Society for American Archaeology

The Peruvian Co-Tradition Author(s): Wendell C. Bennett Reviewed work(s): Source: Memoirs of the Society for American Archaeology, No. 4, A Reappraisal of Peruvian Archaeology (1948), pp. x, 1-7 Published by: Society for American Archaeology Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25130223 . Accessed: 29/03/2012 13:46
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you/oue
eo'_-n*_y I ^y 1.Map of Peru.

Fig.

Peru

as a Whole

THE PERUVIAN CO-TRADITION

Wendell
I. THE CONCEPT OF AN AREA CO-TRADITION

C. Bennett forms a meaningful unit for archaeological For one thing, this historical interpretation. since allows more precise regional delimitation, is considered within which the territory only
the component cultures formed a culture area

culture area concept as developed by Wissler1 has had only limited applicability THE to archaeology, since it depends too much on or traits, elements is too heavily specific is not sharply enough weighted by subsistence, is too inclusive, and is too static in defined, time. Although Wissler divided the New World
into a number of archaeological culture areas,

at every
maximum period. A

time period,
expansion name for

and not
during a such a

the territory
particular

of
time

cultural-time-space

unit
such area

is badly
phrases continuum,

needed.
as culture and

It is possible
area culture

to employ

been very meaningful, since elements with total disregard they lump gross for time, which results more in confusion than in significant classification. In Kroeber's of North America reappraisal in the have been made many modifications
culture area concept, which have . . . reawakened

these

have

not

culture column, area with time

depth,
"area

but

Dr.

Ralph
which

Linton
seems

has

proposed
satis

co-tradition"

more

the culture area classification, factory. Unlike are the cultures included in an area co-tradition
treated as wholes. Thus each has its own his

the interests
on the

of archaeologists. "
that

Kroeber2
space a and

works
time

tory,
word,

its own persistent

co-tradition, refers,

traditions.
then, to

The
the

coined
linkage,

assumption to make the

factors
history mechanism ranges

are sufficiently
. . . ." With the numerous ...

interrelated
culture this small area in mind areas

in culture
valuable he of North ar

the interrelationships of these tions in time and space.

To repeat, an area co-tradition

cultural
is the

tradi
over-all

America
he3 believes

into six major "

to

groups,
represent

each of which
a substantial

unit of historical
characteristic

development,
of culture.''

or of a prevailing
He goes we call even

current

unit of cultural history of an area within which the component cultures have been interrelated over a period of time. The term is not applied to the cultural history of a region. For merely Colombia's history does not example, Highland
form a co-tradition, since there is as yet no evi

further
tensity"

to
for

introduce
a culture

the qualification
area:4 "What

of "in
in

dence

tensity of culture therefore means both special content and special system. A more intensive
as compared with not a less intensive more also culture material?more more material norm contains ally or elements only traits?but

mutual of the relationships is a included. Neither cultures archaeological co-tradition the history of a single culture. A reconstruction of Navaho history, which traced of the
the migration from some northern area like

peculiar to itself, as well as more precisely and established interrelations between articulately the materials." This quality of intensity im in demonstrates plies time depth, as Kroeber discussing particular groups. The addition of time depth
1 Wissler, 2 Kroeber, 3 Kroeber, 4 Kroeber, 1917. 1939, p. 2. 1939, p. 20. 1939, p. 222.

the Mackenzie to the present in the home Southwest would be excluded from this con cept. In brief, the co-tradition implies a cultural
continuum in an area. The successive occupa

tions of a Patagonian rock-shelter in themselves, be sufficient.

An area co-tradition should have

would
certain

not,
over

to a culture

area

it as a all characteristics which distinguish are to be expected, whole. Regional subdivisions

since these, in a sense, reflect the component

cultures, but links dence of their being 1

between subjected

regions and evi to the same gen

2 SOCIETY FOR AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY eral influences should be found. The unit should limits in both space and time. have definable the time period covered are Changes within inevitable, but the major ones should be more or less uniform, although not necessarily identi cal. The questions of origin and of basic formu
lation of the area co-tradition are of great inter

