Implement Training for Concentric-Based Muscle Actions

Nathaniel D. M. Jenkins, BA, CSCS*D, NSCA-CPT*D and Ty Palmer, MEd, CSCS Department of Health and Human Performance, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma Supplemental digital content is available for this article. Direct URL citations appear in the printed text and are provided in the HTML and PDF versions of this article on the journals Web site (http://journals.lww.com/nsca-scj).

SUMMARY
RECENTLY, THERE HAS BEEN GREATER USE OF IMPLEMENTS IN STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING THAT ALLOW ATHLETES TO COMPLETE MOVEMENTS WHILE MINIMIZING OR ELIMINATING ECCENTRIC STRESS. THE USE OF SLEDS DURING TRAINING IS AN EXAMPLE OF ONE OF THESE TOOLS THAT IS A NOVEL IMPLEMENT FOR ATHLETES STRIVING TO GAIN CONCENTRIC STRENGTH WHILE SIMULTANEOUSLY DECREASING THE CHANCE OF ACQUIRING MUSCLE SORENESS. THE PURPOSE OF THIS ARTICLE IS TO HELP COACHES AND TRAINERS GAIN INSIGHT ON THE PROPOSED BENEFITS AND PURPOSES OF USING SLEDS AND TO EXPLAIN PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS BASED ON RECENT LITERATURE AND FROM THE AUTHORS OWN PERSONAL EXPERIENCES AND OBSERVATIONS.

INTRODUCTION

uscle actions may be generally broken down into 3 types: concentric, eccentric, and isometric. However, concentric and eccentric muscle actions are the only 2 that are dynamicthat is, muscle length changes while force is being generated (24). Dynamic constant external resistance (DCER) training using machines

or free weights employs movements that contain both an eccentric and a concentric muscular action (13). While both actions are extremely important to the completion of a lift, the characteristics of concentric and eccentric muscle actions are stark in comparison. One critical differentiation is that higher levels of muscle tension can be generated during eccentric muscle actions (3). Moreover, there is a signicant amount of mechanical stress accrued during this part of the lift due to the lengthening of the muscle while cross bridge formation is occurring. Since mechanical stress is thought to be the chief factor stimulating muscular adaptation, researchers have concluded that the eccentric portion of a lift is that which induces many of the adaptations from resistance training (2,14,19,23). However, the damage produced by eccentric muscle action has the potential to cause a signicant amount of soreness, fatigue, and inammation (17). Recently, concentric-based training through the use of implements such as weighted push/pull sleds has become a popular method believed to evade the detriments associated with eccentric training. While eccentric muscle actions may indeed be responsible for many of the adaptations seen in muscle, there have been numerous studies that have concluded that concentric-only training also results in favorable changes to skeletal muscle. For example, Evetovich

et al. (12) showed that 12 weeks of concentric isokinetic training increased quadriceps femoris strength by 15.5%. In addition, Housh et al. (16) demonstrated that 8 weeks of unilateral concentric-only DCER exercise significantly increased quadriceps femoris cross-sectional size (3.3%) and strength (39.7%) in the trained leg. Based on these results, it is clear that concentriconly resistance training is capable of inducing morphological adaptations and increasing strength in human skeletal muscle. Traditionally, sleds are used as a means to perform resisted towing in an attempt to improve sprint speed by increasing stride length (1,21). Sleds are usually connected to an athlete tted with a harness or belt that is in series with a rope, strap, or cable. Much of the literature available today explores the benets and drawbacks of these implements used for this means. However, sled training can also be a unique concentric contraction training method that consists of pushing, pulling, or performing standard resistance training movements with attached straps (i.e., press, row, y) (see Video, Supplemental Digital Content 1, http://links.lww.com/SCJ/A19, which demonstrates the chest press while using a sled).
KEY WORDS:

concentric; resistance training; sled

Copyright National Strength and Conditioning Association

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Instruments Requiring Concentric-Based Muscle Actions

