal): most obviously distinctive with third person S singular = V singular (V-s/was) E.g: The boy (he) likes football S plural + V plural (V/were) E.g: The boys (they): like football

Were there yesterday b. Notional concord (-meaning) (i) S = nominal relative clause +Vsingular V plur E.g: What he says isn't true
97

(= The thing he says...) What they like best are tea and coffee (= The things they like best...) (ii) S = collective + Vplural (~ members of collectively) E.g: The government are having a rest + V singular (~ whole collectively) E.g: The government has approved of his plan (iii). S = co-ordinated NPs + V-ing (appositional) E.g: His brother and his secretary were there with him (two different entities) His brother and (at the same time) his secretary was there with him. (same entity) (iv) S = none + ing + Vplur (non-count N) (plural count N) + Vplur (non-positional)

c. concord by proximity: (S - word that stands immediately next to V determines S - V concord (i) In set phrases E.g: One in ten take drugs None of them agree to go (ii) In existential sentence with there: E.g: there are two chairs and a desk there There is a desk and two chairs there
98

(iii) With either...or... E.g: Either your brakes or your eyesight was at fault Either your eyesight or your brakes were at fault III.3. Pronominal concord: a. S - O (with reflexive & emphasising pronoun) E.g: She saw herself in the mirror We can do it ourselves b. S - C: E.g: He is a teacher of English They're teachers c. O - C: E.g: We elected him our chairman (sing) Them our representatives (plur) IV. Sentence process: negation E.g: We all like football We all don't like football

Do you like football? Don't you like it? Why don't you like it?

Someone go there with him Don't anyone go there with him?

IV. 2. Assertives and non-assertives: a. List of items:

99

Assertives + Indefinite (Determiners) + Pronouns + Adverbs: Some + N Some + N-s Some one Something Somewhere Too Already + Prep.P: In some way To extent b. Uses: + in affirmative sentence some

Non-assertives Any + N Any + N-s Anybody Anything Anywhere Either Yet In any way At all + in negative + interrogative

E.g: I met someone on they sentences way here + in negative sentence E.g: We didn't see anything + two (more) non-assertives

E.g: I didn't give the book to used in the same sentence: some students. (scope of negation: narrowed) + in questions Eg: Did someone call E.g: I haven't seen anyone yet + for negative intensification E.g: I didn't go out at all last I met no one at all

night? (positive orientation) IV.3. Scope and focus of negation: a. Scope of negation = stretch of language within which the negative meaning operates normally extending from negative word to the clause and.
100

E.g: I don't know him

Scope of negation She didn't definitely know the answer A Scope of negation * An Adverbial may be inside or out side the scope of negation E.g: She definitely didn't know him A Scope of negation b. Focus of negation: - Emphatic stress on certain on word of the sentence, covering different shades of meaning E.g: My sister didn't like the show Emphatic stress may be on 'show, 'like, 'sister, 'my Scope includes the focus We didn't give the book to some of the student

* Extended scope to include subordinate clause (rise + fall) I didn't leave home because I s afraid of my father

V. 4. Negation of modal verbs (scope & focus of negation): AUXILIARY NEGATION Ability MAIN VERB NEGATION * mustn't + V \ = negation
101

Can't + V

permission Possibility

E.g: You mustn't here

smoke in

E.g: The road can't be blocked now (= you're obliged not to smoke in here) (= It's not possible that...) * May not = V: permission e.g: You may not/can't use my car * Won't + V = futurity,

prediction, etc E.g: Oil won't floats on petrol * May not + V = possibility E.g: The road may not be

* needn't + V; necessity E.g: She needn't attend the lecture

blocked now ( It's possible that the road isn't blocked) * Shouldn't + V = advisability

* (don't/doesn't have to + V) E.g: You don't have to go there now

E.g: again

You

shouldn't

do

that

(=you're advised not to do that again) * Oughtn't to + V

She oughtn't to go there again V. Different kinds of sentences (a communicative classification): In accordance with the purpose of the utterances, sentences in general (either simple or complex) can be classified in to: Statement (or declarative sentences): Question (or interrogative sentences): you?
102

E.g: I'm ill Who are

Commands (or imperative sentences): Exclamations (or exclamatory sentences): mess! V.1. Statements:

Keep silent! What a

These are sentences in which the subject is always present and generally precedes the verb. Positive: E.g: John will speak to the boss today He thinks that he can win the match Negative: E.g: We won't be able to go out on that day They didn't think they were winning the battle V.2. Questions: - These often involve subject-operator inversion together with rising intonation, or placement of wh-element in the initial position (cf. Concrete questions later) - Questions fall under three major classes: yes/no, wh-and alternative. a. Yes-no questions (interrogation on the whole sentence): These are the questions which require the answer of "yes" or "no" and can be subdivided into. (i). General yes-no questions: Formed by pacing operator before subject (plus a rising intonation more often). Eg: Has the boat left? Can we stop it now? Are you signalling? * Yes-no questions with positive orientation: E.g: Did someone call last night? Has the boat left already? * Yes-no questions with negative orientation:

103

E.g: Can't you give us any hope of success? Does no one believe me? (ii). Tag questions: These consist of two components - the first being a statement and the second - a tag, often of an opposite verb from to the statement (positive >< negative or vice versa). Semantically, they are composed of assumption and expectation which are largely dependent on the tone used by the speaker. Rising tone neutral Assumption: positive/negative + expectation:

E.g: He can do these, cant he? Yes, he can. No, he can't The boat hasn't arrived, has it? Yes, it ha/ No, it hasn't Falling tone: Positive assumption + Positive expectation

E.g: You know him, don't you? Yes, I do Negative assumption + Negative expectation E.g: They haven't finished it, have they? No, they haven't (iii). Declarative questions: This exceptional type of yes no question is identical in form to a statement, except of the final rising tone: E.g: You've got the losive? He didn't finish the race? You realise what the risks are? (complex sent) (iv). Exclamatory questions:

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The exclammatory question is a question in form, but is functionally ke an exclamation. These are marked by falling instead of rising tone. E.g: - Negative yes-no questions: (most typical) Hasn't grown!

Wasn't a marvelous concert! Am I hungry!

- Positive yes - no questions:

Did he look annoyed! b. Wh -questions (interrogation on part of the sentence): These are questions on elements of the sentence which fall under two subgroups, with wh-word or Q - word placed initially: (i) Wh-questions with wh-word pronouns: who, whom, which, what, and whose. These are questions on S, Od, Oi, Cs, and on modifier of NP. E.g: Who went there with her? (wh-word = S) Who(m) did he talk with/ (wh-word = Cprep) Which books have you lent him (wh-word=Premodifier) Whose beautiful antiques are these? (wh-whose=Determiner & Q-element=Cs) Who did you lend the book to? (wh-word= Oi) (ii). Wh-questions with wh-word adverbs: when, where, how, why and how-adj/adv. These are questions of Adverbial, or sometimes on Cs CO (with how + adj). E.g: When will you come back? Where shall I put these glasses? (Q-word = Atime) (Q-word = A place)

Why are they always complaining? (Q-word = A reason) How did you mend it?
105

(Q-word = A manner)

How long has she been waiting?