[memoirs, observe
civilization

Kroeber:8
all native larger

"I should
Peruvian whole,

first that I regard

as areal a unit?a culture

historical

a major

est, but not intrinsically part of the concept. the causes and directions of change Likewise, within the unit are subjects for later investiga
tion. As a classificatory device, the area co-tradi

with time deptb." the present view, namely This is essentially includes the coast that the Peruvian co-tradition basin and highlands of Peru and the Titicaca the Peruvian of Bolivia, or, more specifically, to Mollendo and the coast from Lambayeque to Tiahuanaco; from Cajamarca highlands and that it covers a time span from the formu to the Spanish horizon lation of the Chavin
Conquest, 200 about or, B.C. in to terms 1532 a.d. of guess-dates, these Before from space

to the study of cul tion is a useful preliminary in part an abstraction, ture history. Although
the area co-tradition actually purports to repre

and time
over-all tion must

limits can be properly

of presented. the first be

explained,
co

the
tradi

sent
Various be

a substantial
area compared.

unit

of
once have

cultural
established, single

history.
can centers,

characteristics

Peruvian

co-traditions, Do they

The major
intensive plants beans,

centers, shifting centers? How impor multiple rate of change? What tant is size, complexity, types of unity are found in each, such as politi
cal, there stylistic, regular of of subsistence, sequences environmental? of internal develop Are

has the following Peruvian co-tradition is based on Subsistence characteristics.

agriculture are maize, oca, and and potatoes, pepper, herding. The quinoa, squash, The common manioc, cotton,

peanuts,

and many in
be the llama,

fruits. The domesticated

alpaca, guinea pig.

animals
narcotic

are

ment?
studies cause

Archaeologists
acculturation the uncertainty and an

have
and of

been
culture cultural

blocked
change continuity,

but with
can be is selected tion. II.

this concept
for

regional
their of

cultural
an

changes

coca is chewed with lime, while tobacco is of is with digging minor importance. Cultivation stick and clod crusher, and utilizes irrigation,
terracing, fertilizer, and crop rotation. The

examined

causes

illustration

Peru sought. area co-tradi

clothing pattern is based on the breach clout or skirt and belt, the slit-neck shirt, shawl, head
band or other headgear, and the woven bag

THE

PERUVIAN

CO-TRADITION

with

have spoken of Andean archaeologists Many or Central Andean but few have civilization, to define its territorial limits. Tello5 bothered covers all civilization states that the Andean and the Pacific coast from the the mountains to the Rio Bio Colombian border, 2? 5' North, Bio, 38? South. Uhle, while not so specific, writes as though he were dealing with an equally
extensive area. Means6 says that he is covering

strap. The crafts of pottery, metallurgy, are all shell, feather, and woodwork basketry,
but weaving is particularly out

prominent,

standing. fish, condor,

with cape,

Common ray,
many and

design motifs are the feline, figure trophy head, masked

geometric such elements. Craft

specialization
with permanent

is common.
materials,

Buildings
as

are made
stone and

adobe. Massive

the republics of Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia, together with adjacent portions of Colombia, and Chile. The present writer7 has Argentina, defined the Central Andes as the highlands and of Bolivia, coast of Peru and the highlands including the eastern cordillera. None of these deals with the total area he writers consistently In this description of the Peruvian defines. an attempt is made to define the co-tradition, unit more sharply?an attempt anticipated by
5 1942. Tello, 6 1931. Means, 7 1946a. Bennett,

is typical, both for construction and public works. Temples religious purposes are commonly with decorated and dwellings
carving, painting, and arabesques. The popula

or larger ag in villages is concentrated are political units above the There gregates. individual and class local groups and marked leisure time over and Abundant distinctions. tion
above economic minimums is ever present. The

is in groups, either on standard work pattern the basis of cooperation, religious inspiration,
or forced corvee. elaborate The prominence goods, of and ancestor mummy worship, grave

bundles
8 Kroeber,

can be designated
1944, p. 111.

by the term "necro

Bennett]
tropic" (grave-oriented).

A REAPPRAISAL
The pilgrimage

OF PERUVIAN
re

ARCHAEOLOGY 3

ligious pattern is typical, and such pilgrimages are not limited to local areas or to a single time de Huantar, by Chavin period as witnessed
Tiahuanaco, Many to the and negative above Pachacamac, characteristics and Copacabana. could be added bow

as no urn burial, no such list, water and weak arrow, transportation. are found in each These characteristics

sub

time period of the division and each main which is also united in Peruvian co-tradition, link the cultures other ways. Specific traditions several time of some subdivisions throughout
periods. across period. cultures Various some or all types of the of horizon sub-regions of the related in styles in one cut time

than 200 kilometers, and by more separated even then small settlement exist in pockets between. (The Cuzco basin is an exception and is the most isolated of all. This is interesting since on the basis of present evidence, the Cuzco basin is known to be prominent only in the late periods.) In the north, however, the Cajamarca basin is separated from Loja in southern Ecua dor by some 400 kilometers of rough, forest covered mountains which lack sizeable basins are virtually and which without population
today. Furthermore, a climatic a wet change occurs

