Physics Syllabus

IB
Session May
2012 16
Physics HL Syllabus (2009)

Marc Wierzbitzki
Including notes on HL Option E (Astrophysics) and H (Relativity)
Marc W.
Hockerill Anglo-European College
IB Session May 2012
TABLE OF CONTENT
1.1 THE REALM OF PHYSICS 1.2 MEASUREMENT AND UNCERTAINTIES 1.3 VECTORS AND SCALARS 2.1 KINEMATICS 2.2 FORCES AND DYNAMICS 2.3 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 2.4 UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION 3.1 THERMAL CONCEPTS 3.2 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER 4.1 KINEMATICS OF SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (SHM) 4.2 ENERGY CHANGES DURING SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (SHM) 4.3 FORCED OSCILLATIONS AND RESONANCE 4.4 WAVE CHARACTERISTICS 4.5 WAVE PROPERTIES 5.1 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE, CURRENT AND RESISTANCE 5.2 ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 6.1 GRAVITATIONAL FORCE AND FIELD 6.3 MAGNETIC FORCE AND FIELD 7.1 THE ATOM 7.2 RADIOACTIVE DECAY 7.3 NUCLEAR REACTIONS, FISSION AND FUSION 8.1 ENERGY DEGRADATION AND POWER GENERATION 8.2 WORLD ENERGY SOURCES 8.3 FOSSIL FUEL POWER PRODUCTION 8.4 NON-FOSSIL FUEL POWER PRODUCTION 8.5 GREENHOUSE EFFECT 8.6 GLOBAL WARMING 9.1 PROJECTILE MOTION 9.2 GRAVITATIONAL FIELD, POTENTIAL AND ENERGY 9.3 ELECTRIC FIELD, POTENTIAL AND ENERGY 9.4 ORBITAL MOTION 10.1 THERMODYNAMICS 10.2 PROCESSES 10.3 SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS AND ENTROPY 11.1 STANDING (STATIONARY) WAVES

4 5 7 8 9 11 12 14 15 21 22 23 24 26 29 31 34 36 39 41 42 46 46 47 48 53 55 58 58 60 62 64 65 66 68
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11.2 DOPPLER EFFECT 11.3 DIFFRACTION 11.4 RESOLUTION 11.5 POLARIZATION 12.1 INDUCED ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (EMF) 12.2 ALTERNATING CURRENT 12.3 TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICAL POWER 13.1 QUANTUM PHYSICS 13.2 NUCLEAR PHYSICS 14.1 ANALOGUE AND DIGITAL SIGNALS 14.2 DATA CAPTURE; DIGITAL IMAGING USING CHARGE-COUPLED DEVICES (CCDS) E1 INTRODUCTION TO THE UNIVERSE E3 STELLAR DISTANCES E4 COSMOLOGY E5 STELLAR PROCESSES AND STELLAR EVOLUTION E6 GALAXIES AND THE EXPANDING UNIVERSE H1 INTRODUCTION TO RELATIVITY H2 CONCEPTS AND POSTULATES OF SPECIAL RELATIVITY H3 RELATIVISTIC KINEMATICS H4 SOME CONSEQUENCES OF SPECIAL RELATIVITY H5 EVIDENCE TO SUPPORT SPECIAL RELATIVITY H6 RELATIVISTIC MOMENTUM AND ENERGY H7 GENERAL RELATIVITY H8 EVIDENCE TO SUPPORT GENERAL RELATIVITY
69 70 71 72 75 76 78 80 84 88 90 93 99 102 107 110 113 113 114 117 119 121 122 125
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1.1 The realm of physics

1.1.1 Assessment statement State and compare quantities to the nearest order to magnitude. Teachers notes Comparison between orders of magnitude can easily be made because working out the ration between two powers of ten is just a matter of adding or subtracting whole numbers. The diameter of an atom, 10-10, does not sound that much bigger than the diameter of a proton in its nucleus, 10-15, but the ratio between them is 105 or 100,000 times bigger. This is the same ration as between the size of a railway station and the diameter of the Earth. Distance:
1026 1021 1017 1011 109 107 105 102 10-2 10-4 10-6 10-10 10-12 10-15 Radius of observable Universe Radius of local galaxy Distance to nearest star Distance from Earth to Sun Distance from Earth to Moon Radius of Earth Deepest part of the ocean / highest mountain Tallest building Length of fingernail Thickness of piece of paper Wavelength of light Diameter of hydrogen atom Wavelength of gamma ray Diameter of proton
1.1.2
State the ranges of magnitude of distances, masses and times that occur in the universe, from smallest to greatest.
Distances: from 1015 m to 10+25 m (sub-nuclear particles to extent of the visible universe). Masses: from 1030 kg to 10+50 kg (electron to mass of the universe). Times: from 1023 s to 10+18 s (passage of light across a nucleus to the age of the universe).
Mass:
1052 1042 1030 1025 1021 1018 109 104 102 10-2 10-7 10-10 10-14 10-22 10-27 10-30 Total mass of observable Universe Mass of local galaxy Mass of Sun Mass of Earth Total mass of oceans Total mass of atmosphere Laden oil super tanker Elephant Human Mouse Grain of sand Blood corpuscle Bacterium Haemoglobin molecule Proton Electron
Time:
1018 1017 1014 109 107 105 100 10-3 Age of the universe Age of the Earth Age of species homo sapiens Typical human lifespan 1 year 1 day One heartbeat Period of high-frequency sound
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10-8 10-13 10-15 10-19 10-23

Passage of light across a room Vibration of an ion in a solid Period of visible light Passage of light across an atom Passage of light across a nucleus
1.1.3
State ratios of quantities as differences of orders of magnitude. Estimate approximate values of everyday quantities to one or two significant figures and /or to the nearest order of magnitude.
1.1.4
For example, the ratio of the diameter of the hydrogen atom to its nucleus is about 105, or a difference of five orders of magnitude.
See 1.1.1
See 1.1.2
1.2 Measurement and uncertainties

