Research Programme

Engineering
Optimising Wheelset Design and Maintenance Data Analysis and Fatigue Design: Literature Search

Copyright
RAIL SAFETY AND STANDARDS BOARD LTD. 2008 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED This publication may be reproduced free of charge for research, private study or for internal circulation within an organisation. This is subject to it being reproduced and referenced accurately and not being used in a misleading context. The material must be acknowledged as the copyright of Rail Safety and Standards Board and the title of the publication specified accordingly. For any other use of the material please apply to RSSB's Head of Research and Development for permission. Any additional queries can be directed to research@rssb.co.uk. This publication can be accessed via the RSSB website: www.rssb.co.uk.

Published June 2010

Executive Summary
The Rail Safety and Standards Board has contracted DeltaRail Group Limited (DeltaRail) to carry out long-term axle strain measurements on a Class 319 EMU, and to carry out an agreed analysis programme on the recorded data (project T356 WP1 and WP3). As part of the analysis project, DeltaRail has been requested to investigate and summarise any available previous axle strain measurement exercises, both within the UK and abroad. Twenty-two axle strain measurement exercises have been identified as having taken place in the UK prior to the current Class 319 project. Significant amounts of time history data are likely to be available for 11 of these tests, and axle strain histograms are available for many of the remainder, where the original raw data is likely to have been deleted. It is known that axle strain measurement has also taken place in Germany, Italy and Japan, and raw data may still exist for some of these tests. Where it has been possible to compare strain histograms, they are generally similar in form to UK measurements. Four particular test series have been identified where it may be desirable to try to obtain the original raw strain data as these may be useful for gaining an additional understanding of the effects of route, vehicle and wheel defects on axle strains; such information could be incorporated into the T356 WP3 data analysis project.

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Introduction ..........................................................................................................................1 Overview of Axle Strain Measurement ................................................................................1

Historical Background .................................................................................................................. 1 Presentation of Axle Strain Data .................................................................................................. 2 Ownership of Axle Strain Data..................................................................................................... 2

Axle Strain Measurements ..................................................................................................3

Measurements Within the UK ...................................................................................................... 3 Measurements Outside the UK .................................................................................................... 8

Comparison of Axle Strain Histograms ...............................................................................9

Bending Strains ............................................................................................................................ 9 Torsional Strains ........................................................................................................................ 11 Possible Useful Additional Time History Data ............................................................................ 12

Conclusions and Recommendations .................................................................................12 References ........................................................................................................................ 14

Optimising Wheelset Design & Maintenance - Data Analysis and Fatigue Design: Literature Search
1 Introduction
The Rail Safety and Standards Board (RSSB) has contracted DeltaRail Group Limited (DeltaRail) to carry out long-term axle strain measurements on a Class 319 EMU, and to carry out an agreed analysis programme on the recorded data (project T356 WP1 and WP3). As part of the analysis project, DeltaRail has also been requested to review and summarise any available previous axle strain measurement exercises, both within the UK and abroad; this review is reported here.

2 Overview of Axle Strain Measurement

2.1 Historical Background
Recording strain on a rotating component such as a railway axle presents the considerable technical challenge of transferring the data from the rotating component to a (usually) fixed recording system. This does not appear to have been practical until about 1970, with the introduction of electrical resistance strain gauges combined with a slip ring system. In these early tests, the voltage from the strain gauges was amplified and recorded onto analogue magnetic tape. This was then digitised onto digital magnetic tape using a sample rate and anti-alias filter appropriate to the analysis process. The waveform of the recorded data could be checked by a plotter that steered an ultraviolet light beam onto special sensitised paper; in some cases the analysis was also performed using these UV records. Because of the difficulty of handling very large quantities of data with early computer systems, it was not usual to analyse all the data recorded in a test, and so for instance, it was not standard practice to derive axle strain histograms covering the entire test route, as is common today. Moreover it is unlikely to be possible to recover and read either the analogue or digital tapes from these tests, as most of them were probably disposed of as that technology became obsolete. Some tapes from this era may have survived, and although in principle it would be possible to transfer their data to modern media, it is not clear that any of the raw data from early axle strain measurements is still available. In the mid 1990s, a different data acquisition system became available, where the slip rings were replaced by a radio telemetry system, and the analogue and digital tapes were replaced by acquisition direct to a computer[1]. This arrangement is still used