(Q-words = A time dur)

How often did he visit London? (Q-words = A frequency) How much does he care? (Q-words = Cs)

How wide did they make the book-case) (Q-words = Co) * These questions are often uttered with falling tone. But when the speaker shows interest of great care in what he/she is asking, the rising tone can be used. c. Alternative questions: These are questions that make use of co-ordinator "or" and can be divide into three subclasses. (i) Common alternative questions, often with rising tone before "or' and falling tone at the end, which require selection of one of the two given alternative on the questioned E.g: A: Did you come by train or by bus? B: We came by bus? A: Can we go there by bicycle or (can we) walk there? B: Oh, you can walk there. It isn't quite far away (ii). Alternative plus yes-no questions, often with the final rising tone, which require either choice of the given options (often with initial yes) or supplement of proper element (when saying initially No). E.g: did you come by train or by bus? Yes, I came by train? No, I came by motorbike (iii). Alternative plus wh-question, often with wh-word at the beginning and or for the suggested options, and falling tune, e.g.
106

E.g: A: How did you come/ By bus or by train? B: Oh I came by bus (but it really took a long time) A: Where did you go; to Leeds or to Birmingham? B: I went to Birmingham V.3. Commands: Commands are sentences that make use of the imperative mood in the main, or sometimes of questions with the initial modal - particularly with invitations or requests. There are three kinds of commands. a. Commands without a subject These have imperative finite verbs as the main element. (+) Positive: E.g: Jump.(V) be reasonable (VC) Do come in and sit down (emphatic command) Put it on the table (V O A) Please eat up your dinner (V O) (please = marker of politeness) (+) Negative: E.g: Don't make such a noise!

Don't be impatient! b. Commands with a subject (which can be subdivide into two subgroups) (i) "you" as S + With adomonitouriness in tone (+ strong irritation) E.g: You there be quiet! You mind your own business, and leave this to me! + To single out two or more distinct addressees;
107

E.g: You come here, Jack, and you go over there, Mary. + As requests or invitations: (verb phrase is not an imperative) E.g: Will you come in and sit down? (ii). With indefinite pronoun S:

+ Positive: E.g:

Somebody open this door! Everybody shut their eyes!

+ Negative: E.g:

Don't anyone say anything!

c. Commands with LET: First person imperatives can be formed by proposing the verb followed by a subject in the objective case. (i) Positive: E.g: Let us all work harder! Let's go out! Let me have a look Let each man decide for himself If anyone disagrees let him speak louder (ii). Negative: E.g: Let's not open the door

Don't let's open the door (informal BrE) Don't let him lose heart. V.4. Exclamations: Attention here is restricted to exclamatory utterances

introduced by what or how. a. Full exclamations: What + NP + ... E.g: What an enormous crowd came! (SV) What a time we've had today! (Od S V A)
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How + Adj/Adv: Eg: How delightful her manners are (cs S V) How fast he drove his car (A S VO) b. Short exclamations (exclamations with ellipted S + V) What + NP: How + Adj. Adj.only E.g: What a book! What a mess!

E.g: How beautiful How difficult! Fantastic!

E.g: Wonderful!

V.5. Minor types: Formulae a. Certain question can be used in special cases: (i) As a greeting: E.g: How do you do? Or a consolation yours elf? (~ Take it easy) cheerful) b. A number of exclamatory types: E.g: if only I'd listened to my parents! To think I was once a millionaire! Now for some fun! c. Sentences with formulaic. Subjunctives: E.g: Far be it from me to contradict you! God save the Queen! Long live our friendship VI. Block language This special use of language appears in such functions as labels, titles, headings, notices and advertisement. 1. Simple block language messages: a. Noun or noun phrases:
109

E.g: Why get so upset? Why not enjoy

(~

Be

more

E.g: Entrance Exit Purlemon juice

English department A grammar of contemporary English

b. Adjective phrases; or equivalent: E.g: Where to go in London How to win friends and influence people! 2. In newspaper headlines, abbreviated clause structures can be used. E.g: film - star Marries Ex-Priest Election: A. Landslide of socialists (S V Od) (S Cs) (S V Od)

Clinton to Meet Asian Premiers than Ever Share Prices Now Higher than Ever

(S A Cs)

Exercies; 98, 100, 101, 102, 103, 105, 106, 107 109, 110, 112, 113, 116, 117, 120 (chapter 7, pp, 56-66)

110

chapter VIII adjuncts, disjuncts and conjuncts (UGE, chapter 8, pp, 207-250) I. Generalities Adverbials - either Adjuncts, Disjuncts or Conjuncts - share the following characteristic feature: a. Expression (or realisation): (i) By an adverb; E.g: He went there yesterday (adjuncts) Frankly, I don't like his manner (disjunct) (ii) By a prepositional phrase: E.g: Peter was playing with great skill (adjunct) Like his brother, he's an author (disjunct) (iii). By a noun phrase (less common): E.g: He went to London last week (adjunct) They praised Tom many times (adjunct) By a noun phrase (less common): E.g.: He went to London last week . (adjunct) They praised Tom many times (adjunct) (iv). by a non-finite verb clause: E.g: to tell the truth, he failed the driving test (disjunct) Making a lot of noise they praised tom (adjunct) Caught red handed they couldn't deny their mistake (adjunct) (v) By a finite verb clause: e.g: Peter was playing although he was very tired (adjunct) What's more important he won the decisive match (conjuncts)
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(vi). by a verbless clause: E.g: When in London he sent me a lot of letters (adjunct) Grateful for his help they praised Tom (adjunct) b. Position: Most adverbials are mobile: they can be placed initially, medially or or initially: E.g: Like his brother he's an author. (-> He is like his brother, an author -> He's an author, like his brother) c. Identity: They are in most cases, optional in clause structure, except the cases where A stands after an intensive verb (clause type SVA) or after O (clause type SVOA). I.2. Distinctive features of the three subgroups: Adjunctis, disjunctis or conjuncts: Adverbials Adjuncts (most common) Disjuncts non-connective Status: connective Integrated in clause Peripheral in clause structure conjuncts

structure Criteria: (i) cannot appear initially in a (i) They can appear initially negative declarative clause (ii) can be contrasted another adverbial in an (as before a negative clause in with most cases. E.g: Probably, he'll be there alternative tomorrow focus of (disjunct) won't

interrogation

clause interrogation)

There fore, he couldn't come

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e.g: does he write to them on time (conjunct) because he wants to or (ii) They cannot be contrasted with another adverbial in because he needs money?