north
rainy

of Cajamarca
season and

which

produces
paramo

a double
cover

supports

Furthermore, are intricately

many

component space and

than age, less suitable for llamas and alpacas the Peruvian next to the puna. Turning
northern coast, Lambayeque is separated from

time.
with

For
Pucara,

example,
Early

Chiripa
Tiahuanaco,

has

relationship
and Chana

in turn is linked with Classic pata; Pucara and the Black Tiahuanaco, Wari, the Epigonal, White-Red these, finally, merge into horizon;
lea and Chimu. Another such branching rela

Piura by the Sechura desert, some 225 kilo meters wide. Piura, in turn, is separated from the subtropical coast of Manabi and Guayas by an extensive, stretch of barren, unpopulated
sand.

tionship
Nazca on

is Chavin,
one side; the area

Cavernas,
Chavin, culture are

Necropolis,
Salinar, Mochica,

and be

and Chimu
shown the and later, direction. Peruvian

on the other.

Finally,

as will

changes throughout in time uniform roughly

Ecuadorian is too little knowTn to archaeology The best work has permit sound generalization. been done in Manabi on the and Esmeraldas coast, and in the highland basins from Cuenca north, rather than in the parts closest to Peru.
At present, the sub-regions of Ecuador appear

The
vian some

geographical
area major has many contrasts However,

environment
consistencies in altitude, on both

of the Peru
in spite of and and rainfall, coast the

the quite independent culturally, although Tuncahuan style may ultimately prove to be
a genuine horizon. There are some indications

that

coast

and
For

highland
example, Collier

connections
earth mounds

will

be
are

temperature.

established.

in the highlands there are large areas suitable for cultivation. These have rich soils and ample
water deep supply, rooted and grasses are or not forest. covered All by resistant areas of these

characteristic
Esmeraldas,

of highland
and

Imbabura
and Murra9

and coastal
encoun

are isolated
for enough rials suitable facture.

enough
cultural for

for independence,
contact. All present and craft

but close
mate manu

architecture

tered many sherds in Azuay which highland they considered to be of coastal origin. Future work may allow grouping the coast and high lands of Ecuador and southern Colombia as an areal co-tradition, but this would probably be
an independent one, not merely an adjunct of

At
Peruvian

this point
co-tradition

the geographical
can be examined

limits

of the

in greater

it is true that some of the detail. Although are found elsewhere, characteristics cultural that similar geographic exist in conditions adjacent regions, and that some of the horizon a detailed styles extend beyond the boundaries,
examination shows that the Peruvian co-tradi

the Peruvian. In highland Ecuador, for example there are no pre-Inca buildings with permanent no large scale sites, no identifiable materials,
ceremonial centers, and few llamas and alpacas.

is reasonably tion, as delimited previously, and culturally. isolated, both geographically The Peruvian area, as here defined, is roughly 1700 kilometers long, from north to southeast, and from 100 to 400 kilometers wide. Within
this area, the major valleys and basins are never

There is no evidence of widespread cultural ties of the kind that unite Peru. Furthermore, there are few specific stylistic tie-ups with Peru in the pre-Inca periods. The gold work of Sigsig and looks somewhat Tiahuanacoid, but Chordeleg there is no ceramic confirmation of the spread of the Tiahuanaco horizon. In brief, the Peru vian unit seems well delineated both culturally
9 Collier and Murra, 1943.

4 SOCIETY FOR AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY in the north. Piura may and geographically some day be grouped with Peru, but Ecuador
seems unlikely. fusion, particularly since

[memoirs,
a glance at the map

shows

clearly

that
bear

the south highlands

no close spatial

(Puno

Tiahuanaco)

correspond

The tropical forests of the Upper Amazon mark the eastern boundary of the Peruvian unit. of Andean The penetration into the culture and the influence of tropical cultures tropics, are interesting on the Andean but problems have little to do with the limits of the Peruvian which certainly does not exist in co-tradition, the jungle. The southern margin of the Peruvian unit is in part determined by the intense desert condi desert along the coast is tions. The Atacama intense in the world with only one the most
major oasis, Calama on the Rio Loa, and this

ence to the south coast-highland

importance, more

Since (Nazca-Canete). are of considerable relationships

precise regional terms must

coast

be employed. forms an isolated Each coastal valley and should, theoretically, have its own
cultural history. However, the archaeological are

unit local
re

finements
Consequently,

in Peru are not sufficient

valleys

to show this.
arranged into

nine groups on the basis of proximity and cultural overlap. These are listed from north to south with each named after a single central valley:
1. Lambayeque (Fig. 2:1). 2. Moche group: Lambayeque, Sana, Pacasmayo

lies
Even

some
so,

700 kilometers
the Calama show

south

of Arequipa.
of major to the

importance,

none cultures, some relationship

but further south in Chile the Dia Peruvian, guita cultures are affiliated with the Northwest
Argentine co-tradition.