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today for many axle strain measurement exercises. The data from these tests is nearly always properly backed up, to a tape media such as DAT for the earlier tests, and CD or DVD for the later ones. Data from more recent axle tests is therefore likely to be readily available. An alternative measurement system has also been developed, where the strain data is stored in self-contained loggers attached directly to the axle [1,2]. Such a system is used alongside the telemetry approach in the current Class 319 measurement exercise. Using loggers in this way has many logistical advantages, but as the relatively small data storage capacity of the loggers means that only a relative short section of time history can be stored, they are mainly used for recording strain histograms. Loggers are therefore a useful system for deriving a representative strain spectrum for an axle over an extended period, but are less useful in understanding the reasons for the dynamic strains seen in axles.

2.2 Presentation of Axle Strain Data

The above discussion makes it clear that for most of the early axle strain measurements, only analysed data such as strain histograms is likely to be available. For later tests however, the raw time history data is likely to be accessible and thus histograms can be derived as required according to load state, route, etc., subject to obtaining permission to use the raw data from the owner as appropriate. Most of the axle strain measurements up to December 1996 were carried out by various departments of the British Railways Board (BRB), (particularly the Chief Mechanical and Electrical Engineer, and the Research and Development Division). The majority of this work was carried out for internal purposes rather than under contract to an external customer. It is currently understood that DeltaRail, as a direct successor to British Railways Research, have rights to exploit such data. Some of this data is in fact in the common domain and can therefore be used without seeking permission, and such cases are indicated in Figure 1a. It is also understood that the use of axle strain data measured under contract to an external customer, whether by BRB or any successor organisation, is subject to obtaining permission from the original customer (or its successor as appropriate). No strain

2.3 Ownership of Axle Strain Data

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data from external customer work has therefore been included in this report. Axle strain measurements reported in published papers, for tests conducted outside the UK, have been reviewed in this report. It is understood that this published material is subject to copyright depending on the laws of the country of origin. The use of such measurements may therefore be subject to obtaining permission from the copyright owner. Should it be decided to seek use of data from previous projects as the T356 WP3 analyses progress, it is suggested that RSSB will seek the requisite permission(s) as requests from RSSB are more likely to be regarded as being in the interest of the rail industry as a whole, rather than in the commercial interest of one rail company.

3 Axle Strain Measurements

3.1 Measurements Within the UK
More than 20 axle strain measurement exercises have been carried out on the UK main line rail network. In addition, tests have been carried out on light rapid transit (LRT) systems such as London Underground, but these have been specifically excluded from this literature search. The operating conditions on LRT networks can be significantly different from main line rail, therefore it is not considered safe to extrapolate axle design principles from one type of network to the other. Details of the UK main line tests are given in Sections 3.1.1 to 3.1.23. The main features of each test are summarised in Figures 1a and 1b, and the test routes are shown in Figures 2a-e, where the actual routes are shown in blue.

3.1.1 50 Ton Limestone Hopper Wagon - 1976

This test [3,4,5] , carried out by the British Rail Chief Mechanical and Electrical Engineer's (CM&EE) department, appears to have been the first attempt to measure axle strains in the UK, using the principle of slip rings developed in Germany[6]. As with many of the early tests, the aim was to develop a load measuring wheelset, therefore strain gauges were fitted to a number of locations on the axle. Histograms for two of these locations were published in reference [4] and are included here in Figure 4a.