The use of a sled forces the active muscles to shorten for creating movement (i.e., concentric contraction), resulting in greater contractile forces compared with resistive forces. For movement to occur, however, the static inertia of the sled must rst be overcome. The inertia of the sled is composed of the weight of the sled (includes any additional resistance added to the sled in the form of weighted plates) plus the amount of friction between the bottom of the sled and the surface material (turf, rubber, grass, etc.). According to Newtons rst law of motion, the greatest amount of inertia will likely occur at the beginning of sled movement due to the sleds initial stationary position (11). Therefore, a large amount of muscular force must be generated early in the range of motion to overcome the resistive and frictional forces preventing the sled from moving. Once enough force has been created for movement to commence, less force is needed thereafter due to a decrease in static inertia. Depending on the specic exercise being performed with the sled, every repetition may require signicant muscular tension at the beginning of the range of motion to overcome these initial forces. For example, when using straps to perform movements like a press or row, the sled is static at the beginning of every repetition. This is due to a discontinuation in applied muscular force in between concentric contractions by the prime movers. If, however; the sled is being pushed or pulled across a given distance through a series of continuous and rapid muscular contractions so that the sled does not cease to stop, the amount of force necessary to maintain movement decreases. This phenomenon is also based on Newtons rst law (11), which states an object in motion tends to remain in motion. These characteristics of sled training are unique and must be considered when employing their use. In addition, when pulling or pushing a sled, the eccentric contractile forces are minimal in comparison with the concentric contractile forces due to a lack of eccentric loading. For example,

when an athlete is pulling a sled, the muscles of the quadriceps are responsible for unilaterally extending the knee when pushing off from the ground producing a concentric contraction (8). This action is responsible for generating explosive amounts of force and power to propel the added resistance of the sled across the ground surface. However, it is essential for coaches to understand that while this phase of knee extension is occurring for one leg, the opposite leg may experience minimal eccentric loading. This loading seems to be insignicant because body weight is always unilaterally supported and there is no ight phase (see Video, Supplemental Digital Content 2, http://links.lww.com/SCJ/A20, which demonstrates the backward walking sled drag). Minor eccentric muscle actions also occur in muscles that control the descent of the lower limbs against gravity. For example, the tibialis anterior controls the dropping of the foot after heel strike (as when walking) (5). Further, if the sled is used in a way that the individual is sprinting, while pushing or pulling the sled, a greater eccentric component will be present due to the addition of a true ight phase (22). Another distinguishing feature of sled training is that there is negligible opportunity to store elastic energy and/or preload the muscle (18). In other words,

the force produced is completely reliant on isolated concentric muscle action. Often, coaches attempt to replicate this by performing exercises where a barbell rests on the pins of a power rack. For example, the bench press may be modied so that the bar rests on the pins at or near the athletes sticking point (i.e., at the bottom portion of an athletes range of motion) before the beginning of every repetition. In theory, this creates a greater demand on the musculature concentrically and, in turn, forces the muscle to adapt by generating greater amounts of force without relying on the stored elastic energy that is transferred from the eccentric portion of the lift. Furthermore, some lifts, such as the deadlift, do not begin with an eccentric muscle action. Additionally, there are few sports that require an athlete to begin with a concentric contraction without having the benet of an eccentric muscle action beforehand. Examples include an American football lineman exploding off the line of scrimmage at the snap of the ball or a sprinter taking off out of his or her blocks. Further applications will be explored. One of most highly touted benets of these implements is their ability to improve conditioning while also contributing to increases in strength. Based on personal observation, heart rate and breathing rate responses, as measured

Figure 1. Demonstration of the sled chest press.

VOLUME 34 | NUMBER 2 | APRIL 2012

by a heart rate monitor and visual observation, respectively, are both very high to this type of work. Interestingly, previous research has shown that eccentric exercise is not as metabolically demanding as concentric exercise. This has been shown to be a result of less motor unit recruitment (9), lower lactate response (6,15), lower heart rate (6,7,15), lower ventilatory drive (7), and lower oxygen consumption (7), among other variables. In a study by Durand et al. (10), when workload was matched during concentric- and eccentric-only bouts of leg extensions, the concentriconly workload resulted in a greater heart rate and lactate response and a greater change in plasma volume (10). These enhanced acute physiological responses to concentric training should in turn result in greater chronic physiological adaptations. Due to the absence of an eccentric component, work with a sled does not result in as much delayed onset muscle soreness, fatigue, or as drastic of acute reductions in strength as are characteristically seen with eccentric exercise based on the observations of the authors. For this reason, this type of work is typically tolerated at both higher volumes and a greater frequency in athletes.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

Figure 2. Demonstration of the sled row.

