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Vector approach to ray tracing for reection and refraction

Y Kanoria and A G Parameswaran


Homi Bhabha Centre for Science Education, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Mankhurd, Mumbai-400088, India. E-mail: adityagp@gmail.com Abstract. The paper generalizes the vector approach to thin spherical lens ray tracing given by Gatland (Gatland I R 2002 Thin lens ray tracing, American J. Phys. 70(12) p 11846) to a general thin lens. A general result relating the incident ray, the emergent ray and the nature of the lens is derived. This is then used to analyze the behaviour of a cylindrical/sphero-cylindrical lens in a straightforward way. A similar vector approach is also applied to reection.

1. Introduction Gatland[1] has given an elegant vector approach for thin spherical lens ray tracing leading to the standard formulae for this case. In this paper, we have substantially generalized the method and applied it to ray tracing for refraction by a general thin lens. We obtain a general thin lens equation(28) that gives the direction of the emergent ray in terms of the direction of the incident ray and the nature of the lens. The assumptions under which the equation is derived are satised by most lenses used in practice and this makes it widely applicable. We use this result to arrive at the formulae for refraction by a spherical thin lens as an illustration. The application to refraction by a sphero-cylindrical lens clearly illustrates the power of this approach. We also derive a vector formulation of reection and apply it to the case of a spherical mirror. The vector approach, even for the elementary case of reection and refraction by a spherical surface, is superior to the standard textbook approach [2], since in the latter one must derive the formulae separately for convex and concave surfaces. Besides, the standard derivations do not account for skew rays(rays not in the plane of the object and principal axis), which must be considered to prove image formation. In the approach presented, a single analysis takes care of all cases and also of skew rays. We shall follow the New Cartesian sign convention.

Vector approach to ray tracing for reection and refraction


REFLECTING REFLECTED RAY

n2

SURFACE

NORMAL

r i P

s n1
INCIDENT RAY

Figure 1. Vector formulation of reection

2. Vector formulation of Reection Consider a ray incident at a point P on the surface of a mirror. Let n1 and n2 be the unit vectors along directions of the incident and reected ray respectively, with s being the unit outward normal at P. Furthur, let (n1 ) and (n1 ) denote the component vectors of n1 parallel and perpendicular to the surface at P respectively. Similarly, dene (n2 ) and (n2 ) . So, n1 = (n1 ) + (n1 ) n2 = (n2 ) + (n2 ) Clearly, from the laws of reection and equation (1a) and (1b) we have, (n1 ) = (n2 ) = (n1 .s)s Also, (n1 ) = (n2 ) (3) (2) (1a) (1b)

Equations (1a), (1b), (2) and (3) may be combined to arrive at n2 = n1 2(n1 .s)s This equation encapsulates the two laws of reection. In the paraxial approximation, n1 .s 1 Equations (4) and (5) give n2 = n1 + 2s (6) (5) (4)

Vector approach to ray tracing for reection and refraction


SPHERICAL REFLECTING MIRROR

u = uk + h
P

OBJECT

Rk u

+z

Figure 2. Image formation by spherical mirror

3. Analysis of image formation by spherical mirror Let the origin be at the pole of the mirror and the principal axis be the z axis with incident rays along the +z direction.Let k be the unit vector along +z. Consider a point object situated at r u = uk + h (7)

where h is perpendicular to the z axis.u is then object distance as per our convention. Let r be the position vector of any point P on the mirror where a ray is incident. Suppose u < 0 as shown in the gure. Then the incident ray is in the direction of r ru . We have, (r ru ) n1 = |(r ru )| (r ru ) (u) Substituting equation (7), we obtain (h r) (8) u We have assumed that r is close to 0 so that (r ru ) is almost parallel to the z axis. For u > 0, (ru r) n1 = |(ru r)| (ru r) u Hence, equation (8) holds for u > 0 also. For R < 0 as shown, n1 = k + s= |(Rk r)| (Rk r)

