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Plant hallucinogens
as magical medicines
“Were such things here as we do speak about?
Or have we eaten on the insane root
That takes the reason prisoner?”
Shakespeare, Macbeth I.iii
Science topics
guages. The plants deadly nightshade their knowledge to heal sick people
(Atropa belladonna) and henbane who could not afford to (or maybe
(Hyoscyamus niger; below) are indige- wisely chose not to) see a doctor, they
nous to middle and northern Europe may have used black or deadly night-
and were therefore readily available shade and henbane as powerful ingre-
for medicinal use or narcotic and poi- dients in their medicines.
sonous abuse. The physician Leonhart Unfortunately, there are no direct
Fuchs explains in his New Kreüterbuch sources for the recipes of witches’
Picture of a man collecting the (printed in 1543) how to apply parts concoctions. As is known from the lit-
mandrake root with the help of a dog of these plants as sleeping agents and erature condemning magic rituals, so-
(Tacuinum sanitatis, manuscript, 1390) painkillers. In addition, he warns of called ‘witch ointments’ were used to
their narcotic and toxic effects (box on anoint a broomstick or a chair as a
ritual that is often depicted in page 52). He also groups the plant prerequisite for riding through the air
medieval books (left). Hundreds of thorn-apple (Datura stramonium; and dancing at the witches’ sabbath
years later, Goethe’s Mephistopheles below), which had recently been (box on page 53; image left). Such an
makes fun of this superstition: “Da brought to Europe by travellers from ointment was reputedly given to the
stehen sie umher und staunen, ver- India or Mexico, botanically correctly accused directly by the Devil or by an
trauen nicht dem hohen Fund; der with the nightshades, but admits his older woman who was already a
eine faselt von Alraunen, der andre ignorance of its medicinal usage. member of the witches’ circle.
von dem Schwarzen Hund.” (‘There The recipes that have survived were
they stand and marvel, not believing written down by physicians. For
in the precious find; one drivels of Witch ointments example, Johannes Hartlieb, explain-
mandrake, the other of the Black If ever there were women experi- ing the seven magic arts to the duke
Dog.’ Goethe, Faust II, Act I). menting with poisonous plants, and if Johann of Brandenburg-Kulmbach in
Mandrake and other plants of the ever they did anything other than use 1456, names six plants for the prepa-
nightshade family (Solanaceae) con-
tain alkaloids that block nerve
Plants of the family Solanaceae
impulses, which may lead to halluci-
Bdk; source of images: Wikimedia Commons
Images courtesy of Kurt Stueber, Chilepine, and
oil put into the ears/ quenches the stinging therein/ and the pain. But central nervous system.
use these with great care.... A foot bath made from henbane/ brings
The pharmacology of
sleep.... The roots of Henbane boiled in vinegar and held in the mouth
nightshade plants
for some time/ takes away the great and bad aches of teeth. In summa-
ry/ the green Henbane leaves/ the seeds/ and juice/ which not only Today the action of deadly night-
make man mad and foolish/ but also the beasts/ must not be used inter- shade, henbane, and thorn-apple is
nally/ but only externally to stop the pain/ and to bring sleep/ and if understood in molecular detail. They
used at all then only with good modesty. all contain the alkaloids atropine and
scopolamine, two closely related sub-
Note: The original German text is available in the online version of this
stances which interfere with the
articlew1.
parasympathetic nervous system.