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3.1.2 Prototype HST Coach 1980

This is another attempt to create a load measuring axle, carried out by the CM&EE, using a BT10 bogie[7,8]. Again, strains were measured at a number of locations on the axle, and histograms for a few short sections of track were published in references [7] and [8]; these are included here in Figure 4b. This is not an axle test as such, but an early attempt to synthesise an axle strain histogram. Reference [9] includes the histogram and the methodology used to derive it. Figure 4c suggests that the estimate might have been conservative at high stresses, based on comparing the histogram shape with typical measured histograms. This is a British Rail Research study into the effects of wheelflats on axle strains[10]. The test took place at the Old Dalby Test Track, and the wheelflats were simulated by machining indentations of the appropriate shape into the rail head. Two sizes of flats were simulated and the test train was run at a range of speeds. A number of short extracts from the recorded strain histories were published in reference [10]. These show high frequency "ripple" over the wheel rotation sine wave, similar to what has sometimes been measured during the current Class 319 trials (Figures 3a,b). This vehicle suffered from a torsional axle oscillation sufficiently severe to cause multiple axle failures[11]. In an effort to identify the cause of this torsion, the CM&EE fitted a large number of strain gauges to one of these vehicles. Strains were measured on the transit from Derby to its stabling depot at Ayr, and while operating between Ayr and Glasgow[12]. The analysis was concerned mainly with torsion but a few bending histograms were also published in reference [12], together with a short section of time history which is of interest as it compares strains measured outboard and inboard of the wheels. (It is likely that the channels are mislabelled in reference [12]; the assumed correct locations are given in Figure 4d.) The torsional oscillation was found to be a function of the precise characteristics of the vehicle drivetrain and extreme differences in rail friction levels caused by contaminated rail in a fuelling road. This is an extension to the 1985 work (Section 3.1.4), where real wheelflats were machined into the treads of both wheels of the test wheelset. The laboratory coach was inserted into a service HST and run under realistic conditions. As in the previous test,

3.1.3 Class 108 DMU - 1983

3.1.4 Laboratory Coach with BT10 Bogie - 1985

3.1.5 Class 107 DMU - 1986

3.1.6 Laboratory Coach with BT10 Bogie - 1987

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the wheelflats caused high-frequency ripple in the wheel rotation sine wave (Figure 3c). Reference [13] includes printouts of short sections of time history which show differences between the axle centre and close to the wheels. Histograms derived from these plots are included in Figure 4e.

3.1.7 102 tonne Hopper (PHA) Wagon with LTF25 bogie - 1988

This is an investigation by CM&EE into the implications of inboard bearings on axle stresses; the LTF25 bogie was the first in the UK to use this axle configuration. Histograms of most or all of the data records are included in reference [14] and are summarised in Figure 4f. It was felt at the time that the ride performance of the wagon was not typical, so some of the test series was later repeated as described below. This is a repeat of some of the 1988 work and is described in reference [15]. Histograms of the recorded data are included in the CM&EE report and are reproduced in Figure 4f. In spite of the change in ride characteristics the axle strains were almost identical to those from the previous test. It has not been possible to establish the details of this test programme. It is thought that these tests were carried out by BR CM&EE [16] under contract to a private customer and the resulting histograms were later supplied to British Rail Research in the context of axle assessments for a different wagon [17]. This is a British Rail Research attempt to derive wheel/rail forces using load measuring wheelsets [18]. The tests were carried out for both outboard journals (BT10 and BAA wagon) and inboard journals (LTF wagon). Bending strains were measured both inboard and outboard of the wheels or bearings, depending on the axle configuration. Time history data is unlikely to still be available for this test. Histograms were derived for a significant part of the test route, although it is not clear exactly what part of the test route these histograms refer to. The available histograms are given in Figure 4g. The Class 323 EMU suffered from a significant drivetrain torsional vibration problem, and a series of track tests were carried out by British Rail Research in an attempt to find the source of this vibration [19]. Axle bending and torsional strains were recorded over a portion of the West Coast Main Line (WCML), although the test route is not defined exactly in reference [19]. Axle strain histograms have not been published, but time histories for a few

3.1.8 102 tonne Hopper (PHA) Wagon with LTF25 bogie - 1989

3.1.9 LTF25 & FBT6 Wagons - 1991

3.1.10 Mk3 Coach and Wagons - 1991

3.1.11 Class 323 EMU - 1993

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strain cycles have been included in the test report. This test suggested that the torsional oscillation was associated with startup and braking, but was otherwise inconclusive, therefore further testing was recommended.