(Rk r) (R)

Vector approach to ray tracing for reection and refraction = k + r/R For R > 0, s= |(r Rk)| (r Rk) (r Rk) R

4 (9)

Equation (9) thus holds for R > 0 also. From equations (6), (8) and (9), h 2 1 + r( ) u R u Any point on the reected ray is given by n2 = k + p() = r + n2 (10)

(11)

is positive for real points and negative for virtual points. From equations (10) and (11) 1 h 2 )] + ( k) (12) R u u To obtain the location of the image rv , we obtain the value of for which p() is independent of r. This value is given by 1 (13) = 0 = 2 1 u R p() = r[1 + ( (14)

Equations (12) and (13) give 0 p(0 ) = h 0 k u Let rv = v k + m h

(15)

where v is image distance and m can be interpreted as magnication. Comparing equations (14) and (15), v = 0 and m = 0 /u Equations (13) and (16) give 1 1 2 v + = and m = v u R u which are the standard formulae for reection by a spherical mirror. 4. Vector formulation of refraction Dene a ray vector corresponding to a light ray to be a vector along the direction of the ray, having a magnitude equal to the refractive index of the medium. Consider a ray travelling in a medium of refractive index 1 incident at a point P at the interface of the medium with another medium of refractive index 2 . The notation in this case is: n1 is the ray vector describing the incident ray, n2 is the ray vector describing the (16)

Vector approach to ray tracing for reection and refraction


REFRACTING SURFACE

n2
REFRACTED RAY

NORMAL

r i P s

n1

INCIDENT RAY

Figure 3. Vector formulation of refraction

refracted ray, s is the unit vector along the normal in the direction of light, and (n1 ) , (n1 ) , (n2 ) , (n2 ) are the vector components of n1 and n2 dened as before. Using Snells law, we arrive at (n2 ) = ( (2 )2 (1 )2 + (n1 .s)2 )s The laws of refraction give us (n1 ) = (n2 ) Equations (17) and (18) may be combined to arrive at n2 = n1 (n1 .s)s + ( (2 )2 (1 )2 + (n1 .s)2 )s This expression looks quite unwieldy until we assume that i is small so that n1 .s 1 . Under this approximation we get n2 = n1 + (2 1 )s (19) (18) (17)

which is the basic equation given by Gatland[1]. Using equation (19), and following exactly the same procedure as in section 3, we arrive at the formulae for refraction at a single spherical surface 2 1 1 v 2 1 = and m = v u R 2 u These expressions can be used to easily derive spherical surfaces[3].
1 f 1 1 = v u and m = v u

(20) for a thin lens with

5. Analysis of deviation of a ray by a general thin lens Consider a thin lens of constant refractive index . Suppose both bounding surfaces are almost perpendicular to the z axis. Take some x and y axis forming an right-handed orthonormal system with z axis. Let the bounding surfaces be:

Vector approach to ray tracing for reection and refraction


NORMAL TO F

s2
NORMAL TO G EMERGENT RAY

s1 n1
INCIDENT RAY

n2

Figure 4. A General thin lens

F: z = f (x, y) and G: z = g(x, y) Dene t(x, y) = g(x, y) f (x, y) (21)

where t is the thickness of the lens. Consider an incident ray travelling along the +z direction. Let n1 , n and n2 be the ray vectors describing the incident ray, the ray within the lens and the emergent ray respectively. Let s1 and s2 be the unit normals to the surfaces F and G respectively, at points along the path of the ray. Since s1 is the normal to the surface F, s1 = = (z f (x, y)) | (z f (x, y))| fx i fy j + k
2 2 1 + f x + fy

2 2 Since the bounding surface F is almost perpendicular to k, fx + fy << 1, so

s1 fx i fy j + k Similarly, s2 gx i gy j + k

(22)

(23)