1.2.1 Assessment statement State the fundamental units in the SI system. Teachers notes Students need to know the following: kilogram, metre, second, ampere, mole and kelvin. Kilogram Metre Second Ampere Mole Kelvin (Candela) Fundamental units are the SI units stated above. Derived units are combinations of SI units, such !"#$"% as =
!"#$%&
1.2.2
Distinguish between fundamental and derived units and give examples of derived units. Convert between different For example, J and kW h, J and units of quantities. eV, year and second, and between other systems and SI. State units in the accepted Students should use m s2 not SI format. m/s2 and m s1 not m/s. State values in scientific For example, use nanoseconds notation and in multiples or gigajoules of units with appropriate prefixes. Describe and give examples of random and systematic errors.
1.2.3 1.2.4 1.2.5
1.2.6
1.2.7
Distinguish between precision and accuracy.
A measurement may have great precision yet may be inaccurate (for example, if the instrument
Repeating readings does not reduce systematic errors. Sources of random errors include the readability of the instrument, the observer being less than perfect and the effects of a change in the surroundings. Sources of systematic errors include and instrument being wrongly calibrated, the observer being less than perfect in the same way every measurement, An accurate experiment is one that has a small systematic error, whereas a precise experiment is 5
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Hockerill Anglo-European College has a zero offset error).
IB Session May 2012 one that has a small random error. Repeat the readings to reduce random human error. For multiplication and division, the number of significant digits in a result should not exceed that of the least precise value upon which it depends. The number of significant figures in any answer should reflect the number of significant figures in the given data.
1.2.8 1.2.9
Explain how the effects of random errors may be reduced. Calculate quantities and results of calculations to the appropriate number of significant figures.
1.2.10 State uncertainties as absolute, fractional and percentage uncertainties. 1.2.11 Determine the uncertainties in results.
Students should be aware that systematic errors are not reduced by repeating readings. The number of significant figures should reflect the precision of the value or of the input data to a calculation. Only a simple rule is required: for multiplication and division, the number of significant digits in a result should not exceed that of the least precise value upon which it depends. The number of significant figures in any answer should reflect the number of significant figures in the given data. A simple approximate method rather than root mean squared calculations is sufficient to determine maximum uncertainties. For functions such as addition and subtraction, absolute uncertainties may be added. For multiplication, division and powers, percentage uncertainties may be added. For other functions (for example, trigonometric functions), the mean, highest and lowest possible answers may be calculated to obtain the uncertainty range. If one uncertainty is much larger than others, the approximate uncertainty in the calculated result may be taken as due to that quantity alone.
For functions such as addition and subtraction, absolute uncertainties may be added. For multiplication, division and powers, percentage uncertainties may be added. For other functions (for example, trigonometric functions), the mean, highest and lowest possible answers may be calculated to obtain the uncertainty range.
1.2.12 Identify uncertainties as error bars in graphs. 1.2.13 State random uncertainty as an uncertainty range () and represent it graphically as an error bar. 1.2.14 Determine the uncertainties in the gradient and intercepts of a straight-line graph.
Error bars need be considered only when the uncertainty in one or both of the plotted quantities is significant. Error bars will not be expected for trigonometric or logarithmic functions. Only a simple approach is needed. To determine the uncertainty in the gradient and intercept, error bars need only be added to the first and the last data points.
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1.3 Vectors and scalars

1.3.1 Assessment statement Distinguish between vector and scalar quantities, and give examples of each. Determine the sum or difference of two vectors by a graphical method. Teachers notes A vector is represented in print by a bold italicized symbol, for example, F. Multiplication and division of vectors by scalars is also required. A quantity that has magnitude and direction is called a vector quantity whereas one that has only magnitude is called a scalar quantity.
1.3.2
1.3.3
Resolve vectors into perpendicular components along chosen axes.
For example, resolving parallel and perpendicular to an inclined plane.
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2.1 Kinematics

2.1.1 Assessment statement Define displacement, velocity, speed and acceleration. Teachers notes Quantities should be identified as scalar or vector quantities. See sub-topic 1.3. Displacement: the distance moved in a particular direction Velocity: the rate of change of displacement Speed: the rate of change of distance Acceleration: the rate of change of velocity An instantaneous value of speed, velocity or acceleration is one at a particular point in time. An average value of speed, velocity or acceleration is taken over a period of time. The equations for uniformly accelerated motion can only be applied if the acceleration is constant. They are as follows:
2.1.2
Explain the difference between instantaneous and average values of speed, velocity and acceleration.
2.1.3
Outline the conditions . under which the equations for uniformly accelerated motion may be applied.
2.1.4
Identify the acceleration of a body falling in a vacuum near the Earths surface with the acceleration g of free fall.
2.1.5
Solve problems involving the equations of uniformly accelerated motion.
2.1.6
Describe the effects of air resistance on falling objects.
Only qualitative descriptions are expected. Students should understand what is meant by terminal speed.
When we ignore the effect of air resistance on an object falling due to gravity we say that the object is under free fall. Free fall is an example of uniformly accelerated motion as the only force acting on the object is gravity. In the absence of air resistance, all falling objects have the same acceleration, independent of their mass. Example: A car accelerated uniformly from rest. After 10s it has travelled 200m. Average acceleration: 1 = + ! 2 1 200 = 0 10 + 10! 2 = 4 Instantaneous speed after 10s: ! = ! + 2 ! = 0 + 2 4 10 = 8.9 Air resistance eventually affects all objects that are in motion. Due to air resistance objects can reach terminal velocity. This is a point by which the velocity remains constant and acceleration is zero. 8
Marc W. 2.1.7 Draw and analyse distancetime graphs, displacementtime graphs, velocitytime graphs and acceleration time graphs.
Hockerill Anglo-European College Students should be able to sketch and label these graphs for various situations. They should also be able to write descriptions of the motions represented by such graphs.
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2.1.8
2.1.9
Calculate and interpret the gradients of displacementtime graphs and velocitytime graphs, and the areas under velocitytime graphs and accelerationtime graphs. Determine relative velocity in one and in two dimensions.
If two things are moving in the same straight line but are travelling at different speeds, then we can work out their relative velocities.

