PROPOSITIONS A proposition is a statement in which anything whatsoever is affirmed or denied.

affirm means to say that something is the case, for example, Nick Joaquin is the author of Cave and Shadows Some plants are trees On the other hand, to deny means something is not the case, for example, Nick Joaquin is not the author of Footnote to Youth. Some plants are not trees. It may express truth or falsity. A proposition may either be true or false but not both. Just like an ordinary sentence or statement, a proposition has a subject and a predicate. The subject is that about which something is affirmed or denied while the predicate is what is affirmed or denied of the subject. To say that, Dogs are animals, means that we are saying something about dogs, in this case, we are affirming something about dogs and that what we are affirming about dogs is that they are animals. In our example, dog is the subject while animals is the predicate. Are is called the copula. It is the equivalent of the linking verb in the ordinary English grammar. The copula connects the subject and the predicate. Other example of copula includes the verb be (is, was, were, shall, will,etc. ) not is added if the proposition is negative, that is, if it denies something about the subject, (is not, was not, will not, etc.) Quality of Propositions Propositions may be affirmative or negative. As discussed earlier, to affirm means to say that something is the case which means the proposition is affirmative. To deny means to say that something is not the case, in which case the proposition is negative. Words that indicate negativity are not and no. For example, No one is around. ( no may also be changed to none, nothing, nobody) To

Many students did not come to class. All the participants are not professionals. The above propositions are negative. Examples are affirmative propositions are: Many students are lazy. Most parents love their children. Every house is painted colorfully. Quantity of Propositions Propositions may be particular or universal. A proposition is particular if it refers to some members of the class designated by the subject term , for example, Some people are indifferent to social problems. Several universities are state- owned. A number of municipalities are not flooded. A few contestants did not qualify for the next round. A proposition is universal if it refers to all members of the class designated by the subject term. All lawyers are professionals. Each parent has a child. Nobody is present during the incident. Everything is ready. None of the mangoes is ripe. Kinds of propositions There are four kinds of propositions. They are called A, E, I, O. A is universal affirmative examples: All lawyers are professionals Each child has a parent. Everyone enjoyed the party. E is universal negative examples: No one attended the seminar. No cats are dogs Nobody is present during the incident.

I is particular affirmative examples: Several universities are stateowned. Some people are indiffirent to social problems. Most parents love their children. O is particular negative examples: A number of municipalities are not flooded. A few contestants did not qualify for the next round. Some animals are not domesticated.

Inference is the process of drawing a conclusion. There are two kinds: immediate and mediate. Immediate if the conclusion is deduced from one premise ony; Mediate if the conclusion is deduced from two or more premises. In this topic, an example of immediate inference will be discussed.

TRADITIONAL SQUARE OF OPPOSITION Note: Please research for the diagram of the square of opposition. Its difficult to put it here. You may find it in any logic book or the net. This diagram is called the Tradition Square of Opposition. It shows the four kinds of proposition ( A, E ,I, O) at the four corners of the square. This is called square of opposition because every proposition has three named opposites. And for every opposition there is a relation governed by certain rules. These relations are contrary, contradictory, subcontrary and subalternation. For each opposition, there are pairs of propositions. The oppositions are the following: 1. Contradictory - A and O(or O & A), and E and I (or I & E)

So if the given is All crocodiles are reptiles (A), its contradictory is

Some crocodiles are not reptiles (O) or vice-versa For another given, No cats are dogs (E ,) Some cats are dogs (I) or vice-versa its contradictory is

So that, if for example the given, All crocodiles are reptiles (A) contradictory Some crocodiles are not reptiles (O) will be FALSE

is TRUE, then its

The rule is: they cannot be TRUE together (if one is true, the other must be false) For another given, No cats are dogs (E ,) Some cats are dogs (I) will be TRUE is FALSE its contradictory

The rule is: they cannot be FALSE together (if one is false, the other must be true) 2. Contrary A and E (or E & A) So if the given is, All plants are living things (A) its contrary is No plants are living things (E) or vice-versa So that if for example the given , All plants are living things (A) is TRUE its contrary No plants are living things (E) is FALSE The rule is: The rule is: they cannot be TRUE together (if one is true, the other must be false) This rule is the same with contradictory. But if the given , All plants are living things (A) is FALSE its contrary No plants are living things (E) is UNDETERMINED The rule: they may be FALSE together - although the term may be gives us the possibility that when one is false the other may become false also, this does not guarantee certainty. In cases when the value is not sure or is difficult o know, it is safer to say undetermined.

3. Subcontrary - I and O

(or O & I)

So if the given is, Some plants are grass (I) its subcontrary is

Some plants are not grass (O) or vice-versa So that if the given, Some plants are grass (I) is FALSE its subcontrary Some plants are not grass (O) is TRUE The rule is: they cannot be FALSE together (if one is false, the other must be true) This rule is the same with contradictory. But, if the given, Some plants are grass (I) is TRUE its subcontrary is Some plants are not grass (O) is UNDETERMINED The rule is: they may be TRUE together - although the term may be gives us the possibility that when one is TRUE the other may become TRUE also, this does not guarantee certainty. In cases when the value is not sure or is difficult o know, it is safer to say UNDETERMINED. 4. Subalternation - A and I (or I & A), and E and O (or O & E)

So if the given is, All cars are vehicles (A) its corresponding proposition is Some cars are vehicles (I) or vice-versa For another given, No squares are circles (E) its corresponding proposition is Some squares are not circles (O) So that if the given, All cars are vehicles (A) is TRUE its corresponding proposition Some cars are vehicles (I) is also TRUE But if the given, Some cars are vehicles (I) is TRUE its corresponding proposition All cars are vehicles (A) is UNDETERMINED For another given, Some squares are not circles (O) is FALSE its corresponding proposition No squares are circles (E) is also FALSE But if the given, No squares are circles (E) is FALSE its corresponding proposition is Some squares are not circles (O) is UNDETERMINED