Sleds (such as the one pictured) are currently being built so that they may be pushed or pulled at various joint angles. When straps are attached to the front, they may be used for traditional movement patterns, such as the chest press, row, curl, front raise, rear deltoid y, and pec y, to name a few (Figures 1 and 2). The uses of these sleds to mimic traditional patterns used in the weight room are limited only by the coachs imagination and the strength of the individual athlete. By simply switching which set of handles you use in the case of pushing (Figures 3 and 4) or by manipulating torso angle in the case of traditional movement patterns, the coach has greater control over the joint angles used to complete a movement. Of particular interest for some, especially those interested in the rehabilitative purposes of such

implements, is the backward walking sled drag (Figure 5). This movement is simply a terminal knee extension without eccentric stress or the shear forces typically associated with a seated leg extension machine. Moreover, the external load can be increased so that it far exceeds what is normally possible with typical rehabilitative implements such as bands. For this reason, it has a great application to the rehabilitation of those with knee pathologies. Additionally, pushing the sled requires an athlete to use each leg independently, which is prototypical of movements

involving the lower body in sport (see Video, Supplemental Digital Content 3, http://links.lww.com/SCJ/A21, which demonstrates a vertical handle push and the required unilateral triple extension). However, in the weight room, the most commonly recommended lower-body exercises are performed using doubleleg support. Not only does sled pushing require unilateral support and stability, it also reinforces leg drive and extension at the ankle, knee, and hip: qualities useful in many sports, including rugby and American football. As previously mentioned, the sled can also be used to

Figure 3. Demonstration of the low handle push.

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Instruments Requiring Concentric-Based Muscle Actions

develop starting strength in movements like the deadlift or pin press, which do not contain an eccentric component before the concentric portion of the lift. Yet another benet of sleds is that they allow for easy loading and unloading of weight plates so that resistance can be changed at will. In addition, some sleds on the market today are capable of handling significant loads. In this authors experience, external loads exceeding 900 pounds can often be added to these sleds. This makes them extremely adaptable to the needs of the weakest and strongest individuals. The physiological responses generated by concentric-only exercise were discussed in depth earlier. Some of these responses are, in fact, what we see while observing athletic populations using sled-type implements. If observation alone is not enough to validate this, Berning et al. (4) demonstrated that pushing and pulling a motor vehicle is an exhausting task that requires high amounts of anaerobic energy output (4). However, the authors concluded that the substantial metabolic and neuromuscular stresses produced by this training need to be considered when being placed into a strength and conditioning program. Despite the obvious load differences, the pushing and pulling of a sled is very similar to the pushing and pulling of a car. With that in mind, while not quite at same the intensity level of pushing or pulling a motor vehicle, one could still expect a high metabolic demand with the pulling or pushing of a sled. The use of a sled allows for the strength and conditioning professional or personal trainer to select the amount of weight used to create the desired training effect. For example, if the goal is pure muscular endurance and/or conditioning, the coach may choose to use a lighter load over an increased distance. This may be accomplished by performing a shuttle or a suicide while pushing the sled. The coach may also pick a distance and then set a time
Figure 4. Demonstration of the vertical handle push.

in which the distance must be completed; by lowering the time allowed to complete the distance in subsequent bouts, the coach may effectively increase intensity to elicit a training effect. On the contrary, if the goal is muscular strength, the coach may choose a very high load that can only be pushed or pulled over 120 yd. If the goal is hypertrophy, a moderate to moderate-high load may be used over an intermediate distance (i.e., 1535 yd). It is important to note that eccentric muscle actions appear to maximize the hypertrophic response

to resistance exercise (23). Consequently, the sole use of a sled for resistance training may not maximize hypertrophy. Although distance may be used to quantify volume, repetitions may be used too: this is especially true when programming movements like the chest press or row. The load used is largely determined by the athlete and is ultimately at the discretion of the coach. Factors such as surface type play a role in the selection of a load because certain surfaces such as turf provide less friction than a surface such as grass.

Figure 5. The starting position for the backward drag.