Under parasympathetic stimulation,
the heart-beat slows, smooth muscles
ration of unguentum pharelis (box on therefore may have left out any nar- (the involuntary muscles of inner
page 53). Although the plants were cotic ingredients on purpose. organs) contract, digestion juices flow,
believed to possess magic powers, Other physicians, however, most of and glands produce watery fluids
they are relatively harmless. Hartlieb them writing centuries later, name the (saliva, tears, bronchial mucous;
had studied both theology and medi- plants of the family of nightshades Table 1). The neurotransmitter acetyl-
cine, as was usual at the time, and the along with the highly toxic wolfs- choline couples these nerve signals to
purpose of his writing is to prove that bane (Aconitum napellus), hemlock the effector cells by activating mus-
all witchcraft and magic is a lie. He (Conium maculatum), and the sleep- carinic receptors, which in turn trig-
Science topics
ger changes within the cell that are lessness and hallucinations. Poisoning Blocking the action of acetylcholine
related to the physiological response with about 10 mg of atropine (less for also improves the motion disorder
of the organ. For example, the intra- children) leads to central depression Parkinsons’ disease. However, since
cellular Ca2+ concentration increases, of life functions, which may progress the introduction of more specific drugs
which is necessary for muscle con- to coma, circulatory collapse and res- acting on dopamine pathways, atropine
traction and secretion. piratory failure (Table 1). derivatives are used only to treat early
Atropine and scopolamine chemi- symptoms or as additional therapy.
cally resemble the neurotransmitter Medical use of atropine and The most important use of atropine
acetylcholine. They also bind to mus- related drugs today is as an antidote for poisoning
carinic receptors but fail to stimulate Atropine, scopolamine and synthetic by the alkaloid muscarine (present in
the cell (i.e., act as antagonists). Thus, analogues are still used as medicines, certain mushrooms) or by organo-
nerve transmission is blocked. Since mainly to inhibit the effects of the phosphate insecticides. Both sub-
acetylcholine is an important neuro- parasympathetic nervous system. In stances overstimulate the para-
transmitter in the brain as well, antag- order to prevent disturbing side effects, sympathetic system. To antagonise
onism of muscarinic receptors also either the substances are applied local- toxic effects, atropine is injected for
causes central effects. At low doses ly (eye drops for the examination of the up to 48 hours. The doctor monitors
(0.5-1 mg), atropine leads to mild retina, inhalation for respiratory dis- the patient closely, giving a new
excitation, whereas scopolamine is eases), or specific receptor blockers are injection as soon as muscarinic
responsible for drowsiness, fatigue, developed (tablets blocking gastric acid symptoms reappear, but not too
dreamless sleep and euphoria. The secretion to treat peptic and duodenal early so as to prevent atropine
ingestion of higher doses causes rest- ulcers; box on page 54). toxicity.
tions by the demon, whereupon they immediately rise and the Internet. What properties do they have?
into the air... Solsequium (“following the sun”) could be either
Heliotropium europaeum or one of the magical
Johannes Hartlieb, The book of all forbidden arts,
plants Calendula officinalis, Cichorium intybus or
Munich 1456, Ch. 32
Taraxacum officinale. Barba Jovis is Sempervivum
How the riding through the air is accomplished. For tectorum, and Capillus Veneris is probably the fern
these rides men and women, especially the demons, Adiantum capillus-veneris.
use a salve called ‘unguentum pharelis’. They prepare
2. Find out about plants of the family Solanaceae. Are
it from seven herbs, each of which is collected on the
they all poisonous? How do the properties of the
day belonging to the herb. On Sunday, they pick and
Solanaceae family compare with those of the plants
dig Solsequium, on Monday Lunariam, on Tuesday
mentioned in Hartlieb’s recipe?
Verbenam, on Wednesday Mercurialem, on Thursday
Barbam Jovis, on Friday Capillos Veneris. They make 3. What would you feel if you were to apply a witch-
the salve by mixing these with quite a lot of birds’ es’ ointment to your skin?
blood, and also animal lard. I do not write down Note: The original German text is available in the
details, so as to harm no one. Whenever they want to, online version of this articlew1.