2.2 Forces and dynamics

2.2.1 2.2.2 Assessment statement Calculate the weight of a body using the expression W = mg. Identify the forces acting on an object and draw free-body diagrams representing the forces acting. Determine the resultant force in different situations. Teachers notes The weight of a body is the gravitational force experienced by that body.
2.2.3
Each force should be labelled by name or given a commonly accepted symbol. Vectors should have lengths approximately proportional to their magnitudes. See sub-topic 1.3. The resultant force is the overall force acting on an object when all individual forces have been added together.
2.2.4
State Newtons first law of motion.
2.2.5 2.2.6
Describe examples of Newtons first law. State the condition for translational equilibrium.
An object continues in uniform motion in a straight line or at rest unless a resultant external force acts. All it says is that a resultant force causes acceleration. If the resultant force on an object is zero then it is said to be in 9
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IB Session May 2012 translational equilibrium. A correct statement of Newtons second law using momentum would be the resultant force is proportional to the rate of change of momentum. The resultant force is proportional to the acceleration. The resultant force is equal to the product of the mass and the acceleration. If a mass of 3kg is accelerated in a straight line by a resultant force of 12N then the acceleration must be 4m s-2 since F=ma. Linear momentum is defined as the product of mass and velocity. It is a vector. The change or momentum is called the impulse.
2.2.7 2.2.8
Solve problems involving translational equilibrium. State Newtons second law of motion.
2.2.9
Solve problems involving Newtons second law.
2.2.10 Define linear momentum and impulse. 2.2.11 Determine the impulse due to a time-varying force by interpreting a forcetime graph.
2.2.12 State the law of conservation of linear momentum. 2.2.13 Solve problems involving momentum and impulse. 2.2.14 State Newtons third law of motion. 2.2.15 Discuss examples of Newtons third law.
The total linear momentum of a system is of interacting particles remains constant provided there is no resultant external force. When two bodies A and B interact, the force that A exerts on B is equal and opposite to the force that B exerts on A.
Students should understand that when two bodies A and B interact, the force that A exerts on B is equal and opposite to the force that B exerts on A.
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2.3 Work, energy and power

2.3.1 Assessment statement Outline what is meant by work. Teachers notes Students should be familiar with situations where the displacement is not in the same direction as the force. Work is done when a force moves its point of application in the direction of the force. If the force moves to right angles to the direction of the force, then no work has been done. = It is a scalar quantity. The total work done is the area under the force-displacement graph.
2.3.2
Determine the work done A typical example would be by a non-constant force by calculating the work done in interpreting a force extending a spring. See 2.3.7. displacement graph.
2.3.3 2.3.4 2.3.5 2.3.6
Solve problems involving the work done by a force. Outline what is meant by kinetic energy. Outline what is meant by change in gravitational potential energy. State the principle of conservation of energy.
The energy that an object has as a result of its motion.
2.3.7
List different forms of energy and describe examples of the transformation of energy from one form to another.
2.3.8
Distinguish between elastic and inelastic collisions.
Students should be familiar with elastic and inelastic collisions and explosions. Knowledge of the coefficient of restitution is not required.
2.3.9
Define power.
Overall the total energy of any closed system must be constant. Energy is neither created nor destroyed, it just changes form. There is not change in the total energy in the Universe. - Kinetic energy - Gravitational potential - Elastic potential energy - Electrostatic potential - Thermal energy - Electrical energy - Chemical energy - Nuclear energy - Internal energy - Radiant energy - Solar energy - Light energy A collision in which no mechanical energy is lost is called an elastic collision. Most collisions are inelastic because kinetic energy is transformed to other forms of energy. If you are asked whether a collision is elastic or inelastic, calculate the kinetic energy before and after the collision Power is defined as the rate at which energy is transferred. This 11
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IB Session May 2012 is the same as the rate at which work is done. We define efficiency as the ratio of useful energy to the total energy transferred. It is often expressed as a percentage.
2.3.10 Define and apply the concept of efficiency. 2.3.11 Solve problems involving momentum, work, energy and power.

2.4 Uniform circular motion

2.4.1 Assessment statement Draw a vector diagram to illustrate that the acceleration of a particle moving with constant speed in a circle is directed towards the centre of the circle. Apply the expression for centripetal acceleration. Teachers notes
The acceleration of a particle travelling in circular motion is called the centripetal acceleration. The force needed to cause the centripetal acceleration is called the centripetal force. The acceleration of any object moving at constant speed in a circle is given by: ! = The centripetal acceleration is required for an object to move in a circle at constant speed. Centripetal force: = =
!! ! !
2.4.2
2.4.3
Identify the force producing circular motion in various situations.
Examples include gravitational force acting on the Moon and friction acting sideways on the tyres of a car turning a corner.
2.4.4
Solve problems involving circular motion.
Problems on banked motion (aircraft and vehicles going round banked tracks) will not be included.
(Ball at the end of a string, swung vertically) Example: A car of mass 1500kg is travelling at constant speed of 20ms-1 around a circular track of radius 50m. The resultant force 12
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IB Session May 2012 that must be acting on it works out to be: 1500 20 ! = = 12000 50 The centripetal force does not do any work.
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3.1 Thermal concepts