group: Chicama, Moche, Viru, Chao (Fig. 2:2). 3. Chimbote Casma group: Santa, Chimbote, Nepefia, (Fig. 2: 3). Supe, Huaura, (Fig. Chancay, 2: 6).

A desert strip cuts eastward across the Andes cordillera of Bolivia south of 17?. The western is dry, without basins, and, today, virtually South of Lake Titicaca, without population. River in Lake the Desaguadero disappears
Poopo, where the water evaporates into ex

4. Huarmey valley (Fig. 2:4). 5. Rimac group: Paramonga, Lurln Ancon, Rimac, (Fig. 2:5). group: Mala, Canete, 7. Ica group: Pisco, lea, Nazca 8. Lomas group (Fig. 2:8). (Fig. 9. Arequipa 2: 9). group: Camana, 6. Cafiete

Chincha (Fig. 2:7).

Majes,

Mollendo,

Arequipa

tensive Titicaca
Bolivia

salt basin,
are

flats. Actually, apart the most inhabitable

in the eastern

the regions of from

The

There
pockets, importance. to south:

are
and

numerous
but are only again

highland
six listed are

valleys,
of major from north

cordillera.

closest to Peru this is separated

meters spite of of rugged this,

is the Cochabamba basin, and from Titicaca by over 300 kilo

mountainous Tiahuanaco good country. ceramics In are

basins, These

found

in the

Cochabamba
ceremonial In general, cordillera

region

although

1. Cajamarca basin (Fig. 2, a). 2. Callejon basin (Fig. de Huaylas 3. Hudnuco basin (Fig. 2, c). 4. Mantaro 5. Cuzco 6. Titicaca basin basin basin (Fig. (Fig. 2, d). 2, r). (Fig. 2, e).

2, b).

buildings, permanent are not. stone carving influences in the eastern

and centers, the Peruvian are no greater

and than those from the Amazon, Chaco, It thus seems sound on geographical Pampas. to fix the southern and cultural grounds on the co-tradition of the Peruvian boundary
Mollendo-Arequipa-Tiahuanaco line.

basin is separated Each highland from its distance, around 300 neighbor by a substantial of Cuzco, kilometers, but, with the exception none is too distant from one or more of the
coast groups. On geographical grounds, com

Once the spatial limits and the over-all char have of the Peruvian co-tradition acteristics can be con the subdivisions been defined, sidered. These are of two kinds, regional and The subdivisions involve regional temporal. both coastal valleys and highland basins which contrasts, but at this present some interesting are discussed. time only the spatial relationships It has long been customary to trisect both the into a North, a Central, coast and the highlands and a South division. This has led to some con

from' basin to basin would be more munication to coast, and, in difficult than from highland the case of the Tiahuanaco horizon, the spread
from by way one of basin the to another valleys. seems There to have are been many coastal

other indications of rather close relationship of basins with the adjacent the highland coastal valleys. On the basis, then, of actual spatial and known cultural tie-ups, five relationships can be listed, although transverse divisions and do not cover these admittedly overlap,

Bennett] every basin and group

1. Far North division:

A REAPPRAISAL to complete

OF PERUVIAN

ARCHAEOLOGY 5
division: Cuzco-Lom&s (Fig. 2: IV, e, 8). So far

satisfaction:

4. South not

Ca/amarca-Lambayeque-Moche by the Chavin culturally (Fig. 2: I, A, 1, 2). Confirmed the spread of the Cajamarca style, and the cursive horizon, tripod style. division: 2. North Ca//e/dw-Moche-Chimbote-Huarmey

culturally. 5. Far South division: culturally of the Decadent

confirmed

Confirmed spread tures.

Titicaca-Arequipa (Fig. 2: V, f, 9). the Tiahuanaco the by horizon, Tiahuanaco and the Atacameno cul

/ C

to***00-

...