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Therefore, the sled will be much harder to move on grass than it will be on turf if the load is equivalent. In the case of both strength and hypertrophy development with the sled, the load used may be great enough that if the athlete were to try to continue past the prescribed distance or repetitions, he or she would not be able move the sled. Keogh et al. (20) also described cues and some basic program design that a coach may use when using a heavy sprint-style sled pull to build sprint speed. They suggested observing stride length, step rate, and joint angles as well as the time it takes for the athlete to complete the prescribed distance as a way to monitor performance and individualize the exercise prescription. Their results also suggested that for sled pulls performed for durations less than 20 seconds, trained subjects should be able to complete 3 sets with 3 minutes of rest while experiencing little to no decline in performance (20). Finally, due to the nature of the exercise, independent of the load or distance used, a strong conditioning effect may be observed. While this has not been validated by research, it is the opinion of the author after careful inspection of this mode of training and the response of athletes. Next, in the authors experience, sleds generally allow individuals to withstand much greater volumes and frequencies of training. Therefore, coaches may choose to implement the use of sleds as a nisher for the muscle group worked at the end of a resistance training session in addition to the typical volume of such a session (Table 1). A sled workout may also be added in as a second session later in the day as a way of providing an additional stimulus (Table 2). If this is done, coaches must be sure to monitor the rate of recovery in their athletes and adjust volume and or frequency accordingly. Likewise, they can be used to comprise an entire workout for the day (Table 3). For example, a full-body sled-training workout may be used in season when a coach does not want to introduce high amounts of

Table 1
An example of a workout with the use of the sled as a finisher
Upper-body hypertrophy

Bench press* Chin-ups Seated dumbbell shoulder press Seated row Alternating dumbbell curls Finisher: A1. Sled chest press 4 3 30 yd A2. Sled row 4 3 30 yd
RM = repetition maximum. *6785% 1RM; 36 sets. 10RM; 23 sets of 10 repetitions. Done in superset fashion with little to no rest between sets.

eccentric stress during frequent high levels of competition (Table 4). Sports, such as baseball, softball, soccer, hockey, and basketball, that often play numerous times per week make it hard for the strength and conditioning coach to schedule regular strength training sessions, especially when there is concern of applying too much of a stimulus. While the coach does not want to completely eliminate a training stimulus and lose many of the gains made during the off-season and preseason training program, he or she must also be careful not to interfere with subsequent athletic performance. In this case, the addition of a full-body concentric-based sled workout may provide the stimulus needed to

maintain adaptations while making it easy for the athletes to recover in time for the next competition. It is essential to mention that sledbased exercises should not make up the bulk of training, especially when sports performance is the goal. Eccentric muscle actions are critical to athletic success, the prevention of injury, and explosive performance (i.e., importance of a countermovement in a vertical jump for the generation of power). Therefore, programming should include resistance training that includes both eccentric and concentric contractions. Concentric sled training should be used as a complement or when decreased training stress is needed to ensure optimal performance in ensuing competition,

Table 2
Second session of the daysled based
Lower-body sled session*

Sled push with high handles: 5 sets of 2030 yd with a moderate to high weight Backward walking sled drag: 3 sets of 20 yd with a moderate weight Sled push with low handles: 3 sets of 20 yd with a moderate weight
*Assuming that the focus of the rst session was lower-body.

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Instruments Requiring Concentric-Based Muscle Actions

Table 3
An example of a full-body sled session
Full-body sled day

3. Ben-Sira D, Ayalon A, and Tavi M. The effect of different types of strength training on concentric strength in women. J Strength Cond Res 9: 3148, 1995. 4. Berning JM, Adams KJ, Climstein M, and Stamford BA. Metabolic demands of junkyard training: Pushing and pulling a motor vehicle. J Strength Cond Res 21: 853856, 2007. 5. Byrne CA, OKeefe DT, Donnelly AE, and Lyons GM. Effect of walking speed changes on tibialis anterior EMG during healthy gait for FES envelope design in drop foot correction. J Electromyogr Kinesiol 17: 605616, 2007. 6. Carrasco DI, Delp MD, and Ray CA. Effect of concentric and eccentric muscle actions on muscle sympathetic nerve activity. J Appl Physiol 86: 558563, 1999. 7. Chung F, Dean E, and Ross J. Cardiopulmonary responses of middle-aged men without cardiopulmonary disease to steady-rate positive and negative work performed on a cycle ergometer. Phys Ther 79: 476487, 1999. 8. Cronin J and Hansen KT. Resisted sprint training for the acceleration phase of sprinting. Strength Cond J 28: 4251, 2006. 9. Dudley GA, Tesch PA, Miller BJ, and Buchanan B. Importance of eccentric actions in performance adaptations to resistance training. Aviat Space Environ Med 62: 543550, 1991. 10. Durand RJ, Kraemer RR, Hollander DB, Tryniecki JL, Wall M, Saxon L, and Hebert EP. Different effects of concentric and eccentric muscle actions on plasma volume. J Strength Cond Res 17: 541548, 2003. 11. Enoka RM. Neuromechanics of Human Movement (4th ed). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2008. pp. 4143. 12. Evetovich TK, Housh TJ, Housh DJ, Johnson GO, Smith DB, and Ebersole KT. The effect of concentric isokinetic strength training of the quadriceps femoris on electromyography and muscle strength in the trained and untrained limb. J Strength Cond Res 15: 439445, 2001. 13. Fleck SJ and Kraemer WJ. Designing Resistance Training Programs. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2004. pp. 2130. 14. Hakkinen K and Komi PV. Effect of different combined concentric and eccentric muscle work regimens on maximal strength