Conclusion very few of those who were accused, Hardman JG, Limbird LE, Goodman
Today, we have difficulties under- tortured and burnt had actually expe- Gilman A (eds; 2001) Goodman &
standing the deep, sincere belief in rienced hallucinations caused by toxic Gilman’s The Pharmacological Basis of
witchcraft and in the reality of magic plants – or indeed by anything else. In Therapeutics, 10th Edition. New York,
that governed Europe for centuries. It the face of the estimated 60,000 victims NY, USA: McGraw-Hill
is even more puzzling to realise that in Europe, one could believe that the Hartlieb J (1989) Das Buch aller verbote-
the heyday of witch-hunting hap- Devil himself had had a hand in it. nen Künste, translated by Eisermann
pened in the 16th and 17th centuries, a F, Graf E. Ahlerstedt, Germany:
time when the Sun was put in the Web references Param
centre of the universe and Renai- w1- The original German texts are Institoris H (1982) Malleus
ssance artists drew muscular, naked available in the online version of maleficarum, translated by Schmidt
human bodies right in the heart of the this article: www.scienceinschool.org JWR. Munich, Germany: Deutscher
Vatican. Unfortunately, most of our /2007/issue4/witchmedicine Taschenbuch Verlag
scientist colleagues of 500 years ago
Scherf G (2002) Zauberpflanzen –
did not speak up and solve the mys- Resources Hexenkräuter. Munich, Germany: BLV
teries of night flights on broomsticks,
Behringer W (2001) Hexen und
although they – like Shakespeare –
Hexenprozesse in Deutschland.
were almost certainly familiar with Dr Angelika Börsch-Haubold, who
Munich, Germany: Deutscher
the hallucinogenic effects of some is a trained pharmacist and pharma-
Taschenbuch Verlag
plants. But why did the ‘witches’ cologist, teaches regularly at the
themselves not explain where their Fuchs L (1543) New Kreüterbuch. Basel, Fachhochschule Weihenstephan,
dreams came from? I suspect that Switzerland: Durch M. Isingrin Freising, Germany.
Your students should use this information to consider stance from passing into the brain, and central side
the effects and side effects of anti-muscarinic drugs. effects are missing. The local application by aerosol
Are they due to the blocking of nerve transmission? inhalation also helps to restrict unwanted effects.
Which effects are peripheral and which are central? 4. Benztropine or diphenhydramine are used against
Using the information in Table 1, students should be mild symptoms of Parkinson’s disease or as adjunct
able to identify which effects and side effects of the to the dopamine therapy of Parkinson’s disease.
drugs are caused by muscarinic receptor blockers. Adverse effects are constipation, urinary retention
and blurred vision. In addition, sedation and mental
Some examples of suitable answers include:
confusion have been reported in the elderly.
1. Eye drops containing atropine, scopolamine, homa-
5. Scopolamine is highly effective for preventing
tropine or tropicamide are used to dilate the pupils
motion sickness when used prophylactically. This is
for the examination of the retina. Ocular side effects
a central effect of the belladonna alkaloid. The drug
are photosensitivity and blurred vision. is incorporated into a multilayered adhesive unit
2. The specific muscarinic M1 receptor antagonist and put directly onto the skin. Common side effects
pirenzepine selectively inhibits gastric acid secre- are dry mouth, drowsiness and blurred vision.
tion and is used to treat gastric ulcers. However, it Psychotic episodes are very rare.
Science topics
Table 1: Effects of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine and the muscarinic receptor blockers atropine and scopolamine
Skin ↑ secretion by sweat glands ↓ sweat: skin flushed, hot, dry, and scarlet
(body temperature ↑)
People who think that teaching or learning science can be adapted for lower secondary school within sci-
at school is boring would surely change their mind if ence and humanities curricula.
they read this article. Angelika Börsch-Haubold takes In fact the interdisciplinary approach is a relevant fea-
us on an exciting journey across English and German ture of this material and gives the possibility to extend
literature, history, botany, human physiology and the proposed activities to different fields (biology,
biochemistry to explore facts and myths of witch med- chemistry, history) and to discuss relevant issues like
icine. the problem of drug abuse (health education).
Even if the addressed subject is a specific one, the style Finally the methodology used by the author can be
of the article is engaging, clear and precise and the applied to address other scientific subjects with a
information provided is supported by a rich set of doc- wider cultural approach, giving them a deeper mean-
uments: quotations, original texts with translations, ing and an extra appeal.
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