(iii) Can be contrasted with alternative interrogation. another in (iii). they can not be focus of alternative negation (as focus clause negation. of clause negation): E.g: We didn't go there on Monday. But on Tuesday. * Distinctive criterion of Disjuncts + Conjuncts (iv) disjuncts can serve as Conjuncts cannot serve response question. E.g: A: Will he be there? B: Yes, probably or No, obviously II. Adjuncts: II.1. Syntactic features of Adjuncts: a. Adjuncts can come within the scope the of clause to a yes no response question E.g: He'll therefore be there tomorrow to a yes adverbial

as no

interrogation and can be the focus of the question (of I.2.b (ii) above) b. They can come within the scope of clause negation and can be the focus of the negation (of I.2 (iii) above) c. They can come within the scope of predication pro-forms or predication ellipsis. E.g: John greatly admires Bob, and so does Mary

113

Peter will pay back the loan when he has money but George won't. d. They can be the focus additive adverbials (also) or, of a cleft sentence. E.g: They will also meet if they have time It was when we were in Paris that we first saw John. f. Besides, Adverbs as Adjuncts can have these additional features: (i). Can be focus of clause comparison: E.g: John writes as frequently as his brother does John writes more frequently than his brother does (ii) Can be premodified by "forever" or "how" E.g: However strongly you feel about it, you should be careful what you say How cautiously he drives! (iii) Can be premodified by "so" E.g: so monotonously did he speak that every left. I.2. Sub classification of Adjuncts: a. Place Adjuncts: - Most place adjuncts are prepositional phrases or clauses: E.g: He jumped over the fence and ran across the road Stay where you are. He's nowhere to be seen

- Adverbs that are place adjuncts make up a rather long list aboard, about, abroad, across, ahead, alongside, anywhere, ashore, away, back, behind, below, down, downhill, downstairs, east, eastwards, elsewhere, far, here, hereabouts, home, in,
114

indoors, inside, locally, near, north (ward), nowhere, off, on, opposite, out, outdoors, outside, overhead, overseas, somewhere, thorough (out), under, underfoot, underneath, up, upstream, west, within. They may be used for both position and direction (like other place adjuncts); E.g: He was upstairs He went up stairs - A few Np can be used as place adjuncts (position or direction) E.g: He lives along way from here. He threw it (about) ten yards - Position and direction adjuncts can be used together in the same clause: E.g: The children are running around upstairs He was thrown overboard near the shore. b. time Adjuncts: - Time adjuncts are often clause (finite and non-finite) or prepositional phrases: E.g: We'll go there when we have time. having finished work they went home. She'll go there in December. - Adverbs as time adjuncts are a relatively closed, though, fairly large class. They can be divided into 4 semantic classes: (i) When; today, tomorrow, afterwards, again, eventually, formerly (ii) Duration: (not) very long, permanently, briefly, (ever) since, lately (iii). Frequently; frequently, rarely, monthly, annually, usually, ever, once
115

(iv). Relationship: already, afterwards, before, subsequently, then, yet... E.g: They went to see him again yesterday at 8 o'clock (time when) His studies haven't been improving lately (duration) His studies haven't been improving since (duration) They often watch T.V. at night but seldom do so during the day They often watch T.V. at night but frequently) do so during the day - A few already left by the time they arrived (relationship) E.g: next Sunday, I'll go there (time when) I shall be in my office every other day (time frequency) c. Process Adjuncts: Process adjuncts can be divided into 3 semantic sub classes: (i) Manner adjuncts: E.g: They sprayed tear gas indiscriminately on the protesters She replied to questions with great courtesy He spoke in a way that reminded me of his father You should write as I tell you (ii) Mean adjuncts: E.g; He decided to treat the patient surgically We often go to school by bus (iii) Instrument adjuncts: E.g: He examined the specimen microscopically He can cut the bread with that knife
116

d. Focusing Adjuncts; Two sub classes (i) Limited adjuncts (what is being communicated is limited to the part that is focused). These include: lone, just, merely, only, simply, chiefly, especially, in particular. E.g: John only phoned Mary today You can get a B grade just/simply for that answer (ii) Additive adjuncts (the focused part is an addition): also, either, even, neither, nor, too, as well, in addition. e.g: We too/as well will do what we can for you they won't help him, but they won't harm him either e. Intensifiers: There are three subclasses: (i) Emphasizers; actually, certainly, definitely, indeed, really, literally, frankly, honestly, for sure, of course. E.g: I honestly don't know what he wants They literally tore his arguments to pieces They didn't know what to do, of course.

(ii).

Amplifiers:

absolutely,

completely,

entirely,

quite,

thoroughly, in all respects, by far, to some extent. E.g: We absolutely refuse to listen to your grumbling. I entirely agree with you (iii). downtoners: kind of, sort of, quite, rather, partly,

somewhat. E.g: The incident somewhat influenced his actions in later life We didn't it in the least/at all

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+ Oher adjuncts: purpose, cause/reason, etc (i). Purpose; E.g: We fought heroically for our own liberation (ii). Reason/cause: E.g: He was absent because he was ill The figure below shows different classes of adjuncts Adjuncts
Place (1) Position Time (2) Point Process(3 ) Manner Means Instrumen t Focusing( 4) Limited Additive Intensifier (5) Emphasise amplifier Downtoner Others (6) Purpose Reason etc.

Destinatio Duration n Frequenc y Relations hip

III. Disjuncts: There are two main classes: style and attitudinal disjuncts III.1. Style disjuncts: When using style disjuncts, the speaker/writer implies his own comment on the speaking/writing style: seriously, personally. E.g: Seriously, do you intend to resign? Strictly speaking, nobody is allowed in here If I may say so, the dress doesn't suit you III.2. Attitudinal disjuncts: These convey the speaker/writer's comment on the content of what he is saying E.g: Obviously, nobody expected us to be here today. They arrived, to our surprise, before we did. To be sure, we have heard many such promises before
118

Even more important, he has control over the party's finances IV. conjuncts: Most conjuncts are adverb phrases or prepositional phrases. The most commonly used conjuncts are: 1. Enumerative: first (ly), second(ly) for one thing, for a start, to begin with, to start with, in the second place 2. Reinforcing: also, furthermore, moreover, in addition, what is more 3. Equate: equally, like wise, in the same way 4. Transitional: incidentally, by the way 5. Apposition (al); namely, in other words, for example 6. Result (active); consequently, hence, therefore, as a result E.g: I'd like you to do two things form. First, phone the office and tell him from me that I'm going to tell him that myself. Secondly, post this letter. What's your name? Are you married, by the way? Exercises: 121, 122, 124, 126, 128, 137, 139, 143, 144, 146.

