Lecture 8

Number theory and Modular arithmetic

Motivation
Error-control codes use check equations. These equations require arithmetic operations defined for codeword symbols from finite fields. Finite fields are defined using modular arithmetic arithmetic. Other applications of modular arithmetic: pseudo-random number generation d d b ti public-key cryptography
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Groups
A group G is a set with a binary operation * which together satisfy: closure: a; b G means c = a * b G: associativity: In G; (a * b)* c = a * (b * c): identity: G contains an element i such that a = a * i. (i is 0 for additive group) 1 inverses: F every a G th i For G, there exists a-1 G i t such that a * a-1= i. ( -a for additive group)

Groups-contd
Definition : If a * b = b * we say that the D fi i i *a, h h group operation is commutative and that G is a commutative or Abelian group. Examples of Groups: the integers Z under addition; the integers under addition mod lo p (prime) nder modulo Set of all rational numbers excluding zero is a g p p commutative group under real multiplication.

Groups-contd
The no. of elements in a Group-order Finite order- finite Group. The t Th set G = {0 1} together with + i a {0,1} t th ith is Commutative Group. Consider the Set G ={0 1 {0,1,.p 1} where p is p-1} prime. This set forms a commutative group under modulo-p addition and the set of nonzero elements forms a commutative group l t f t ti under modulo-p multiplication.

The Subgroup
Let G be a group with operation * and H G. H is a subgroup of G if it is a group under the operation * Lemma: Lemma H G is a s bgro p of G if subgroup H is closed under * H contains the i t i th inverse of every element of H f l t f

Ex.: H = {Even integers} is a subgroup of Z under addition. d dditi

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Contd
Definition : hj h * h * h h where * is the group operation. Lemma: If h G; a finite group, then H3 = {h ,h2 ,h3 ,..} is a subgroup of G.

Cyclic subgroup
The number c of elements in H is called order of the element h. The set of elements h, ,h2 ,h3 ,..hc=1 is called a cycle. A cycle is a sub group . y y g p A group that consists of all powers of one of its elements is a cyclic sub group. y g p

Groups-contd..
The integers {0, 1, 2, , m-1} with modulo-m addition. The integers {1, 2, , p-1} with modulo-p multiplication IF p is prime prime. Note: If p is non-prime, the set cannot form a group under multiplication( multiplicative inverse does not exist)
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Rings
A set together with operations + and . is a Ring(R ,+ ,. ) if the following hold : Ri aC is Commutative G t ti Group under addition. d dditi Closure property is satisfied a.(b.c)=(a.b).c a (b c)=(a b) c Multiplication is distributive over addition. Commutative Ring if a b = b a a.b b.a The identity element for the addition is called 0, and the identity element for the multiplication is called 1.
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Ring:Examples
The set of all real numbers under the usual addition and multiplication. The set of all integers {Z} under addition and multiplication. The set of all {n x n} matrices with real valued { } elements under matrix addition and matrix multiplication is a non commutative ring. The t f ll l Th set of all polynomials i x with real valued i l in ith l l d coefficients under polynomial addition and p y polynomial multiplication. p
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Fields
Let F be a set of elements with binary addition and multiplication.F is a field iff: F is a commutative group under addition . The set of non zero elements in F is a Commutative group nder multiplication. Comm tati e gro p under m ltiplication Multiplication is distributive under addition. A Ring R is a Field if every non-zero element Ri i Fi ld l t of R has a multiplicative inverse.

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Contd..
Examples: Q , R and C are fields. (Q-the set of rational numbers;R-the set of real numbers;C- the set of complex numbers) Order of a Field:The no. of elements in a field . Finite Field: Field with finite elements.

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Finite Field
Consider the Set G ={0,1,.p-1} where p is prime. This set forms a commutative group under modulo p addition and the set of nonmodulo-p non zero elements forms a commutative group under modulo-p multiplication. Modulo-p multiplication is distributive over modulo-p addition. Hence the above set is a field of order p under modulo-p addition and multiplication. For p=2, we obtain binary field GF(2). p y ( )
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Finite field arithmetic

For every prime number p, the integers (0, 1,., p) with modulo p arithmetic form a finite field with p elements. This field is called GF(p).

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Subfields
Asubfieldisasubsetofafieldwhichitselfisa A bf ld i b f fi ld hi h i lf i fieldundertheinheritedoperations. The original field is said to be an extension of the subfield.

Examples: Q (rationals) is a subfield of R (reals) R is an extension of Q Q. R is a subfield of C (complex). C is an extension of R.

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Greatest common divisor

The greatest common divisor of two integers m and n is the largest number that divides both m and n n. Two different integers m and n are relatively prime or co-prime if they have no common proper divisors. If m and n are relatively prime, their greatest common divisor is 1 1.

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Constructing finite fields from Z

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