A1. Sled push with high handles: 3 sets of 20 yd with moderate weight* A2. Backward sled drag: 3 sets of 20 yd with moderate weight* B1: Sled chest press: 3 sets of 1012 with a moderate to high weight* B2: Sled row: 3 sets of 1012 with a moderate to high weight* C1: Sled front raise: 2 sets of 1215 with a low to moderate weight* C2: Sled rear deltoid y: 2 sets of 1215 with a low to moderate weight* D1: Sled push with low handles: 4 sets of 20 yd with moderate weight
*Done in superset fashion with no rest between exercises and 4560 seconds between supersets23 minutes between sets is acceptable.

such as when a coach is forced to prescribe training within 2448 hours of a contest. Finally, and perhaps most importantly, the novelty of this method of training creates a unique stimulus among those using it. As a result, increases in compliance among individuals of all ages, sizes, and strength may be seen.
CONCLUSIONS

may be applied to athletic use, there is opportunity for practitioners in a wide array of disciplines to benet from their use. Such implements may be found with a quick search of the Internet. Even if specialty sleds like the one pictured in this article are not readily available, or are outside of ones budget, traditional dragging sleds or things such as tires with a xed strap can be used in their place.

The applications of the sled are seemingly unending. At rst glance, the use of sleds seems reserved for very narrow populations and a select assortment of movements. However, the variety of ways in which they may be employed is in fact limited by the imagination. Although this article mainly discussed how sled training

Nathaniel D. M. Jenkins is a graduate assistant in the Department of Health and Human Performance at Oklahoma State University. Ty Palmer is a graduate assistant in the Department of Health and Human Performance at Oklahoma State University.
REFERENCES
1. Alcaraz PE, Palao JM, and Elvira JL. Determining the optimal load for resisted sprint training with sled towing. J Strength Cond Res 23: 480485, 2009. 2. Asmussen E. Positive and negative muscular work. Acta Phsyiol Scand 28: 364382, 1953.

Table 4
An example week of training and competition with a sled day
Day Event

Monday Tuesday Wednesday

Practice Competition
AM: PM:

Sled training Practice

Thursday Friday Saturday

Practice Competition Competition

VOLUME 34 | NUMBER 2 | APRIL 2012

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Earle R, eds. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2000. pp. 312. 18. Hunter GR and Harris RT. Structure and function of the muscular, neuromuscular, cardiovascular, and respiratory systems. In: Essentials of Strength Training and Conditioning (3rd ed). Baechle T and Earle R, eds. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2008. pp. 419. 19. Johnson BL. Eccentric vs concentric muscle training for strength development. Med Sci Sports Exerc 4: 111115, 1972. 20. Keogh JW, Newlands C, Blewett S, Payne A, and Chun-Er L. A kinematic analysis of a strongman-type event: The heavy sprint-style sled pull. J Strength Cond Res 24: 30883097, 2010.

21. Lockie RG, Murphy AJ, and Spinks CD. Effects of resisted sled towing on sprint kinematics in eld-sport athletes. J Strength Cond Res 17: 760767, 2003. 22. Plisk SS. Speed, agility, and speedendurance development. In: Essentials of Strength Training and Conditioning (3rd ed). Baechle T and Earle R, eds. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2008. pp. 457485. 23. Schoeneld BJ. The mechanism of muscle hypertrophy and their application to resistance training. J Strength Cond Res 24: 28572872, 2010. 24. Wilmore JH, Costill DL, and Kenney WL. Physiology of Sport and Exercise (4th ed). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2008. pp. 42.

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