,/ \ <;

J]-V *
? V-

?
I.LAM6AI pX\f YEQOE |K\r

s>_

Pe*o
>L
Xt*?

;
*

U.2

fr

L^AMARCA^

^\^J

xO

/ M

?
;^ Brazil

nn-rr^?**-/

g]-*+^7-^J^cuzco 8, LO*AS VC^f g

*>_\ ^ ?

/ w"

Y\;

;V_____

'

rSlF/ /* V

v \Lsi1 f

-V
/ y

VJtfgL
t' f\

/*

/
y

/A>

J v
v* /
and Divisions

>
\

/ Cochabamba.
Bolivia *?.?.?*?

Fig.

2. Limits

of the Peruvian

Co-Tradition.

Rimac Chavfn horizon,

(Fig. 2: II, b, 2,3,4, 5). Confirmed culturally by the the White-on-Red the Negative horizon, horizon, the Tiahuanaco the Black-White-Red horizon, the Recuay three color negative distribution. division: Afantaro-Rimac-Canete-Ica (Fig. 2: B-Y other

and horizon, 3. Central

III, d, 5, 6, 7). Confirmed culturally by the Nazca the Tiahuanaco and probably horizon, horizon, by connections.

These divisions are weakest for the Hudnuco and Cuzco basins and the Lomas coast group, the cultural history of none of which is known. A South division (Fig. 2: IV) is left open for and the The Callejdn confirmation. future basins seem to have been the most Mantaro centers of during most highland important

6 SOCIETY FOR AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY

Peruvian merit far cultural more history, attention and than consequently have they which re characterizes

[memoirs,

ceived thus far. can also be divided The Peruvian co-tradition too the lines are not although temporally that the cul It is interesting, however, sharp. tures of the total region change in the same
directions at approximately the same times.

the area co-tradition takes place with and this pattern in until rapidity, persists seems an impor This terrupted by the Spanish Conquest. tant point to stress, in view of the fact that some writers have obviously the time required confused for formulation of a pattern with the length of its duration. comparative 2. The vancement co-tradition shows ad technological where tech up to the point (Mastercraftsmen) are adequate for a satisfactory control of subsistence of the economy. There is then a shift to of man-hour are made and work units Peruvian

For Viru
population

Valley,

at

least,

this
since

is not
Mr.

due a

to
has

niques and maintenance social and the and

replacement,

Ford

assembled
population

convincing
continuum

evidence
there.

for

basic
divi

political manipulation no new advances virtually case of Peru the social by

Temporal

since the days of sions have been recognized with dealt work. Means10 Uhle's pioneer in terms of century civilization Andean by of culture. Larco11 proposed century growth seven major divisions for the coast of Peru. At the 1946 Chiclin conference, Strong and seven divisions for the north Larco outlined to the Ameri submitted coast. In a manuscript I have de can Museum of Natural History, in terms of six scribed the Peruvian co-tradition major time divisions:
1. Cultists and Casma de Huantar, Cupisnique, Nepeiia (Chavin and Supe, Chavin Coast sites, Early Anc6n is formulated. the pattern in which (Cavernas, Chancay White-on-Red,

is characterized emerged corv6e labor. 3. The different Central wise Peruvian time and

political pattern sharp class distinctions has different the North

in technology. In which and in the

co-tradition from

focal centers to

periods, South, and the

illustrates

finally constant contrast

division, to the Cuzco basin. between

It like

the coastal

on a single source of irrigation valleys which are dependent and the amorphous basins. We can almost water, highland the high go so far as to say that the coast fostered states, lands small confederacies. trends can be observed, for example: from to cities; from individual to mass artists to craft production; in art style, from Chavin stylization to Tiahuanaco to geometric. conventionalization, realism, 4. Numerous villages

Chongoyape), 2. Experimenters

in White-on-Red, Chanapata, Chiripa), Salinar, Huaraz in agriculture, which ceramics, experiments technological and the like are in evidence. building, metallurgy, 3. Mastercraftsmen Lima, Mochica Early which (Nazca A and B, Interlocking, Early A and B, Gallinazo, Katak, Pucara, Recuay, in initial Classic and Tiahuanaco), Tiahuanaco, controls are and numerous