3.1.1 Assessment statement State that temperature determines the direction of thermal energy transfer between two objects. Teachers notes Students should be familiar with the concept of thermal equilibrium. Hot and cold are just labels that identify the direction in which thermal energy will be naturally transferred when two objects are placed in thermal contact. Thermal energy naturally flows from hot to cold. Eventually, two objects would be expected to reach the same temperature thermal equilibrium. The molecules have kinetic energy because they are moving. To be absolutely precise, a molecule can have either translational kinetic energy (the whole molecule is moving in a certain direction) or rotational kinetic energy (the molecule is rotating about one or more axes). The molecules have potential energy because of the intermolecular forces. If we imagine pulling two molecules further apart, this would require work against intermolecular forces. The macroscopic point of view considers the system as a whole and sees how it interacts with its surroundings. The microscopic point of view looks inside the system to see how its component parts interact with each other.
3.1.2 3.1.3
State the relation between the Kelvin and Celsius scales of temperature. State that the internal energy of a substance is the total potential energy and random kinetic energy of the molecules of the substance.
T/K = t/C + 273 is sufficient. Students should know that the kinetic energy of the molecules arises from their random/translational/ rotational motion and that the potential energy of the molecules arises from the forces between the molecules.
3.1.4
Explain and distinguish between the macroscopic concepts of temperature, internal energy and thermal energy (heat).
3.1.5
Define the mole and molar mass.
Students should understand that the term thermal energy refers to the non-mechanical transfer of energy between a system and its surroundings. In this respect it is just as incorrect to refer to the thermal energy in a body as it would be to refer to the work in a body.
3.1.6
Define the Avogadro constant.
Mole: the mole is the basic SI unit for amount of substance. One mole of any substance is equal to the amount of that substance that contains the same number of atoms as 0.012kg of carbon-12. Molar Mass: The mass of one mole of a substance is called the molar mass. A simple rule applies. If an element has a certain mass number, A, then the molar mass will be A grams. The number of atoms in 0.012kg or carbon-12 (6.02x1023)

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3.2 Thermal properties of matter

3.2.1 Assessment statement Define specific heat capacity and thermal capacity. Teachers notes Thermal capacity: The energy required to raise the temperature of an object by 1K. (C) Specific heat capacity: The energy required to raise a unit mass of a substance by 1K. (c) e.g. When a car brakes, an amount of thermal energy equal to 112500J is generated in the brake drums. If the mass of the brake drums is 28kg and their specific heat capacity is 460.5J kg-1 K-1, what is the change in their temperature? From = we find: 112500 = = = 8.7 28 460.5 e.g. A piece of iron of mass 200g and temperature 300C is dropped into 1.00kg of water of temperature 20C. What will be the eventual temperature of the water? (Take c for iron as 470 and for water as 4200) Let T be the final unknown temperature. The iron will also be at this temperature, so Amount of thermal energy lost by the iron = ! ! (300 ) and the amount of thermal energy gained by the water = ! ! ( 20) Conservation of energy demands that thermal energy lost = thermal energy gained: ! ! ( 20) = ! ! (300 ) T=26C Note how the large specific heat capacity of water leads to a small increase in the temperature of water compared with the huge drop in the temperature of iron. A solid is made up of particles that are arranged in a solid 3D shape. There is a strong force of attraction between the particles. If the solid was to be heated the particles would gain more energy and start to vibrate more vigorously.
3.2.2
Solve problems involving specific heat capacities and thermal capacities.
3.2.3
Explain the physical differences between the solid, liquid and gaseous phases in terms of molecular structure and particle motion.
Only a simple model is required.
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In a liquid the particles are free to move around. A liquid will mould itself to the shape of the container it is in. There is still a force of attraction between the particles.
In a gas the particles are free to move around. The particles have a lot of energy so they move quickly. Collisions between the molecules and the sides of the container are responsible for the pressure a gas exerts. There is almost no force of attraction between the molecules in a gas.
3.2.4
Describe and explain the process of phase changes in terms of molecular behaviour.
Students should be familiar with the terms melting, freezing, evaporating, boiling and condensing, and should be able to describe each in terms of the changes in molecular potential and random kinetic energies of molecules.
Kinetic theory can be used to explain what happens when a substance is heated. To change from a solid to a liquid the particles must gain sufficient kinetic energy to overcome the forces between them and break away from their fixed positions. While the substance changes state its temperature does not change. Once the phase change has been completed the particles begin to gain more kinetic energy and the temperature of the substance increases again. As the boiling point is reached the particles gain enough kinetic energy to completely overcome the intermolecular forces and escape into the gaseous state.
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3.2.5
3.2.6
Explain in terms of molecular behaviour why temperature does not change during a phase change. Distinguish between evaporation and boiling.
The input energy is used to break or create bonds and so the energy is not turned into kinetic energy of the particles. Evaporation is the change of state from liquid to gas that occurs below the boiling point of that liquid. In a liquid, a small amount of the molecules have enough kinetic energy to leave the surface of the liquid and become a gas. As the high- energy molecules leave the liquid, the temperature of the remaining liquid falls. Rate of evaporation depends on: - The surface area of the liquid. As molecules leave from the surface of the liquid only, a bigger surface area will mean a greater rate of evaporation. - The temperature of the liquid. If the liquid is warmer then more molecules will have sufficient kinetic energy to escape. - The pressure of the air above the liquid. If the pressure is higher more kinetic energy will be required. - The movement of air. If there is a drought across the liquid the rate of evaporation will increase. Boiling occurs when the whole liquid is heated to its boiling point. All the molecules have sufficient kinetic energy to turn into a gas. The thermal energy required to melt a unit mass of material at its melting point is called the specific latent heat of fusion and the termal energy required to vaporize a unit mass at its boiling point is called the specific latent heat of vaporization. Thus to melt or vaporize a mass m, we require a quantitiy of thermal energy = ! = ! respectively. The units are J kg-1. e.g. An ice cube of mass 25g and temperature -10C is dropped into a glass of water of mass 300g and temperature 20C. What is the 17
3.2.7
Define specific latent heat.
3.2.8
Solve problems involving specific latent heats.
Problems may include specific heat calculations.
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3.2.9
Define pressure.
3.2.10 State the assumptions of the kinetic model of an ideal gas.
temperature eventually? (c=2200, L=334) Let this final temperature be T. Ignoring thermal energy lost by the glass itself, water will cool down by losing thermal energy. This thermal energy will be taken up by the ice to increase its temperature from -10C to 0C (thermal energy required 25*10-3*2200*10), melt the ice cube into water at 0C (thermal energy required 25*10-3*334*103) and increase the temperature of the former ice cube from 0C to the final temperature T. Thus, 0.3 4200 20 = 25 10!! 2200 10 + 25 10!! 334 10! + 20 10!! 4200 T Solving for T gives T=11.9C. e.g. Thermal energy is provided at a constant rate of 833J s-1 to 1kg of copper at the melting temperature. If it takes 4 minutes to completely melt the copper, find the latent heat of fusion of copper. The thermal energy needed to melt 1kg of copper is L, the specific latent heat of fusion. In 4 minutes the heat supplied is 833*60*4=200kJ, as m=1kg, L=200kJ kg-1. Pressure is the normal force per unit area. The pressure in a gas results from the collision of the gas molecules with the walls of its container (not from collisions between molecules) Kinetic theory uses the model of small particles bouncing around to describe the properties of gases and matter. Assumptions: - Matter consists of large numbers of tiny particles - Particles are in constant motion moving in straight lines and thus have kinetic energy - All collisions between particles and the sides of the container are elastic - There are no forces of attraction or repulsion between the particles - The average kinetic energy per particle is proportional to the Kelvin temperature of the gas - Molecules move with a range of speeds 18
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3.2.11 State that temperature is a measure of the average random kinetic energy of the molecules of an ideal gas. 3.2.12 Explain the macroscopic behaviour of an ideal gas in terms of a molecular model.
- The volume of the molecules is negligible compared with the volume of the gas itself - Molecules exert no forces on each other or the container except when in contact - The duration of collisions is very small compared with the time between collisions - The molecules obey Newtons laws of mechanics Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy per particle of an ideal gas.
Only qualitative explanations Pressure law: Macroscopically, at a are required. Students constant volume the pressure of a should, for example, be able gas is proportional to its to explain how a change in temperature. Microscopically this volume results in a change in can be analysed as follows: the frequency of particle - If the temperature of a gas goes up, collisions with the container the molecules have more average and how this relates to a kinetic energy they are moving change in pressure and/or faster on average temperature. - Fast moving molecules will have a greater change of momentum when they hit the walls of the container - Thus the microscopic force from each molecule will be greater - The molecules are moving faster so they hit the walls more often - For both reasons, the total force on the wall goes up, thus the pressure increases. Charless law: Macroscopically, at a constant pressure, the volume of a gas is proportional to its temperature in Kelvin. This can be analysed as follows: - A higher temperature means faster moving molecules - Faster moving molecules hit the walls with a greater microscopic force - If the volume of the gas increases, then the rate at which these collisions take place on a unit area of the wall must go down - The average force on a unit area of the wall can thus be the same - Thus the pressure remains the same Boyles law: Macroscopically, at a constant temperature, the pressure of a gas is inversely proportional to its volume. This can be analysed as follows: - The constant temperature of a gas 19
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means that the molecules have a constant average speed - The microscopic fore that each molecule exerts on the wall will remain constant - Increasing the volume of the container decreases the rate with which the molecules hit the wall average total force decreases - If the average total force decreases the pressure decreases
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4.1 Kinematics of simple harmonic motion (SHM)

