Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Science, Parkville

Laboratory Report
Overview
The following is a general format for lab reports that you can adapt as needed. Lab reports are the most frequent kind of documents written in Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Science and it is not unusual for your Lecturer to ask you to provide him or her with a variation of this style. Regardless of variations, however, the goal of lab reports remains the same: document your findings and communicate their significance. With that in mind, we can describe the report's format and basic components. Knowing the pieces and purpose, you can adapt to the particular needs of a course or professor. A good lab report does more than present data; it demonstrates the writer's understanding of the concepts behind the data. Merely recording the expected and observed results is not sufficient; you should also identify how and why differences occurred, explain how they affected your experiment, and show your understanding of the principles the experiment was designed to examine.

Typical Components of a Lab Report

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. The Title Page The Abstract The Introduction The Materials and Methods Section (Equipment) Experimental Procedure (The Data and Analysis Section) Results The Discussion Section The Conclusion The References Appendices

1. The Title Page

The title page needs to contain the name of the experiment, the names of lab partners, and the date. Titles should be straightforward, informative, and less than ten words. It is a single sentence fragment (no verb) that describes your experimental objective and gives some indication of the method (procedure).

2. The Abstract
The abstract summarizes four essential aspects of the report: 1. the purpose of the experiment (sometimes expressed as the purpose of the report) 2. key findings 3. significance 4. & major conclusions. It is one-paragraph summary of the entire experiment - procedure, results, & analysis.

3. The Introduction
The introduction states the objective of the experiment & a background to the experiment. In one or two sentences state the topic of your report clearly & concisely. A good introduction must include: 1. Purpose of the experiment 2. Important background and/or theory 3. & it may include a description of specialised equipment and a justification of the experiments importance A good introduction provides background theory, previous research, or formulas the reader needs to know. In it you must show your own comprehension of the problem. The final sentence (the thesis statement) is the objective of your experiment. For extensive Lab Reports consider adding subheadings such as: Theoretical Principles or Background. Note on Verb Tense - Introductions often create difficulties for students who struggle with keeping verb tenses straight.

The experiment is already finished so use the past tense when talking about the experiment e.g. The objective of the experiment was... The report, the theory and permanent equipment still exist; therefore, use the present tense, e.g. The purpose of the report is & The reactions are

4. Methods and Materials (or Equipment)

The methods and materials is an accurate and complete but simple list. Simply direct the reader to a lab manual or standard procedure e.g. Equipment was set up as in CHE 276 manual. In more in-depth Lab Reports the Methods & Materials Section is a detailed description (in paragraph format) of the procedure for your experiment.

5. Experimental Procedure
The Experimental Procedure accurately describes & explains all steps in the order they actually happened, not as they were supposed to happen. By following your procedure to the letter, another researcher should be able to duplicate your experiment.

6. Results
The results are usually dominated by calculations, tables and figures & all significant results need to be stated explicitly in verbal form, for example: 1. Number and Title tables and graphs. Graphics need to be clear, easily read, and well labelled (e.g. Figure 1: Input Frequency and Capacitor Value). 2. Use a sentence or two to draw attention to key points in tables or graphs. 3. Provide sample calculation only & state key results in sentence form. In most cases, providing a sample calculation is sufficient in the report. Leave the remainder in an appendix. Likewise, raw data can be placed in an appendix. Refer to appendices as necessary. This is about your data, as you observed/recorded it. Note that this section is only for data that you observed or measured directly. Your analysis (including calculations) belongs in the Discussion section.

7. Discussion
The discussion is the most important part of your report where you show that you understand the experiment beyond the simple level of completing it. It is about what is not readily observable. The Discussion focuses on a question of understanding "What is the significance or meaning of the results?" To answer this question, use both aspects of discussion: Analysis - What do the results clearly indicate? What have you found? Explain what you know with certainty based on your results and draw conclusions, e.g. Since none of the samples reacted to the Silver foil test, therefore sulfide, if present at all, does not exceed a concentration of approximately 0.025 g/l. It is therefore unlikely that the water main pipe break was the result of sulfide-induced corrosion.