3.1.12 Class 323 EMU - 1994

This test [20] follows on from the Class 323 tests above but also extends the work described in reference [18]. For this work strain gauges were fitted to a range of locations on the Class 323 powered axle and both bending and torsional strains were measured. Later work eventually showed that the cause of the torsional oscillation was interaction between the vehicle WSP system and the regenerative brake. Appropriate modifications were made to the vehicle control software. A significant proportion of the raw strain measurements from this test are still available. Full details of this test are not available. The Engineering Link carried out axle stress measurements for a Plasser NBPW drive axle and supplied the resulting strain histograms to British Rail Research as part of a proposed axle assessment for this vehicle [21]. Because the original test is believed to have been for a private customer, the histograms have not been included in this report. This is a track test carried out by AEA Technology Rail, primarily to measure strains in the wheels of Mk IV coaches, following an accident caused by wheel fatigue [22]. The opportunity was taken of also measuring axle bending stresses as the telemetry system was already required to record wheel strains. The resulting axle strain histograms have since been used in the assessment of axle NDT periodicities for the Mk IV and Mk IV DVT. This is a track test carried out by AEA Technology Rail as part of the assessment of axle NDT periodicities for this vehicle [23]. Significant torsional oscillation was reported in the drivetrain of the initial version of the Class 91 locomotive. In addition to work to reduce or eliminate this vibration at source, an investigation was carried out into the implications for axle integrity. AEA Technology Rail measured bending and torsional strains in the Class 91 axle [24], and a portion of this strain data containing the highest torsion was used for the axle integrity assessment. The same data was used for a later re-evaluation of the axle NDT

3.1.13 Plasser Track Maintenance Machine - 1996

3.1.14 Mk IV coach - 1998

3.1.15 Class 170 Turbostar DMU - 1998 3.1.16 Class 91 Locomotive 1999

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periodicity. However, all the recorded strain data is available for further analysis.

3.1.17 Class 220 Voyager DMU - 1999

An extensive track testing programme was carried out by AEA Technology Rail [25], as the Class 220 represented the first UK use of an inboard journal axle for a passenger vehicle. The measurements made included axle bending and torsional strains, axlebox accelerations, and suspension displacements. This is a track test carried out by AEA Technology Rail as part of the assessment of axle NDT periodicities for this vehicle [26]. In this test, axlebox accelerations (and temperatures) were measured along with the axle strains, as part of an investigation into bearing failures. This data could therefore in principle be used to attempt to relate axlebox accelerations and axle strains. Axle strains for both powered and unpowered axles were measured by AEA Technology Rail as part of the assessment of axle NDT periodicities for this vehicle [27]. AEA Technology Rail measured bending and torsional axle strains, body lateral acceleration (to derive cant deficiency) and bogie rotation (to derive track curvature) as part of the assessment of axle NDT periodicity for this vehicle [28]. AEA Technology Rail measured bending and torsional axle strains, body lateral acceleration and bogie rotation as part of the assessment of axle NDT periodicity for this vehicle [29]. Note that the Class 222 vehicle is almost identical to the Class 220, and some of the testing was over the same route as the Class 220 test. Lucchini Sidermeccanica measured axle bending strain [30] for this vehicle over a relatively short (35 mile) section of the West Coast Main Line, and supplied axle strain histograms to AEA Technology Rail for the assessment of the axle NDT periodicity. Some of this test was carried out at the increased speed made possible by a tilting train, although it is not clear whether the tilt system was actually activated; in terms of axle strain the high speed is more significant, as it allows for greater cant deficiency and hence load transfer across the axle. It is clear that the original measurements were carried out using a telemetry system (rather than self-contained loggers), which means that Lucchini Sidermeccanica should still possess the original strain history data. Because the strain data belongs to Lucchini

3.1.18 Class 321 EMU - 1999

3.1.19 Class 357 Electrostar EMU - 1999 3.1.20 Class 221 Super Voyager DMU - 2002

3.1.21 Class 222 Meridian DMU - 2002

3.1.22 Class 390 Pendolino EMU - 2003

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Sidermeccanica, the histograms have not been included in this report.