4.1.1 Assessment statement Describe examples of oscillations. Define the terms displacement, amplitude, frequency, period and phase difference. Teachers notes An example of a SHM would be a mass oscillating between two springs or a pendulum for small angles of osciallation. Displacement: The instantaneous distance of the moving object from its mean position. Amplitude: The maximum displacement from the mean position. Frequency: The number of oscillations completed per unit time The SI measurement is the number of cycles per second or Hertz. Period: the time taken for one complete oscillation. Phase difference: This is a measure of how in step different particles are. If moving together they are in phase. It is measured in either degrees or radians. A phase difference of 90 is a quarter out of cycle. Simple harmonic motion is defined as the motion that takes place when the acceleration of the object is always directed towards, and is proportional to, its displacement from a fixed point. This acceleration is caused by a restoring force that must always be pointed towards the mean position and also proportional to the displacement from the mean position. The constant of proportionality between acceleration and displacement is often identified as the square of a constant w which is referred o as the angular frequency. a = w2x
4.1.2
The connection between frequency and period should be known.
4.1.3
Define simple harmonic motion (SHM) and state the defining equation as a = w2x .
Students are expected to understand the significance of the negative sign in the equation and to recall the connection between w and T.
4.1.4 4.1.5
Solve problems using the defining equation for SHM. Apply the equations
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IB Session May 2012
4.1.6

4.2 Energy changes during simple harmonic motion (SHM)

4.2.1 Assessment statement Teachers notes Describe the interchange between kinetic energy and potential energy during SHM. In a SHM the total energy is interchanged between kinetic and potential energy. If no resistive force acts on the motion the total energy is constant and is said to be undamped. Potential energy increases as we move away from the equilibrium position and kinetic energy decreases. EP can be expressed as a sine curve, EK as a cosine curve.
4.2.2
4.2.3
Apply the expressions for the kinetic energy of a particle undergoing SHM, for the total energy and for the potential energy. Solve problems, both graphically and by calculation, involving energy changes during SHM.
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4.3 Forced oscillations and resonance