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Chapter IX co-ordination and apposition (UGE, chapter 9, pp, 251-283)

I. CO-ORDINATION I.1. What is co-ordination? Co-ordination is the combination of two or more equal units, namely, phrases or clauses. E.g: My friend and I went there together. We went there and returned immediately I told him this, but he didn't believe me. I.2. Syndetic and asyndetic co-ordination: a. Syndetic co-ordination - with presence of co-ordinators: E.g: Slowly and stealthily, he crept towards his victim. I.3. co-ordinators and correlatives. a. Co-ordinators and their meanings: (i) Syntactic features of co-ordinators - Restricted to initial position in the clause or phrase. E.g: John plays the guitar, and his sister plays the piano - Fixed position of clauses beginning with co-ordinator. E.g: They are living in England or they are spending a vacation there. - Impossibly preceded by other conjunction. - Allowing ellipsis of S of the clause it introduces (to avoid repetition):
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E.g: I may see you tomorrow or (I) may phone later in the day "And" and "or" can link subordinate clauses. E.g: I asked him who he was and why he had come. I wonder whether you should speak to him personally or whether it is better to write to him. (ii). Semantic implication of "AND" - Addition of consequence or result: E.g: He heard an explosion and (he therefore) phoned the police. - Addition of choronological sequence: E.g: She washed the dished and (then she) dried them. - Contrast: E.g; Robert is secretive and (in contrast) David is candid - Second clause being a comment on the first: E.g: They disliked John - and that's not surprising. - First clause being a condition of the second: E.g: Give me some money and (then) I'll help escape. - Second clause making a point similar to the first: E.g: A trade agreement should be no problem, and (similarly) a cultural exchange could be arranged. (iii). Semantic implication of "OR" - Exclusive choice: E.g: You can go there by car or you can walk there - Inclusive choice:

121

E.g: You can boil an egg, or you can make some cheese sandwiches, or you can do both. - Restatement or correction of previously - mentioned idea. E.g: he began his educational career, or, in other words, he started to attend the local kindergarten. - Negative condition. E.g: Give me some money or I'll shoot. Let go of me or I'll scream. (iv). Semantic implication of "BUT - Unexpected contrast: e.g: John is poor, but he's happy. He didn't want their help, but he had to accept it. - Contrast being restatement (negative >< affirmative) E.g: John didn't waste his time in the week before the exam, but studied hard every evening. b. correlatives: (i) Common correlatives with anticipated addition (both ... and), alternation (either...or) and additional negation (neither...nor): E.g He both either neither both knit eith er has long hair and or nor wears jeans

I can

and or

sew

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She smoked

both

cigars

and

cigarettes

neither nor Unlike "both", "either" and "neither" can be placed before the lexical verb even when the scope does not include the whole of the predication. E.g: He either neithe r You can neithe r Other correlatives - nor/neither - correlated with actual or implied negative in the previous clause. E.g : He did not want to ask them for help; (but) nor could he do without their help. We owe no money, (and) neither do they. - not only ... but (also) E.g: They not only broke into his office and stole his book, but they (also) tore up his manuscripts. (Not only did they break into... but they also tore up...) I.4. Phrasal and clausal co-ordination: a. Phrasal co-ordination (co-ordination of phrases of equal status)
123

smoked cigars

and nor

cigarettes

either

write elegantly

or nor clearly

+ Co-ordinated noun phrases (in different syntactic functions) E.g: Peter and John were there. I write articles on current affairs for newspapers and magazines We were 3 afraid of poisonous snakes and fierce animals + Other phrases (as modifier): e.g: I like teaching a studious or hard - working undergraduate (apposition co-ordination) He has workers from Ireland and from France (Prep.P) The attacks in June failed (Prep.P) + Co-ordinated adverbials (adv, and other units (non-finite/finite clause) E.g: They sang beautifully and passionately (adv + Adv) She waited patiently but in vain (adv + prep.phrase) You can wash it manually or by using a machine (adv + V-ing) They can call this week or whenever they wish (NP = Adverbial + Finite clause) b. Clausal co-ordination (co-ordination of clause of equal status) -Co-ordinated independent clauses E.g: he has long hair and he wears jeans. They disliked John, and that's not surprising He began his educational career, or, in other words, he started to attend this local kindergarten. She didn't want their help, but he had to accept it Davie neither loves Joan nor wants to marry her You can either knit or sew
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- Co-ordinated subordinate clauses: E.g: If you can find the letter and (if) you are interested in it I'll let you have it. I'm prepared to meet them when (they like) and where they like. I want to know for whom it was ordered and by whom (it was ordered) She desired to know where he had gone but not why he had gone. Tell me both why he went away and how (he went away) II. Ellipsis II.1. Ellipsis in co-ordinated clauses: a. Ellipsis of subject: Identical subjects of co-ordinated clauses are ellipted: E.g: Peter ate a cheese sandwich and (Peter/he) drank a glass of beer. Sometimes, ellipsis of both S and auxiliary occurs: E.g: Mary has washed the dishes, (she has) fried them, and (she has) put them in the cupboard. b. Ellipsis of auxiliary only: when subjects are different E.g: John should clean the shed and Peter (should) move the lawn. John must have been playing football and Mary (must have been) doing her homework. c. Ellipsis of Predicate or Predication: (i). Ellipsis of V or lexical verb only:

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E.g: Yesterday John was given a railway set, and Sue (was given) a doll. I work in a factory and my wife (works) on a farm. Nam will work today and (he) may (work) the day after tomorrow. (ii). Ellipsis of V + Cs (and possibly of S as well) E.g: John was the winner in 1971 and Bob (was the winner) 10 years later. The milk turned sour not only today but yesterday too (iii) Ellipsis of V + Od (possibly only lexical verb + Od) E.g: Peter plays football for his school and Paul (plays football) for his club. Joan will cook the meals today and Barbara may (cook the meals) tomorrow. (iv) Ellipsis of required form of lexical verb or predication: E.g: We met last year, but we haven't (met) since. I saw your parents last week, but I haven't (seen your parents) since John could have been (watching television), but (he) wasn't watching television. They can (pay the full fee) and (they) should pay the full fee, but (they) won't (pay the full fee). d. Ellipsis of Od or Cs only: (i) Od; E.g: John likes (Mary), and Peter hates, Mary.