3.1.23 Plasser 08-4X4/4S Tamper - 2006

Axle bending and torsional strains were measured by DeltaRail for this vehicle for typical transit runs and for tamping operations, in order to set axle NDT periodicities [31]. It is known that axle strain measurements on main line routes have been carried out in Germany, Italy and Japan, and it is likely that similar tests have also been carried out in other countries. However, little of the data recorded in such tests is published in external papers and what data that has been made available is normally published in the form of plotted histograms. In Germany, Zerbst et al describe the use of an axle stress spectrum in fracture mechanics calculations which appears to have been derived from track measurements [32], but it is unlike any spectrum ever recorded in the UK work. A 2004 conference brought together further recent German work; a number of histograms are presented in references [33-35], many of them in the form of normalised stress or dynamic stress factor, in a similar way to the compendium of histograms supplied to RSSB in reference [36] and in this report. Recent Italian work has also addressed fracture mechanics as applied to axles [37,38], and axle strains have been measured for an Italian high speed train over a considerable distance. Significant numbers of histograms have also been published in Japanese papers. A 1967 paper [39] addresses bending stresses in axles, and includes both sample time history and normalised stress histograms. Further normalised axle histograms are published in a 1974 paper by Tanaka et al.[40], and bending and torsional stress histograms for the Shinkansen high speed train are plotted in a 1978 paper by Ishii [41]. All these histograms are included in Figures 5a-5i.

3.2 Measurements Outside the UK

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4 Comparison of Axle Strain Histograms

4.1 Bending Strains
Axle bending strain histograms described in Section 3 have been compared with a reference histogram, derived by considering the compendium of UK histograms previously presented to RSSB in reference [36], and combining the ten histograms closest to the median line within that compendium. This histogram is called the UK reference in Figures 4a-g for comparison of UK tests and in Figures 5a-i for tests carried out abroad. All the histograms have also been normalised by dividing by the static strain, as was done for the compendium of UK histograms previously presented to RSSB in reference [36]. Locations on the axles are as shown in Figure 1b. It can be seen that many of the measured histograms are similar in shape to the UK reference case, although there are a number of significant differences. The following observations may have relevance to axle design in general: It is unclear whether the dynamic environment is the same for the journal transition area compared to the axle body inboard of the wheels. The test involving a BT10 on the East Coast Main Line (ECML) (Section 3.1.2 and Figure 4b) suggests that the environments are similar, whilst the measurements on a Class 107 DMU (Section 3.1.5 and Figure 4d) indicate that the journal transition environment can be significantly less severe. However, it should be stressed that both these observations are based on very short test lengths. Strains outboard of the wheels have not generally been measured in more recent tests, except for the second Class 323 test (Section 3.1.12), where the relevant time histories are available and could therefore be used for further analysis. Tests carried out on passenger vehicles have usually shown relatively little difference in the histogram shape between tare and laden cases, for example as shown in Figure 5d (although this is to be investigated in more detail in the current Class 319 work). However, in the case of a wagon (Sections 3.1.7 and 3.1.8), where there is more of a difference between tare and laden weights, the dynamic environment is significantly more severe in tare condition

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(Figure 4f). In this case, there are probably few implications on axle integrity, as the static axle strain is so much lower for the tare case, but there may be vehicles where the tare load case contributes significant damage to the axle. Some tests (Sections 3.1.7, 3.1.9 & 3.1.10, Figures 4f & 4g) show axle environments significantly less severe than what might be expected based on the available range of measured histograms, particularly for wagons with inboard journals. However it is possible that the routes used for these tests were not fully representative of the range of track geometries and qualities seen in service, particularly in the case of wagons. The routes used for the tests indicate that much of this running is likely to have been on high quality main lines at speeds less than line speed, where both load transfer across the axle and the effect of track irregularities would be smaller than usual. It may therefore not be safe to assume these histograms as typical for wagons. In the Traupe paper [34], strain histograms are shown for a range of route types (Figure 5b). The order of severity is exactly what would be expected based on UK experience, where stations and shunting represents the most severe case (probably because of tight curves), followed by routes with tight curvature, broad curvature, and high speed track. These cases are all for the instrumented axle leading in the bogie. When the instrumented axle is trailing in the bogie, the strain environment is much less severe, exactly as has been found with the current Class 319 measurements. In the Otten paper [35], strains have been measured for a tramway type route and for two main line routes, albeit with relatively low line speeds (Figure 5c). The strain histograms are all fairly similar, and significantly more severe than the UK reference case. This is not surprising in the case of the tramway, where the severity is probably caused by very tight curves, but is slightly surprising for the two main line routes. The histogram used in the Italian axle NDT assessments [37], measured for a high speed route, also appears to be much more severe than the UK reference. However this histogram does not appear to be complete, as no strains less than the level assumed as the static value are shown, which makes it difficult to define the static strain level for the purpose of normalisation.