4.3.1 Assessment statement State what is meant by damping. Teachers notes It is sufficient for students to know that damping involves a force that is always in the opposite direction to the direction of motion of the oscillating particle and that the force is a dissipative force. Reference should be made to the degree of damping and the importance of critical damping. A detailed account of degrees of damping is not required. Damping is a force that is always in the opposite direction of the motion of the oscillating particle and the force is dissipative.
4.3.2
Describe examples of damped oscillations.
4.3.3
State what is meant by natural frequency of vibration and forced oscillations.
This happens on cars in their suspensions, when it vibrates the damper tries to reduce the number of oscillations, to reduce the possible effects. On a piano the pedals reduce the oscillations of the springs of the piano. One pedal reduces the damping and one cuts the oscillations completely. The natural frequency is the frequency that an object will oscillate at if it is moved from its equilibrium position and then released. Objects can also be made to oscillate by an external force, which is known as forced oscillation.
4.3.4
4.3.5
Describe graphically the variation with forced frequency of the amplitude of vibration of an object close to its natural frequency of vibration. State what is meant by resonance.
Students should be able to describe qualitatively factors that affect the frequency response and sharpness of the curve. Resonance occurs when a system is subject to an oscillating force at exactly the same frequency as the natural frequency of oscillation of the system. Musical instruments: Many musical instruments produce their sounds by arranging for column of air or a string to be driven at its natural frequency which causes the amplitude of the oscillation to increase. Vibrations in machinery: When in operation, the moving parts of machinery provide regular driving forces on the other sections of the machinery. If the driving frequency is equal to the natural frequency, the amplitude of a particular vibration may get dangerously high. E.g. at a particular engine speed a trucks rear view mirror can be seen to vibrate.
4.3.6
Describe examples of resonance where the effect is useful and where it should be avoided.
Examples may include quartz oscillators, microwave generators and vibrations in machinery.

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4.4 Wave characteristics

4.4.1 Assessment statement Describe a wave pulse and a continuous progressive (travelling) wave. Teachers notes Students should be able to distinguish between oscillations and wave motion, and appreciate that, in many examples, the oscillations of the particles are simple harmonic. Students should understand that there is no net motion of the medium through which the wave travels. A continuous wave involves a succession of individual oscillations. A wave pulse involves just one oscillation.
4.4.2
State that progressive (travelling) waves transfer energy.
4.4.3
Describe and give examples of transverse and of longitudinal waves.
4.4.4
4.4.5
Describe waves in two dimensions, including the concepts of wavefronts and of rays. Describe the terms crest, trough, compression and rarefaction.
Students should describe the waves in terms of the direction of oscillation of particles in the wave relative to the direction of transfer of energy by the wave. Students should know that sound waves are longitudinal, that light waves are transverse and that transverse waves cannot be propagated in gases.
Light, sound and ripples on the surface of a pond are all examples of wave motion. They all transfer energy from one place to another, they do so without a net motion of the medium through which they travel and they all involve oscillations of one sort or another. The oscillations are SHM. Transverse waves: Oscillations are at right angles to the direction of energy transfer. E.g. water ripples, light wave Longitudinal waves: Oscillations are parallel to the direction of energy transfer. E.g. sound waves, compression waves down a spring. Wave fronts highlight the parts of the wave that are moving together. Rays highlight the direction of energy transfer. The top of the wave is known as the crest, whereas the bottom of the wave is known as the trough. A point on the wave where everything is bunched together (high pressure) is known as compression. A point where everything is far apart (low pressure) is known as a rarefaction. Displacement: This measures the change that has taken place that has taken place as a result of a wave passing a particular point. Zero displacement refers to the mean position. Amplitude: This is the maximum displacement from the mean position. If the wave does not lose any of its energy its amplitude is constant. Frequency: This is the number of oscillations that take place in one second. The unit used is Hertz. Period: This is the time taken for 24
4.4.6
Define the terms displacement, amplitude, frequency, period, wavelength, wave speed and intensity.
Students should know that intensity is proportional to amplitude2.
Marc W.
IB Session May 2012 one complete oscillation. It is the time taken for one complete wave to pass any given point. Wavelength: This is the shortest distance along the wave between two points that are in phase with one another. For example, the distance from one crest to the next crest on a water ripple. Wave Speed: This is the speed at which the wave fronts pass a stationary observer. Intensity: The intensity of a wave is the power per unit area that is received by the observer. The intensity of a wave is proportional to the square of its amplitude: ! Displacement-time: Represents the oscillation for one point on the wave. All the other points on the wave will oscillate in a similar manner, but they will not start their oscillation at exactly the same time. Displacement-position: Represents a snap shot of all the points along the wave at one instant of time At a later time, the wave will have moved on but it will retain the same shape. The graphs can be used to represent longitudinal and transverse waves because the y- axis records only the value of the displacement. It does not specify the direction of this displacement. There is a simple relationship that links wave speed, wavelength and frequency. It applies to all waves. The time taken for one complete oscillation is the period of the wave, T. In this time, the wave pattern will have moved on by one wavelength. This means that the speed of the wave must be given by: = = ! since = ! =
4.4.7
Draw and explain displacementtime graphs and displacement position graphs for transverse and for longitudinal waves.
4.4.8
Derive and apply the relationship between wave speed, wavelength and frequency.
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Marc W. 4.4.9 State that all electromagnetic waves travel with the same speed in free space, and recall the orders of magnitude of the wavelengths of the principal radiations in the electromagnetic spectrum.
IB Session May 2012