George opened (the door), but Mary closed, the door

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(ii) Cs: (angry)

E.g: Bob seemed angry, and George certainly was

John has recently become (a very hard - working student) and his brother always was, a very hard - working student) e. Ellipsis of A: E.g: to my surprise, they didn't appoint him, and they (to my surprise) didn't even interview him. Theoretically, I have no objections to his proposal and

(theoretically) neither have any of my colleagues. In our school, students and teachers get on well together, but (in our school) this harmony is comparatively temporary. f. Ellipsis of head noun or of C prep: E.g: We wanted fried fish, but they gave us boiled (fish) She wore the black dress, but the blue (dress) suits her better. bob is bored with (music), but Peter enjoys music II.2. Semantic effect of ellipsis: Sometimes, the effect of ellipsis is to indicate that there is a combined process rather than two separate processes: E.g; Did Peter tell lies, and did he hurt his friends? Where Peter's telling lies and his hurting his friends are regarded as two separate processes, hence two separate questions. III. APPOSITION III.1. What is apposition? Apposition resembles co-ordination in linking units having grammatical affinity (referring to the same entity).
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E.g: A neighbour, Freed Smith, is on the telephone. Mr.Campbell, the lawyer, was here last night. III.2. Indicators of apposition: A number of expressions, which commonly mark the same or similar relationship being grouped together, explicitly indicate apposition. They can be inserted between appositives. These include: that is today, that is, i.e, namely, viz., in other words, or, or rather, and, as follows, for example, for instance, e.g, say, including, such, as, particularly, chiefly, mainly, mostly: E.g; the passenger plane of the 1980s, namely the supersonic jet, have some what transformed relations between people of the world. The President of the USA, in other words Bill Clinton, was on television last night. I didn't meet any people, including my sister. III.3. Restrictive and non-restrictive apposition: a. Restrictive apposition: Strict restrictive apposition of noun phrases can take three forms, of which the first one is the most common. (i) The first apposition is the more general expression preceded by a definite determiner (and possibly pre-modifier) E.g; That famous critic Paul Jones came here last night. The novel Great Expectation was the best seller last week. I haven't seen my good friend bob for a forthright. (ii) The second appositive is preceded by a determiner and is more general than the first.

128

E.g: Paul Jones the critic didn't attend the last seminar. Bill Clinton the president of the U.S.A ended his working visit to Japan. (iii). This type is like (i) but with omission of the determiner. E.g: Critic Paul ones was completely against the plan. They talked with Democratic leader Robison for half an hour. Restrictive apposition is common with such NPs as the fact, the idea, the view, the question, etc... E.g: I don't agree with the view that there is no advantage in being patient the questions whether to confess or not troubled him. b. Non-restrictive apposition: Apposition is typically exemplified by noun phrases in nonrestrictive apposition. Semantically, the appositives may be of. (i) Equivalence: These may be appellation (namely, who/which + BE), designation (who/which + BE), identification (namely) or reformulation (or) - Appellation: E.g: the company commander, (who was) captain Madison, assembled his men and announced their mission. He told them the good news: taxes are to be reduced + Designation: E.g: Captain Madison, (that is to say) the company commander, took the lead (2nd appositive being less specific than the first). + Identification: E.g: A literary critic, Mr. Paul Jones wrote this article,
129

(2nd appositive being more specific) We - (that is to say) John and I - intend to resign. + Reformulation: E.g: He drew a pentagonal, or five-sided, figure. (2nd appositive being reworded) We are studying sound units of the language, technically phonemes. (ii) Attribution: This involves predication rather than

equivalence. The second appositive is commonly an indefinite NP E.g; The house, an imposing building, dominated the street. But it can be definite or non-articled E.g: Many soldiers, the cream of the battalion, died in the attack. Robinson, leader of the Democratic group on the committee, refused to answer questions. (iii). Inclusion: In this type, the first appositive includes the second (but not identical with it). E.g: His excuses, say the break down of his car, never seemed plausible. The children liked the animals, particularly the monkeys. The two men, one a Dane, were awarded medals. III. 4. Realisation of apposition: The first appositive is often a noun phrase while the second can be a noun phrase, a non-finite or a finite clause. E.g: His novel Great Expectations is truly thrilling (NPs)
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The soldiers, some of them being natives, are friendly (V-ing Cl) His hope, to become a doctor, was realised at last (to V Cl) This strongly supports his argument that things are getting worse than before (that clause) He didn't answer my question, why he hadn't come to the meeting (wh-interrogative clause). His account of what he had done that year did not satisfy his colleague. Exercises: 148, 152, 153, 155, 156,. 158 (chapter 9, pp, 80-85)

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CHAPTER X SUBORDINATION: COMPLEX SENTENCES (UGE, chapter 11, pp. 309 - 345) I. CO-ORDINATION AND SUBORDINATION I.1. General distinction: Co-ordination and subordination are the two techniques of combining simple sentences into compound and complex sentences* respectively. Given two (or more) simple sentences Tom saw Mary (1). He ran away (2) We may form compound sentences such as: Tom saw Mary and he ran away Tom ran away and he saw Mary (We use here the technique called co-ordination) otherwise, we may form complex sentences When Tom saw Mary he ran away While running away Tom saw Mary. (We use here the technique called subordination) I.2. Specific features: Compound a. Components: Complex * Clauses: (different in meanings)

* Clauses: finite clauses (which + Main clause + subordinate use finite verb phrases) clause finite (Vmain) - finite These clauses are structurally (Vsub)
*

In R.fQuirk et al's book, the term "complex' sentences is used for both. However, in manyother garmmar books, the term compound sentences is also used. Many grammarians use the term "composite sentences"

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and semantically independent

clause:

- non-finite - verbless

clause + subordinate on clauses main are

structurally and semantically dependent clause, functioning as S, O, C or A of the main clause b. Joining words: Co-ordinators Simple and, but, or correlatives both... and not only... but either...or Simple if, as, that, when, while Subordinators Compou nd as if, as though, so that Correlativ es so... that more..tha n
hardly.. when

c. Concrete analysis of these sentences in terms of s, v, O, C and A

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Tom saw Mary and he ran When Tom saw Mary he ran away S V O S V A away A S V O S V A

1st indep.cl He saw it but

2rd indep.cl (he) didn't (Vphrasal) main clause O S V I know that you're honest S v V C

(dep)

interfere S V

1st indep.cl

2rd indep.cl

Did you come by car or by S bus? S V A A 2rd

O - dep.cl (sub)

Why he didn't go is still a secret A S V

1st indep.cl indep.cl(ellipsis)

S = sub.cl V A C

Not only did he failed the exam (dep) A S 1st indep.cl but he lost the game as well S V O A V O

When in Rome do as Rome does A a A S V

A = sub.cl

V A - sub.cl

2nd indep.cl (verbless) (finite) I.3. Co-ordination and subordination in combination: In many case these two procedures are combined to make very complex sentences (also called compound complex sentences, etc..) E.g: He said (that) he would come but he didn't (1st clause = complex sentence)