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 The Otten paper also investigates the effect of wheelflats, and shows histograms for running with and without flats (Figure 5d), where the run without flats appears to be the more severe case. However, the additional strain caused by the flats appear to be relatively small (Figure 3d), which means that the apparent discrepancy could be caused by other factors which override the additional stress due to the wheelflats. The histograms measured for Japanese running are very similar to those measured in the UK (Figures 5g to 5i).

4.2 Torsional Strains

Torsional strain cycles do not occur at the rate of one per wheel revolution as normally seen with axle bending strains. It is therefore not possible to compare torsional loading for different tests by means of histograms, unless the actual length of the test is known, and this is not always the case. Torsional strain, where measured, has therefore been compared using the maximum measured value, as shown in table 1. Torsional loading is believed to become significant in terms of axle integrity when the torsional strain range reaches the same order as that of the bending strain, i.e. a range of about 300 microstrain, but torsion needs only to be considered in the axle assessment if there are a significant number of cycles at this strain level. High torsional strains are normally associated with a known torsional problem, and this is certainly true in the case of the Class 107 and Class 323 vehicles. The torsional strain of the order of 30 microstrain measured by Ishii [41] may be typical for the majority of vehicles that do not have problems with torsional oscillation of the axles, although a much better understanding of typical torsional strain level is expected from the torsional measurements being carried out in the current Class 319 test. Table 1 - Maximum measured torsional strains

Reference Section 3.1.5 Section 3.1.11 Section 3.1.12 Ishii reference [41]

Vehicle type Class 107 DMU Class 323 EMU Class 323 EMU Not clear

Maximum strain range (microstrain) 1900 1400 907 31

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4.3 Possible Useful Additional Time History Data

A significant range of axle strain histories measured in the UK are readily available. However it may be worthwhile to try to obtain some additional strain data if it has been preserved, as this could be useful in the later stages of the T356 WP3 project. The following tests may be particularly relevant: The Pendolino data [30] measured by Lucchini Sidermeccanica on the WCML, as it includes running at speeds only possible with a tilting vehicle. The raw data used to derive the histograms published in the Traupe paper [34], which cover a wide range of route types, and differentiates between running with the instrumented axle leading and trailing in the bogie. The raw data used to derive the histograms published in the Otten paper [35], which seems to cover track of exceptionally severe geometry, and also includes the effects of wheelflats. The original strain histories associated with Beretta paper [37] which are stated to have been measured for an Italian high speed train. This might be particularly useful if the train in question was the Italian version of the Pendolino, which could then be compared with its UK counterpart. It is assumed that it would be extremely difficult to obtain any of the Japanese raw data, so it is probably not worthwhile to make enquiries along those lines.

5 Conclusions and Recommendations

1 At least 22 axle strain measurement exercises have taken place in the UK prior to the current Class 319 project. Significant amounts of time history data are likely to be available for 11 of these tests. 2 It is known that axle strain measurement has taken place in Germany, Italy and Japan. Where it has been possible to compare strain histograms, they are generally similar in form to UK measurements. 3 It may be worth inquiring whether time history strain data can be obtained from the following tests: Pendolino measurements on the UK WCML, reference [30]. German test data referred to by Traupe in reference [34].

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 German test data referred to by Otten in reference [35]. Italian test data referred to by Beretta in reference [37].