Interpretation -What is the significance of the results? What ambiguities exist? What questions might we raise? Find logical explanations for problems in the data e.g. Although the water samples were received on 14 August 2000, testing could not be started until 10 September 2000. It is normally desirable to test as quickly as possible after sampling in order to avoid potential sample contamination. The effect of the delay is unknown. Focus your discussion with some of the following strategies:

Compare expected results with those obtained. If there were differences, how can you account for them? Be specific, e.g. the instruments could not measure precisely; the sample was not pure or was contaminated; or calculated values did not take account of friction. Analyse experimental error. If the flaws result from the experimental design explain how the design might be improved e.g. equipment failure, avoidable mistakes etc. Explain your results in terms of theoretical issues. Labs are often intended to illustrate important physical laws. In this section move from the results to the theory. How well has the theory been illustrated? Relate results to your experimental objective(s). If you set out to identify an unknown metal by finding its lattice parameter and its atomic structure, you'd better know the metal and its attributes. Compare your results to similar investigations. It is legitimate to compare outcomes with other research, not to change your answer, but to look for any anomalies between the groups and discuss those. Analyse the strengths and limitations of your experimental design. This is particularly useful if you designed the thing you're testing (e.g. a circuit).

This is your calculations, an analysis of what your results mean, and your error analysis.

8. Conclusion
The conclusion can be very short and simply restates the objective from your introduction and relates it to your results and discussion. Simply state what you know now for sure, as a result of the lab, and provide a justification. This is enough; however, the conclusion might also be a place to discuss weaknesses of experimental design, future work that needs to be done, or what the implications of your conclusion are.

9. References
The references include your lab manual and any outside reading you have done. This is a list of all of the sources you got information from in your report.

10. Appendices
The Appendices typically include such elements as raw data, calculations, graphs pictures or tables that have not been included in the report itself. Each kind of item should be contained in a separate appendix. Make sure you refer to each appendix at least once in your report.

Rules
Lab reports must:

be typed on a computer in font 12, Ariel or New Times Roman, 1.5 line spacing diagrams may be handwritten as long as they are neat and legible include a cover page

Stylistic Points
No 1st or 2nd person Pronouns In formal writing never use the first or second person; passive voice is preferred when describing experimental protocols e.g. The solution was heated to 100 C for 25 minutes, rather than We heated the solution to 100 C for 25 minutes.

Verb Tense
Lab reports are written in a combination of past and present tense. When writing about things you did, such as the details of your procedure and the results that you observed, use the past tense e.g. The solution was heated to 100 C for 25 minutes. However, use the present tense for trends and properties e.g. ammonia and hydrochloric acid react to produce ammonium chloride gas.

Numbers at the Beginning of Sentences

Never start a sentence with a number. Rather, start with the substance, and put the exact amount in parentheses, e.g., Salicylic acid (1.00 g) was added

Miscellany
Always follow the same rules of formal English grammar and usage. Your lecturer, tutor and Library staff (Learning Skills Advisor, Subject & Reference librarians) are there to help.

Works Cited Written for the Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Science by Barry McElgunn, Learning Skills Adviser, Library, as an original & adapted from works by: Pavia, Donald L., Gary M. Lampman, George S. Kriz, and Randall G. Engel. Introduction to Organic Laboratory Techniques, A Microscale Approach. (Philadelphia: Saunders College Publishing, 1990). Pp. 16-22. Queeney, Kate. Guidelines for Writing a Formal Laboratory Report. http://www.science.smith.edu/departments/Chem/Courses/labreports.htm (accessed June 2004) Simpson, Bill. Laboratory Report Style. http://www.uaf.edu/chem/434f02/prep/acs guide.html (accessed June 2004) http://www.mrbigler.com/documents/report-style-guide.PDF http://www.ecf.utoronto.ca/~writing/handbook-lab.html