In brief, it seems that the concept of area as illustrated by Peru, is a useful co-traditions, one which might profitably be applied to other parts of New World and Old World archaeology. It does not follow that any region, if sufficiently
will studied, represent as in the case of the an area culture co-tradition. area, differences Also, in

complete, technological are formulated. of orientation local patterns Middle 4. Expansionists Wari, Epigonal, (Tiahuanaco, Ancon lea, Wilkawatn-Tiahuanaco, Early I-II, Pacheco, later Black-White-Red and also the somewhat Cajamarca, horizon attention in which sites), social and political organization, sion is manifested everywhere. 5. City Builders (lea, is completely and conquest turned and

intensity
present

are to be expected.
evidence, several other

On could

the basis
area co-tradi

of be

tions in the New established.

to III. OTHER

World

probably

AREA

CO-TRADITIONS

expan

Southwest
of Arizona,

co-tradition
western and southern New

would

cover
encom

the

Late Black-on-White, Chancay Decadent Chimu), Tiahuanaco, Inca, Early Huamachuco, and popu controls are reformulated, local political in which in large units. lations are concentrated 6. Imperialists political empire (Inca and local manifestations), over the total is finally achieved in which area.

region east Colorado,

Mexico, and Utah,

south

com cultural and regional pass three major and Mogol the Anasazi, Hohokam, ponents, to The author is not competent lon-Mimbres. this unit in detail, but some of the describe
general characteristics might metate-mano be: maize agricul sub

of the into the details Without entering let me point content of each temporal division, about the observations out a few general
Peruvian 1. The initial co-tradition. Peruvian evidence but shows the long formulation a slow period of of the pattern

ture supplemented
village pattern;

by collecting and
with

and hunting;
complex;

terranean
rough with

cists

storage
stone,

pits;
mud,

pit
and

houses;
beams;

architecture

emphasis

on basketry,
stone

weaving,
carving

and
and

pottery
metal

cultural

growth,

monumental

1(> Means, 11 Larco,

1931. 1938-39.

lurgy lacking; ritual emphasis; rain and fertility cults; absence of marked class or individual dis tinctions. The unit might have a time span from

Bennett]
about epochs, Pioneer, Historic. 300 to 1600 a.d., in

A REAPPRAISAL
and the case some

OF PERUVIAN
San

ARCHAEOLOGY 7
and western and Santiago eastern del Estero.

designated, Colonial,

six major of Hohokam:12 Late, and

Juan,

Northern,

southern,

sub-regions

Sedentary,

Classic,

could
for

be distinguished.
would villages ceremonial be of

Some
urn rough

of

the general
particularly or clay; emphasis ab on

characteristics

A Middle
clude the

American
area from

co-tradition
western

would

in
and

Honduras

infants; sence of

burial, stone

centers;

to Zacatecas in Mexico. The major regional and cultural components would appear to be Central Mexico (Toltec, Aztec), Oaxaca and (Zapotec), Vera Cruz (Olmec, Totonac), and Guatemala-Salvador-Yucatan (Highland Salvador
Lowland Maya). Vaillant13 characterizes the

ceramics, metallurgy, figurines, and clay pipes; use of tobacco for smoking and snuff; agricul without ture, probably serpent, irrigation; jaguar, owl, and toad design motifs; and prob tendencies. The time span would ably warlike still be uncertain, but in all sub-regions parallel
development arranged into could early, be noted, middle, and late the cultures and Inca

total
tropical tobacco,

unit
and

by:
cotton,

intensive
squash,

agriculture,
maize, peppers; beans,

both
cacao,

semi-desert;

ceramics,

weaving, mesticated

lack of do limited metallurgy; on sculpturing; animals; emphasis based on nature worship; divinities polytheism in drawings and sculpture; and platforms
temples; calendar. span as writing; Vaillant 0-1500 a.d., astronomy; estimates and and the over-all four recorded time divi

and

periods. It is possible that parts of central Chile that would be included, but it is significant in northern northwest Argentina would Jujuy
not be. These vian time three to area be and co-traditions of roughly plus the Peru size, pos

appear duration,

intensity.

Among

comparable other

recognizes

sions:

Middle

Civilizations,
Mixteca-Puebla.

Cultures, Late Independent Argentine

mountainous Tucuman, La

Full

Independent Civilizations, should

of Salta, northern

sibilities of area co-traditions of less duration and intensity are Alaska, the Northwest Coast, coast and Southeast United States, Ecuador
highland, West Indies-Venezuela, and Pata

A Northwest
include Catamarca, 12 Martin, 13 Vaillant, the

co-tradition
regions Rioja, 1947.

like the Amazon and the Eastern gonia. Regions Woodlands would be hard to define because of
their tural expanse great characteristics. and somewhat vague cul

Quimby, 1941.

and Collier,

Yale New

University Haven, Connecticut