4.5 Wave properties

4.5.1 Assessment statement Describe the reflection and transmission of waves at a boundary between two media. Teachers notes This should include the sketching of incident, reflected and transmitted waves. In general, when any wave meets the boundary between two different media it is partially reflected and partially transmitted.
4.5.2
State and apply Snells law.
4.5.3
Explain and discuss qualitatively the diffraction of waves at apertures and obstacles.
Reflection: in this case the law of refraction applies: incident angle = reflected angle when measured from the normal. Refraction: in this case the wave is refracted towards the normal (when slowing down) and away from the normal (when getting faster) Students should be able Snells law (an experimental law of refraction) to define refractive states that the ratio sin index in terms of the = ratio of the speeds of the sin () wave in the two media for a given frequency. The ratio is equal to the and also in terms of the ratio of the speeds in the different media angles of incidence and sin ! = refraction. sin () ! The effect of wavelength When waves pass through apertures they compared to aperture or tend to spread out. Waves also spread around obstacle dimensions obstacles. This is known as diffraction. should be discussed. Diffraction becomes relatively more important when the wavelength is large in comparison to the size of the object. The wavelength needs to be of the same order of magnitude as the aperture for diffraction to be 26
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4.5.4
Describe examples of diffraction.
4.5.5
State the principle of superposition and explain what is meant by constructive interference and by destructive interference.
4.5.6
4.5.7
State and apply the conditions for constructive and for destructive interference in terms of path difference and phase difference. Apply the principle of superposition to determine the
E.g. ocean waves diffract through the harbour opening and spread out, closely spaced tracks on a CD or DVD create the rainbow pattern because light is diffracted. Diffraction provides the reason why we can hear something even if we cannot see it. Superposition: When two waves of the same type meet, they interfere and we can work out the resulting wave using the principle of superposition. The overall disturbance at any point and at any time where the waves meet is the vector sum of the disturbances that would have been produced by each f the individual waves. Constructive interference: Takes place when the two waves are in phase. There is zero phase difference between them. Destructive interference: Takes place when the two waves are exactly out of phase. See above. Constructive interference occurs when two waves are exactly in phase, which means that the path difference is zero. Destructive interference occurs when two waves are out of phase.
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5.1 Electric potential difference, current and resistance

5.1.1 Assessment statement Define electric potential difference. Teachers notes Electric potential difference is defined as the energy difference per unit charge in an electric field. Electric potential energy: The energy that a charge has as a result of its position in an electric field. To move a charge in an electric field, work must be done. The change in electric potential energy (work done) is the potential difference.
5.1.2
Determine the change in potential energy when a charge moves between two points at different potentials.
5.1.3
Define the electronvolt.
5.1.4
Solve problems involving electric potential difference.
5.1.5
Define electric current.
5.1.6
Define resistance.
When a charge moves from A to B it gains electrical potential energy. Work must be done to move the charge. Change in p.d. = Force X distance = F x d = Eq x d where E is the electric field strength The electronvolt is the energy that would be gained by an electron moving through a potential difference of 1 volt. e.g. Calculate the speed of an electron accelerated in a vacuum by a p.d. of 1000V. KE of electron = V x e = 1000 x 1.6 x 10-19 = 1.6 x 10-16J 0.5mv2=1.6 x 10-16J v=1.87x107 m/s It is sufficient for students to Current is defined as the rate of know that current is defined in flow of electrical charge. If a terms of the force per unit current flows in just one direction length between parallel it is known as direct current. A current-carrying conductors. current that constantly changes direction is known as an alternating current. Current flows through an object when there is a potential difference across the object. Students should be aware that Resistance is the mathematical R = V/I is a general definition of ratio between potential difference 29
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IB Session May 2012 and current. If something has a high resistance, it means that you would need a large potential difference across it in order to get a current to flow. We define a new unit, the ohm, to be equal to one volt per amp. A device with constant resistance (in other words an ohmic device) is called a resistor) = The resistance of a wire (at constant T) depends upon its length, the cross sectional area and its resistivity. The resistivity of a material tells us how well a material conducts. Ohms law states that the current flowing through a piece of metal is proportional to the potential difference across it providing the temperature remains constant.
5.1.7
Apply the equation for resistance.
5.1.8
State Ohms law.
5.1.9
Compare ohmic and non- ohmic behaviour.
For example, students should be able to draw the IV characteristics of an ohmic resistor and a filament lamp.
5.1.10 Derive and apply expressions for electrical power dissipation in resistors.
5.1.11 Solve problems involving potential difference, current and resistance.
If current and p.d. difference are proportional the device is said to be ohmic. Devices where current and p.d. are not proportional (filament lamp, diode) are said to be non-ohmic. Since potential difference: And current: Multiplying current x p.d.: This energy difference per time is the power dissipated by the resistor, All this energy is going into heating up the resistor. P = V x I(P = I2 x R) e.g. A 1.2 kW electric kettle is plugged into the 250V mains supply. Calculate the current drawn and its resistance. I = 1200 / 250 = 4.8 A R = 250 / 4.8 = 52 Ohm