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I contemplated the stones a few feet away and saw that several of them were flat up against our wall. (2nd indep. clause = complex sentence) One bright morning when I was nineteen(1), I packed (2) all I had (30 on my back, left (40 my native village and walked up(5) to London looking (60 for gold and glory. (6 clauses: 2nd, 4th, 5th cl; independent clauses;) 1st cl = A time; 3rd clause = relative clause modifying pronoun "all' functioning as O; 6th clause: V-ing participle cl = A purpose) II. SUBORDINATION; GENERALITIES II.1. Indicators of subordination: a. Formal indicators: In the sentence, we can notice

subordinator(s) which may be subclassified in the following diagram: Subordinators Simple as, because, if, since, that, when, while, etc.. Compound as if, as though, so as, so that, in order that Correlatives so...that, more...than, such...that, no sooner..than,

hardly...when E.g: We have lived here since we graduated from the college They went there so that they could earn their living

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Hardly had they started the race when they heard a loud explosion b. Use of wh-words: wh-words Pronouns (S, O, C in sub.cl,) who, which, what E.g: What he says isn't true Adverbs (=A in sub.cl.) Where, when, how, why... I'll go where you go

Who'll go there hasn't been Why he hadn't come was still decided... c. Optional use of subordinator: + In finite clause: joking + In non-finite clause; Mary. (After) having finished the work, they went home. d. Absence of subordinator: + In non-finite clauses acting as S, O or C E.g: We went him to stop talking Watching these films was not to my liking + In contingent adjectival clauses: E.g: They went home tired/happy. + In case of subject - operator inversion: Had you gone there you would have met her. I.2. Subclasses of subordinate clauses:
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troubling her then E.g: I knew (that) he did he didn't like

E.g: (While) running away, Tom saw

Structural classification: (i) Finite clauses: - That clauses: E.g: It's obvious that he's honest - Wh-interrogative clauses; E.g: I don't know who he is - Adverbial clauses: E.g; The man who went there didn't know this (ii) Non-finite clauses: - Infinitive: V -Participles: milk V-ed2: E.g: (iii). Verbless clauses: - With adjective: E.g: Tired of the lecture he fell fast asleep. - With when, while, if. E.g: When in Rome do as Rome does b. Functional classification (depending on syntactic functions of subordinate clauses) (i) Nominal clauses: These clauses often function as S, O, C in the main cl.. (cf. Section III below) (ii). Adverbial clauses: These clauses often function as Adjuncts (of different kinds), Disjunct and Conjunct (cf. Section IV below) (iv). comment clauses; These often function as main clause, Adjunct, Disjunct, or Conjunct (cf. Section VI below) Here below is the diagram showing a and b in combination. Badly injured he couldn't escape to V : E.g: : E.g: -ing : E.g: To elp him is my task Run away was all we could do It's no use crying over the spilt

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Subordinate clauses
Nominal (1) (functioning (S,O,C) as clauses Adverbial clauses (20 (functioning as Adjuncts and Disjuncts) Relative as Postmodifi er Comment clauses (3) clauses(4) (functioning Adjunct Disjunct Conjunct)
Finite (-that cl. -wh-cl. if/whethe r clauses) non-finite (to V V V-ing) finite (as, if, while, etc) nonfinit e (to V, V-ing, V-ed20 verble ss (adj. if/whe n + A) (only finite cl.) finit e non-finite (to V, V-ing)

as

&

Fig. Subordinate clauses; general classification In the following sections we are going to deal with these four groups of subordinate clauses respectively. III. NOMINAL CLAUSES III.1. Subclassification of nominal clauses: There are two subgroups, each of which comprises a set of minor types: a. Finite nominal clauses including: + That clauses E.g: That he knows me is obvious E.g: Where he has gone is still

+ Wh-interrogative clauses: not known

+ Yes/no-interrogative clauses: knew it

E.g: He asked whether you

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+ Nominal relative clauses: a cigarette end. b. Non-finite clauses including: + to-infinitive clause (to V) + Bare infinitive clause (V) what he said

E.g: What causes the fire was only

E.g: It's my task to help him E.g: All we had to do was repeat

+ V-ing participle clauses (V-ing) watching TV

E.g:

We

all

enjoyed

III.2. Possible functions of nominal clauses: Like noun phrases, nominal clauses can be used in eight different syntactic functions, namely subject, direct object, subject Complement, appositive, prepositional Complement, object Complement, adjectival complement and indirect Object. However, not all the above - mentioned types can perform all these junctions. There are in fact: major (or common) functions that all of them can perform and minor functions that are restricted to a certain type only. + Major functions: S, Cs, Od, App + Minor functions: Cprep, Co, Cadj + Oi V. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES In this section we are largely concerned with the main type of Adverbial clauses - Adjuncts, either finite or non-finite, or verbless clauses. There exists another Adverbial clauses: in terms of way of classifying. (or semantic meaning

classification of these. For more, see chapter VIII, section II). To make it more convenient let us deal here with the finite

139

Adverbial clauses, the most commonly used, at first and then with other types. V.1. Finite Adverbial clauses: Table: Finite Adverbial clauses - semantic sub-classfication:
Subclassifi -cation of time Subordinators joining words before, + When I last saw you, you lived in New York + Buy your tickets as soon as your as reach the station as, + Our hostess, once everyone had arrived, was full of good humour + They went wherever they could find work + Where the fire had been we saw nothing but blackened ruins c. Clauses if, of condition unless, on * Real conditions: that, + He must be lying if he told you that + Unless the strike has been called off, there will be no trains tomorrow + Provided that no objection is raised, we shall hold the meeting here * Unreal condition + if he came now, I'd see him + If she had gone there, she'd have met him condition provided (providing), that, as long as, so, so long as since, until, when, while, soon/long, when ever b. Clause where/wherever + Examples

a. Clauses after,

of place

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d. Clauses although, though, + No goal were scored, thought it was of even if, even an exciting game. while, + Whereas John seems rather stupid, his brother is clever. + Whether they beat us or we beat them, we'll celebrate tonight. + She looks pretty whatever she wears no + Nom matter how hard I try can never catch up with him because, + I lent him the money because he badly needed it. + As Jane was the eldest she looked after the others f. of ce g. Clauses exactly of manner as as, Clauses because, since, + Seeing that the weather has now, that, seeing improved, we shall enjoy our game + We'll try to enrich ourselves now that the state has permitted us to do so just + Please do it (exactly) as I instructed + Just as a moth is attracted by a light , (so) he was fascinated by her h. Clauses (more).. than of compariso n as if, as though + he's younger than I am + She drove more carefully than her father did + he treated me as if he had never met me. i. Clause of so (that) result in order + We planted many shrubs, so (that) that the garden soon looked beautiful concession though, whereas Conditiona l clauses whether ... or, wherever

concessive whatever, whoever, matter how e. Clauses as, of reason since (or cause)

circumstan that

(purpose)