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6 References

[1]

D A Hoffmann & J Rosinski, Axle Stress Measurement: Development of Modern Instrumentation, presented September 2003. S Hillmansen & R A Smith, Intelligent Measurement of the In-service Rail Vehicle Axle Environment, presented January 2005. G W Morland, Pilot Tests with Load Measuring Axle, BR CM&EE Preliminary Note 388, April 1977. G W Morland, Further Analysis of Strains using Load Measuring Axle on 50 ton limestone Hopper Wagon, BR CM&EE Preliminary Note 388A, June 1977. C J Tivey, Frequency Analysis of Strains using Load Measuring Axle, BR CM&EE report 388B, September 1978. Zeilhofer, Susmuth & Piwenit, Determination of the forces between Wheel and Rail from the Bending Strains of an Axle, ZEV, 1972. M J Toogood, BT10 Strain Gauged Axle: Preliminary Results of Strain Distributions, BR CM&EE report 645, January 1981. G G Bates, BT10 Strain Gauged Axle: Analysis of Strains & Forces, BR CM&EE report 645B, September 1982. R J Allen & R A Armstrong, Report on the Failure of a DMU Axle at Longsight Depot 19 Nov 82, British Rail Research report TM-MF-72, April 1983.

[2]

[3] [4]

[5] [6]

[7]

[8] [9]

[10] R A Armstrong & K Walton, An Investigation into the Effect of Wheelflats on BT10 Axle Strains, British Rail Research report TM-MF-143, date unclear. [11] B Eickhoff, Torsional Oscillations of Class 107 Driven Axle, British Rail Research report IM-VDY-7, January 1987. [12] A V Kemp, Class 107 DMU Axle Stresses, BR CM&EE report 981, October 1986. [13] T Wong, A Service Trial Investigation of Wheelflat Effects on BT10 Axle Strains, British Rail Research report TM-MF153, January 1989.

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[14] M J Durham, 102t ARC Hopper Wagon Acceptance: Axle Bending Stress Analysis, BR CM&EE report 1102c, March 1989. [15] A V Kemp, 102t A.R.C Hopper Wagon Acceptance: Axle Stresses, BR CM&EE report 1102e, June 1990. [16] BR CM&EE report 1102L, June 1991. [17] J Latham (Powell Duffryn), letter sent to J Benyon (British Rail Research) reference JL/ELC/798/1.0, December 1996. [18] I Wilson & W G Rasaiah, Dynamic Loading of Railway Axles, British Rail Research report LR-VST-93-024, October 1993. [19] J A Benyon, Class 323 Driveline Vibration. Interim Report on the Structural Integrity of the Axle and Bogie Frame, British Rail Research reportLR-VST-93-038, August 1993. [20] J R Venor, Dynamic Loading of Class 323 Powered Axle, British Rail Research report RR-STR-95-053, April 1995. [21] Letter from A James (The Engineering Link) to John Benyon (British Rail Research), reference PW/050/3694 (ASJ), July 1996. [22] A S Watson & R G Rasaiah, Balance Weight Holes in Mk4 Coach Wheels - Fatigue Analysis using Service Strain Data, AEA Technology Rail report RR-TRS-99-011, March 1999. [23] A S Watson, NDT Periodicities for Turbostar Power Axles, AEA Technology Rail report RR-TRS-99-246, March 2000. [24] J H Lewis, C J Kay & A S Watson, Class 91 Bogie ReEngineering - Task 8, Torsional Vibration of Axles, AEA Technology Rail report RR-TRS-99-270 issue 2, February 2000. [25] M Beagles, Track Tests to Measure Class 220 Axle Strains, AEA Technology Rail report AEATR-T&S-2001-115, July 2001. [26] M Beagles, Class 321 Track Tests, AEA Technology Rail report RR-TRS-99-033, March 1999. [27] A S Watson, NDT Periodicities for Electrostar Axles, AEA Technology Rail report AEATR-T&S-2000-067, October 2000.