We assume that n1 is almost parallel to k. Since s1 is also almost parallel to k, this means the angle of incidence is small and equation (19) is applicable for the appropriate variables. n = n1 + ( 1)s1 n2 = n + (1 )s2 Eliminating n, we get n2 = n1 + ( 1)(s1 s2 ) (26) (24) (25)

Vector approach to ray tracing for reection and refraction


INCIDENT RAY

P Q
REFRACTED RAY

R1

C1 R2

C2

+z

Figure 5. Lens with spherical surfaces

From equations (21), (22) and (23) s1 s2 = (gx fx )i + (gy fy )j = tx i + ty j t(x, y) = Using (26) and (27), n2 = n1 + ( 1) t (28) (27)

This expression gives the direction of the emergent ray directly, given the incident ray and the nature of the lens. An interesting point to note is that under the given assumptions, the lens is characterized only by its thickness, not the nature of the individual surfaces. This conclusion and equation (28) follow also from the use of Fermats principle. Equation (28) immediately shows that light bends in the direction of increasing thickness of the lens. The use of equation (28) can be demonstrated for the simple case of a thin lens with spherical surfaces, which has already been discussed in the previous section. The principal axes is taken as the z axis and the origin as its intersection with the surface F. Let r = x2 + y 2 . Let r be the position vector of the point P on the lens, where the incident ray falls. For a thin lens, this is nearly equal to the position vector of the point Q where the emergent ray leaves the lens. Let r be the unit vector along the projection of OP in the xy plane. In the paraxial approximation, we have r r r Note our denition of r, r and r . A little elementary geometry gives t = R2 (1 1 r2 ) R1 (1 2 R2 1 r2 )+c 2 R1 (30) (29)

Vector approach to ray tracing for reection and refraction

where c = t(0, 0). Note that the signs have been taken care of. Assume r << R1 and r << R2 (paraxial approximation). Using binomial expansion in equation (30), r2 r2 ) R1 ( 2 ) + c 2 2R2 2R1 2 1 r 1 )+c = ( 2 R2 R1 1 1 )r r t=( R2 R1 Using equations (29) and (31b), we obtain 1 1 t( )r R2 R1 From equations (28) and (32), we have: 1 1 n2 = n1 + ( 1)[( )r] R2 R1 Dene f by 1 1 1 = ( 1)( ) f R1 R2 t R2 ( From equations (33) and (34), we have, n2 = n 1 r f (35)

(31a) (31b)

(32)

(33)

(34)

Take a point object at ru = uk + h. As before, hr u So, from equations (35) and (36), n1 = k + 1 1 h r( + ) u u f Any point on the emergent ray is n2 = k + p = r + n2 1 1 h = r(1 ( + )) + (k + ) u f u Proceeding as before, we arrive at 1 1 1 v = and m = v u f u (36)

(37)

(38)

These along with equation (34) are the standard formulae for a thin lens with spherical surfaces.

Vector approach to ray tracing for reection and refraction


+x

r ru
OBJECT SPHERICAL SURFACE

+z

O
CYLINDRICAL SURFACE

Figure 6. Side View of a Sphero-cylindrical Lens

r ru
OBJECT

+z

SPHERICAL SURFACE

CYLINDRICAL SURFACE

+y

Figure 7. Top View of a Sphero-cylindrical Lens

6. Refraction by Sphero-Cylindrical Lens Consider a thin sphero-cylindrical lens, with the z axis being the principal axis. Let the surface to the left be spherical with radius of curvature Rs and the surface to right be cylindrical with radius of curvature Rc , the axis of the cylinder being along the x axis (refer to gure 6,7). Consider a point object at ru = uk. Dene r, r and r as in the derivation of deviation of a ray by a thin lens with spherical surfaces. Equation (29) holds since the lens is thin. We have, r (39) n1 = k u Let r = x0 i + y0 j r (40) The gures are drawn for the case u < 0, Rs > 0, Rc < 0 i.e. for a real object and both surfaces convergent. However, it is easy to see that the analysis which follows is general. Note how the formation of an astigmatic pencil and the change in its cross section with the z coordinate can be derived without any complicated arguments or mathematics. We must nd the thickness of the lens t as a function of x and y. The equation of the spherical surface is, z = Rs (1 1 r2 ) c1 2 Rs (41)