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f. and

Clauses as ... (so) the more/less...the more/less

+ As he grew disheartened, (so) his work deteriorated + The harder he worked, the happiest he felt

proportion preference

IV. 2. Non-finite Adverbial clauses a. To-infinitive clauses purpose: E.g: I left early (so as) to catch the train They left the door open in order for me to her the baby Sometimes, to infinitive can act as A result E.g; The ceiling is too high for me to reach She woke up to find the whole house on fire b. V-ing participle clauses following. - A time; E.g; He wrote his greatest novel while working on a freighter Nearing the entrance I shook hands with my acquaintances -A circumstance: E.g; The weather having improved, we enjoyed the rest of the game - A manner: e.g: She entered the room without greeting anyone inside - A reason: E.g: Being very suspicious she hesitated to open the door.
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(to V): often introduced by (in order)/

(for+N) to, so as to, Infinitives thus used often function as A

- ing participle clauses

are very

common with subordinator: while, without, when, etc, in the

Being a man of ingenuity, he soon repaired the car - A preference: E.g: Rather than sitting quietly a home he preferred to visit his friends - A condition + concession: E.g: Whether living in London or not, John enjoyed himself c. V-ed 2 participle clauses: - A time: E.g: Once published the book caused a remarkable stir - A place E.g: where (ver) known, such facts have been reported - A condition: E.g; These books will caused great harms to young students unless forbidden. d. Bare infinitive clause: - A preference E.g: Rather than go their by air. I'd take the slowest train IV.3. Verbless adverbial clauses: Verbless adverbial clauses include a. Adjectival contingent clauses (without our with subordinator) E.g: They went home dead tired (A circumstance) John, sad at the news, went to Mexico (A reason) Though very poor they are extremely generous (A

concession) If necessary I'll do that again (A condition)

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When ripe the oranges are picked and sorted b. Other clauses (often with subordinator) E.g: When in Rome do as Rome does While in London he enjoyed himself greatly He'll do his best to help her if requested by the boss These verbless clauses are often considered as reduced finite clauses with ellipted Subject + Verb V. RELATIVE CLAUSES In some grammarians'points of view, relative clauses are not considered as part of complex sentences. In r. quirk et al's books (both'A Grammar of Contemporary English) and 'A University Grammar of English) relative clauses are treated in the chapter dealing with the complex noun phrases (of chapter II above) However, to most grammarians' frame of mind, they may be classified among the complex sentences. There are in fact different kind of relative clauses that do not merely function as post-modifier in noun phrases as follows: V.1. Relative clauses functioning as post-modifier in NPs: There are two subtypes: a. Restrictive relative clauses (also called defining relative clauses) E.g; The man who went there with him is my brother in law I tried to discuss this problem with the professor who wrote this book. b Non-restrictive relative (or non-defining) clauses:

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E.g; We met Mr Jones, who was expert at nuclear physics This book, which was written fifteen years ago was again revises and published (for more see chapter II, section) V.2. Sentential Relative clauses: This has been mentioned in subsection dealing with nonrestrictive relative clauses. However this group differ from them in that they have antecedents as the whole previous main clause. E.g: He came to see her too often, which annoyed her mother They failed the final exam, which surprised us all V.3. Nominal relative clauses: These are clauses that are very close to the noun phrase status in that they can perform seven (out of eight) different functions of noun phrases. They can act (as S. Cs.Od, Co, App. Cprep and Oi (cf, Subsections III.3 and III.4). They differ from the other two subgroups in that they can be paraphrased by nominal element plus relative clauses. E.g: What caused the fire was only a cigarette end. (=The thing that caused the fire...) We remember when we first came here (= the time when we first came here) We gave whoever went there a brochure (= anyone who went there) VI. COMMENT CLAUSES

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Comment clauses are some what loosely related to a super ordinate clause and may be classed as disjuncts or conjuncts, which may occur initially, finally or medially. Comment clauses very in form and syntactic functions as follow: 1. Like a main clauses: E.g: At that time, I believe, labour was cheap You know, I think you're wrong 2. Like and adverbial clause (functioning as Adjunct): E.g: I'm a pacifist, as you know As far as grammar is concerned the sentence is the largest unit 3. Like a nominal relative clause as conjunct; E.g: What's more, we lost all our belongings 4. Non-finite clauses as style disjunct a. to V: E.g I'm mot sure what to do, to be honest b. V-ing: E.g: I doubt, speaking, as a layman, whether television is the right medium. c. V: E.g: Stated bluntly, he has no chance of winning the game. VIII., DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH 1. Direct things, there are two ways: a. Using Direct Speech E.g: He said "I'm very hungry" (1a) "How are you today?" asked her friend Here, the reporting clause may be classed as comment clause b. Using Indirect Speech E.g: He said that he was very hungry (1b)
146

Her friend asked (her) how she was that day (2b) Obviously, the reporting clause is, in this case, the superordinate clause and the reported, a subordinate clause. Beside the change in the clause status there are other changes that are noteworthy. We are going to deal with them in the following subsections. 2. Changes in clauses status: DIRECT SPEECH --------------- INDIRECT SPEECH that clause Generally, independent clauses are changed into subordinate clauses. a. Statement E.g: "I'm very hungry, he said That clause -> He said that he was very friend said that they

hungry "We didn't go there because -> My we "were ill" said my friend

hadn't gone there because they

had been ill. b. Question (wh-question) Wh-interrogative clause E.g: "Who are you" asked her -> Her mother asked him who he mother was "Why didn't you attend the -> They asked him why he hadn't meeting?" they asked him c. Questions: Yes/no attended the meeting + Yes/no interrogative cls

alternative qs. (if/whether) E.g: "Have you finished the -> He asked her if/whether) she work?" he asked had finished the work "Did you come by train or by -> She asked whether I had bus?" she asked me d. Commands come by train or by bus To-infinitive clause
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E.g: "Come in and sit down -> The monitor told them to please!" the monitor said to come in and sit down them "Will you participate in this -> My colleague invited me to meeting?" said my colleague. participate in the meeting saying "It will be of great interest". that it would be of great interest e. Exclamations That clause/wh-clause E.g; "What a hero you are!" -> Margaret told him what a hero Margaret told him. he was that he was a real hero

3. Change of the verb forms: When the reporting verbs is in the present tense, there is not any change in the subordinate clause in Indirect Speech as compared to the independent clause in Direct Speech in terms of tense and aspect forms - When the reporting verb is in the past tense (said/thought/wonder), there is the so called backshift change in the tense form of the subordinate verbs as follows. Direct Speech ------------------ Indirect Speech Simple Present (V/V-s) Simple Past (V-ed1) Present Ved2) Perfect (have/has + Past perfect (had + V-ed2) Past progressive (was/were +

Present Progressive (am/is/are + Ving) Ving) Present Perf. Prog. Past perfect (had + V-ed2) (have/has Unchanged
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been+ Ving) Simple Past (V-ed) Past perfect (had + Ved2)