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[28] R Christian & M Beagles, Cl.221 Axle Track Tests and Periodicity Calculations, AEA Technology Rail report AEATR-TEaM-2002-225, January 2003. [29] M Beagles & A S Watson, Cl.222 Axle Track Tests & Periodicity Calculations, AEA Technology Rail report AEATR-ES-2004-865, April 2004. [30] F Lombardo, Results of Field Measurements performed on WCML Pendolino Virgin Train, Lucchini Sidermeccanica report RD/RV_030-2, July 2004 [31] A S Watson, Axle NDT Periodicity for PLASSER 08-4x4/4S Tampers, DeltaRail report DeltaRail-ES-2006-055, December 2006. [32] U Zerbst, M Vormwald, C Andersch, K Madler & M Pfuff, The Development of a Damage Tolerance Concept for Railway Components and its Demonstration for a Railway Axle, presented November 2004. [33] H Zenner, BMBF-Vorhaben: Sicherer und Wirtschaftliche Auslegung von Eisenbahnfahrwerken - Ziele, Dauerfeste oder Betriebfeste Bemessung, Ergebnisse, presented at Kolloquium - Bemessung von Eisenbahnfahrwerken 2004. [34] M Traupe, BMBF-Vorhaben: Sicherer und Wirtschaftliche Auslegung von Eisenbahnfahrwerken - Zielsetzungen und Konzept zur Lastannahme, presented at Kolloquium Bemessung von Eisenbahnfahrwerken 2004. [35] T Otten, BMBF-Vorhaben: Sicherer und WirtschaftLiche Auslegung von Eisenbahnfahrwerken - Messungen an Radsatzen im Nahverkehr, presented at Kolloquium Bemessung von Eisenbahnfahrwerken 2004. [36] A S Watson, Compilation of Measured Axle Service Stress Data, AEA Technology Rail report AEATR-ES-2005-936, July 2005 [37] S Beretta, M Carboni & F Lombardo, A Comparison of Algorithms for Fracture Propagation in Railway Axles, presented September 2003. [38] S Cantini, A Ghidini & S Beretta, "Safe Life" Inspection Intervals of Railways Axles: A Comparison of Crack Growth Properties of Different Steel Grades, presented at 14th Wheelset Congress, October 2004.

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[39]

H Nakamura, S Tanaka & K Hatuno, The Effect of Service Load and Fatigue Strength on the Car-Axles, presented at Symposium on Fatigue of Metals under Service Loads, September 1967.

[40] S Tanaka, K Hatsuno & S Yaguchi, Wheel Load and Stress on the Car-Axle Design, Quarterly Reports, 1974 [41] K Ishii, Fatigue Strength and Maintenance of the WheelAxle Assembly for the Japanese Fast Train (Skinkansen), Journal of Engineering Materials and Technology, July 1978.

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Literature Search

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Optimising Wheelset Design & Maintenance - Data Analysis and Fatigue Design: Literature Search: Figures

Figure 1a: Summary of recorded UK axle strain measurements

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Literature Search: Figures

Figure 1b: Further details of UK azxle strain measurements

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Figure 2a: Summary of test routes

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Literature Search: Figures

Figure 2b: Summary of test routes

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Figure 2c: Summary of test routes

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Literature Search: Figures

Figure 2d: Summary of test routes

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Figure 2e: Summary of test routes

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Literature Search: Figures

Figure 3: Examples of the effectes of single track irregularities or wheelflats

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Figure 4a: Histograms from 1976 50 tonne wagon test - ref [4]

Figure 4b: Histograms from 1980 prototype HST coach test - refs [7,8]

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Figure 4c: Estimated axle histogram for Class 108 DMU - ref [9]

Figure 4d: Histograms from 1986 Class 107 DMU test - ref [12]

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Figure 4e: Histograms from 1987 BT10 test - ref [13]

Figure 4f: Histograms from 1988 and 1989 wagon tests - refs [14, 15]

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Figure 4g: Histograms from 1991 coach and wagon tests - ref [18]

Figure 5a: Histogram for German axle assessment, Zenner, - ref [33]

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Figure 5b: Histograms for German axle assessment, Traupe - [34]

Figure 5c: Effect of route in German tests, Otten - ref [35]

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Figure 5d: Effect of loading in German tests, Otten - ref [35]

Figure 5e: Effect of wheelflats in German tests, Otten - ref [35]

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Figure 5f: Italian axle histogram, Beretta - ref [37]

Figure 5g: Japanese axle histograms, Nakamura - ref [39]

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Figure 5h: Japanese axle histograms, Tanaka - ref [40]

Figure 5i: Japanese axle histogram, Ishil - ref [41]

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