Vector approach to ray tracing for reection and refraction The equation of the cylindrical surface is z = Rc (1 1 y2 ) + c2 2 Rc

10

(42)

c1 and c2 are small positive constants. Note that the signs have been taken care of. Assume r << Rs and r << Rc (paraxial approximation). Using the binomial expansion, we obtain, r2 y2 t + +c (43) 2Rs 2Rc where c = t(0, 0) = c1 + c2 . r y j) (44) t ( + Rs Rc From equations (28), (39) and (44), we have r y r + j) (45) n2 = k + ( 1)( u Rs Rc Any point on the emergent ray is p = r + n2 = xi + y i + z k where 1 1 x = x0 (1 + ( )) u Rs 1 1 1 y = y0 (1 + ( + ( 1)( + ))) u Rs Rc z = (47a) (47b) (47c) (46a) (46b)

Equations (46b), (45) and (40) have been used. Suppose Rs . The lens is cylindrical(or plano-cylindrical). Consider = 0 such that 1 1 1 = (48) 0 u Rc Then we have y=0 z = 0 x = x 0 0 ( (49) (50)

1 1 x0 0 ( 1) 0) = (51) 0 u Rc Thus we have a focal line at this position, parallel to the axis of the cylinder. At any value of (i.e. of z) x depends only on x0 , y depends on y0 . Hence, the section of the emergent beam at any position along z is rectangular if the plane face of the lens is rectangular. These are the results quoted in [4]. Now suppose Rs is nite. For = z = 1 such that 1 1 1 = (52) 1 u Rs

Vector approach to ray tracing for reection and refraction

11

we have x = 0 i.e. the beam converges to a horizontal line. For = z = 2 such that 1 1 1 1 = ( 1)( ) (53) 2 u Rs Rc we have y = 0 i.e. the beam converges to a vertical line. If a section of the lens normal to the z axis is circular with radius R, we have
2 2 x2 + y 0 R 0 0

(54) y2 1 (1 + ( u + (

Using equations (47a) and (47b), we obtain x2 1 (1 + ( u


1 2 )) Rs

1 2 1 1 )) +R ) R
s c

2 R0

(55)

Clearly, the cross-section of the beam is elliptical. Thus we are able to explain the formation of the astigmatic pencil with all the quantitative details. The results obtained match the standard results[4]. 7. Conclusion The general thin lens equation (28) is an important and useful result. The analysis leading to it can be protably incorporated in undergraduate physics texts. Further, equation (28) can be used for the analysis of dierent kinds of lenses and even to nd the nature of a lens which bends light in a desired way. References
[1] [2] [3] [4] Gatland I R 2002 Thin lens ray tracing, American J. Phys. 70(12) p 11846 Smith C J 1960 A Degree Physics, Part 3 (Optics) (London: Edward Arnold) p 10510 p 12533 Smith C J 1960 A Degree Physics, Part 3 (Optics) (London: Edward Arnold) p 1379 Smith C J 1960 A Degree Physics, Part 3 (Optics) (London: Edward Arnold) p 2306

Acknowledgments This work was done as part of the National Initiative for Undergraduate Science, undertaken at the Homi Bhabha Centre for Science Education, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research. It is a pleasure to thank Prof. Arvind Kumar for his help and advice.

Vector approach to ray tracing for reection and refraction Images Figure 1: Vector formulation of reection

12

Figure 2: Image formation by spherical mirror Figure 3: Vector formulation of refraction Figure 4: A General thin lens Figure 5: Lens with spherical surfaces

Figure 6: Side View of a Sphero-cylindrical Lens Figure 7: Top View of a Sphero-cylindrical Lens

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