Past Pref. Progr. (had been +Ving) Unchanged + V be + Ving

Past Perf. Progr. (had been+ would Ving) will +V might

may be + Ving 4. Change of pronouns and pointer word: Pronouns and pointer word: Pronouns in indirect speech should be changed in accordance with the relationship between them and those of the reporting clause subject. - Subject: E.g: he said: "I'm very tired" -> He said that he was very tired "We didn't agree with him", she said to him. -> She told him that they hadn't agreed with that man - Adverbials of time and place and determiners should also be changed as follows. Dr.Sp today now here -------> that day then there this my our In.Sp Dr.Sp -------> that his/her their In.Sp

149

yesterd ay tomorr ow

the day before the day after following day day

your

his/her

the

next day after tomorrow after

two days

later E.g: "Why didn't you go there yesterday?" she asked -> She asked me why I hadn't gone there the previous day. "The day after tomorrow I'll come here again", said the man -> The man told them that he would go there two days later Exercises: 172, 174, 176, 177, 179, 180, 181, 182, 185, 187, 188, 190, 191, 201, 203, 206, 208, 209 (chapter 11, pp, 94-108)

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Terminology
Adverbial Absolute/positive Additional additive Adjectival phrase Adjective clause Adjunct Adjunct of duration Adjunct of frequency Adjunct of relationship Adjunct - When Adverbial Affected Agentive Amplifier Appositive Article Article usage Aspect Assertive Attribute Attributive Basic Noun phrase Cardinal Case Category Causative Cause Central Characteristic Classification Clause Clause coordination Closed system trng ng nguyn/n ph thm cng thm cm tnh t mnh tnh ng ph ng ph ng ch thi on/din bin ph ng ch tn xut ph ng ch quan h thi im trng ng b/chu tc ng tc nhn tng cng ng v ng/ngha ong v qun ng vic s dng qun t th xc nhn nh t nh ng cm danh t c bn s m cch phm tr khin ng nguyn nhn trung tm c trng phn loi mnh (c) lin kt mnh
151

Coherence Cohesion Common Comparative Complement Complement of preposition (Cprep) Complementation Complementation type Complete Complex Complex finite VP Complex NP Compound Concept Conjunction Conjunct Coordinator Correspondence Criterion Current Decisive factor Definite article Degree of comparison Demonstrative Denominal Dependent clause Derivational suffix Determiners Discourse analysis Descriptive Disjunct Ditransitive Double genitive Downtoner

h thng ng s mch lc lin kt chung so snh tng i b ng b ng gii t b t kiu b t hon chnh phc cm ng t bin v phc cm danh t ghp khi nim lin t lin ng lin t ng lp s tng ng tiu ch hin trng, hin c nhn t quyt nh qun t xc nh mc so snh ch nh, t ch nh danh mnh ph thuc hu t pht sinh cc t xc nh phn tch din ngn m t bit ng ngoi hng kp thuc cch s hu kp t gim ngha, uyn thanh

152

Duration Dynamic Effected Emphasizer Empty Equal comparison Essential Eventive Exclamatory Explicitness Expression Extensive Feminine Finite clause Finite VP Focus Focusing Fraction Gender General Genitive Gradable Grammatical meaning Inclusive Incomplete Indefinite Indefinite article Independent clause Indicator Inferior Instrument Instrumental Integrated Intensifier Intensive

thi on ng, nng ng c thnh to t nhn mnh khngm ang ngha g so snh ngang bng trng yu ch s kin cm thn hiu ngn, s r rng cch din t m rng ging ci mnh bin v cm ng t bin v tiu im trng tm nh hng phn s ging chung thuc cch s hu phn chia mc ngha ng php t gp khng hon chnh t phim ch qun t khng xc nh mnh c lp du hiu km hn cng c c tnh cng c ho kt t tng cng (v tnh cht, mc )

153

Interjection Interrogation Interrogative Intransitive Lexical meaning Limiter adjective Locative Main Main clause Major Manner Marked Masculine Means Minor Modified modifiers Modifier Mood Multiple Multiple heads Multiplier Negative Neuter Nominal relative Non-assertive Non-finite verb phrase Non-gradable Non-restrictive Noun Numeral Numerical Object (O) Objective Obligatory Open class

quan h su thn t s nghi vn nghi vn ni, hng ni ngha t vng tnh t hn ch nh v chnh mnh chnh chnh, thng thy phng thc c du hiu ging c phng tin t thy nh ng c b ngha t b ngha thc a thnh t nhiu t chnh t ch bi s ph nh ging trung mnh quan h danh tnh phi xc nhn mnh khng bin v khng phn mc khng hn nh danh t s t thuc s hc tn ng thuc tn ng bt buc

154

Operator Optional Ordinal Particle Partitive Passivity Perceptive Peripheral, periphrastic Permanent Personal Phrasal coordination Phrasal verb Possessive Postdeterminer Postmodifier Postpositive Posture Predeterminer Predicate Predicative Premodification Prepositional verb Principal Process adjunct Proform Progressive tense Pronominally Pronoun Provenance Quantifier Recipient Reciprocal Reflexive Relative Replacive

lp m t iu phi tu , khng bt buc s th t tiu t ch b phn ngha b ng ch cm gic, cm qun ngoi bin, ngoi din thng trc nhn xng lin kt cm t ng lp ng t c tiu t s hu, s thuc t ng sau t xc nh nh ng ng sau ng sau t th t ng trc t xc nh v ng biu ng php s dng nh ng ng trc ng t c gii t chnh ph ng ch tin trnh t thay th thi tip din nh i t i danh t xut x t ch nh (s) lng i tng, ngi nhn. qua li phn thn

155

Restrictive Resulting Subject (S) Scope Secondary Segmental phoneme Semantic role Sentence structure Sentence Sequence Stative Subclassification Subjective Subjunctive mood Subordinate clause Subordinator Substantivised adjective Subtype Superior Superlative Superordinate clause Supplementive Suprasegmental Syntactic functions Temporal Temporary Tense Unacceptable Unique reference Universal Unmarked V intensive V complex transitive V ditransitive V intransitive

quan h thay th hn nh kt qu ch ng phm vi th yu m v on tnh vai tr ng ngha, ngha cu trc cu cu th t, trnh t tnh ti phn loi su hn thuc ch ng gi nh thc mnh ph (thuc) lin t chnh ph tnh t c danh t ho tiu nhm cao hn so snh cao nht mnh chnh chi phi b sung, thm ngha siu on tnh chc nng c php thi gian nht thi thi, th khng th chp nhn c quy chiu, ngha n nht ph qut trung tnh, khng mang du hiu ng t quan h

156

V monotransitive Verbless Volume

ngoi ng t phc ngoi ng t kp ni ng t ngoi ng t n khng c ng t khi lng

157