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5.2 Electric circuits

5.2.1 Assessment statement Define electromotive force (e.m.f.). Teachers notes The total energy difference per unit charge is called the electromotive force (e.m.f.). However, it is not a force but an energy difference per charge measured in volts. In practical terms, e.m.f. is exactly the same as potential difference if no current flows. When a battery supplies a current to an external circuit it gets warm. This is due to the battery having a small internal resistance.
5.2.2
Describe the concept of internal resistance.
The e.m.f. of the supply is the sum of the potential dropped across the internal resistor and the external resistor. e.m.f. = Ir + IR When a 6V battery is connected in a circuit some energy will be used up inside the battery itself. In other words, the battery has some internal resistance. The total energy difference per unit charge around the circuit is still 6V, but some of this energy is used up inside the battery. The energy difference per unit charge from one terminal to the other is less than the total made available by the chemical reaction in the battery. 5.2.3 Apply the equations for This includes combinations resistors in series and in of resistors and also parallel. complete circuits involving internal resistance.
Resistors in series: Rt = R1 + R2 +
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5.2.4
Draw circuit diagrams.
Students should be able to recognize and use the accepted circuit symbols.
Resistors in parallel: 1 1 1 = + + ! ! !
5.2.5
Describe the use of ideal ammeters and ideal voltmeters.
5.2.6
Describe a potential divider.
5.2.7
Explain the use of sensors in potential divider circuits.
Sensors should include light- dependent resistors (LDRs), negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistors and strain gauges.
A current measuring meter is called an ammeter. It should be connected in series at the point where the current needs to be measured. A perfect ammeter would have zero resistance. This means that no potential difference is dropped across them. A meter that measures potential difference is called a voltmeter. It should be placed in parallel with the component or components being considered. A perfect voltmeter has infinite resistance. Two resistors divide up the potential difference of the battery. You can calculate the share taken by one resistor using from the ratio of the resistances but this approach does not work unless the voltmeters resistance also is considered. A variable potential divider is often the best way to produce a variable power supply. When designing the potential divider, the smallest resistor that is going to be connected needs to be taken into account: the potentiometers resistance should be significantly smaller. A light dependent resistor (LDR) is a device whose resistance depends on the amount of light shining on its surface. An increase in light causes a decrease in resistance. A thermistor is a resistor whose value of resistance depends on its temperature. Most are semi- conducting devices that have a negative temperature coefficient (NTC). This means that an increase in temperature causes a decrease in resistance. Both of these devices can be used in potential divider circuits to create sensor circuits. The output potential difference of a sensor circuit depends on an external factor. Another possible sensor is a strain gauge whose output voltage depends 32
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5.2.8
Solve problems involving electric circuits.
Students should appreciate that many circuit problems may be solved by regarding the circuit as a potential divider. Students should be aware that ammeters and voltmeters have their own resistance.
on a small extension or compression that occurs which results in a change of length.
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6.1 Gravitational force and field

6.1.1 Assessment statement State Newtons universal law of gravitation. Teachers notes Students should be aware that the masses in the force law are point masses. The force between two spherical masses whose separation is large compared to their radii is the same as if the two spheres were point masses with their masses concentrated at the centres of the spheres. It is called universal gravitation because at the core of this theory is the statemtn that every mass in the Universe attracts all other masses. The value of the attraction between two point masses is given by an equation: ! ! = ! Important: - the law only deals with point masses - the masses in the equation are gravitational masses, not inertial masses - there is a force acting on each of the masses, these forces are equal and opposite - the forces are always attractive - the forces only become significant if one or both objects involved are massive - the interaction between spherical masses turns out to be the same as if the masses were concentrated at the centres of the spheres The gravitational field is defined as the force per unit mass. Gravitational field strength is the force per unit mass on a particle in a gravitational field. Field strengths are vectors and therefore the gravitational field due to one or more point masses can be found by vector addition. The gravitational field strength at the surface of a planet must be the same as the acceleration due to gravity on the surface. Field strength is defined to be !"#$% = ( = ) !"## ! ! = ! = Combining this gives: = ! For the earth: M = 6.0 x 1024kg r = 6.4 x 106m 6.67 10!!! 6.0 10!" = 6.4 10! ! = 9.8 !!
6.1.2
Define gravitational field strength.
6.1.3
Determine the gravitational field due to one or more point masses.
6.1.4
Derive an expression for gravitational field strength at the surface of a planet, assuming that all its mass is concentrated at its centre.
6.1.5
Solve problems involving gravitational forces and
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6.2 Electric force and field

6.2.1 Assessment statement State that there are two types of electric charge. Teachers notes Two types of charge exist positive and negative. Equal amounts of positive and negative charge cancel each other. Matter that contains not charge , or matter that contains equal amounts of positive and negative charge, is said to be electrically neutral. A very important experimental observation is that charge is always conserved. Charged objects can be created by friction. In this process electrons are physically moved from one object to another - in order for the charge to remain on the object, it normally needs to be an insulator. Charge can be added or removed from an object but it cannot be destroyed. The quantity of electric charge is always conserved. A material that allows the flow of charge through it is called an electrical conductor. If charge cannot flow through a material it is called an electrical insulator. In solid conductors the flow of charge is always as a result of the flow of electrons from atom to atom. Coulombs law is used to calculate the force of attraction or repulsion between two point charges. ! ! = ! This can also be stated as: ! ! = 4! ! Where ! is the permittivity of free space. If there are two or more charges near another charge, the overall force can be worked out using vector addition. Electric field strength is defined as the force experienced per coulomb by a small test charge in an electric field. 35
6.2.2
State and apply the law of conservation of charge.
6.2.3
Describe and explain the difference in the electrical properties of conductors and insulators.
6.2.4
State Coulombs law.
Students should be aware that the charges in the force law are point charges.
6.2.5
Define electric field strength.
Students should understand the concept of a test charge.
Marc W.
IB Session May 2012 ! Field strengths are vectors and therefore the electric field due to one or more point charges can be found by vector addition. =
6.2.6
Determine the electric field strength due to one or more point charges. Draw the electric field patterns for different charge configurations.
6.2.7
These include the fields due to the following charge configurations: a point charge, a charged sphere, two point charges, and oppositely charged parallel plates. The latter includes the edge effect. Students should understand what is meant by radial field.
In a radial field the field lines diverge radially outward from a point source or converge radially inwards towards a point source.
6.2.8
Solve problems involving electric charges, forces and fields.

6.3 Magnetic force and field

6.3.1 6.3.2 Assessment statement State that moving charges give rise to magnetic fields. Draw magnetic field patterns due to currents. Teachers notes These include the fields due to currents in a straight wire, a flat circular coil and a solenoid. An electric current can cause a magnetic field.
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6.3.3
Determine the direction of the force on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field.
Different rules may be used to determine the force direction. Knowledge of any particular rule is not required.
When a current carrying wire is placed between the poles of a magnet it experiences a force. This causes the wire to move.
The direction in which the wire will move can be predicted using Flemings Left Hand rule:
6.3.4
Determine the direction of the force on a charge moving in a magnetic field.
A single charge moving through a magnetic field also feels a force in exactly the same way that a current feels a force. In this case, the force is proportional to: -the magnitude of the magnetic field B -the magnitude of the charge q -the velocity of the charge v -the sine of the angle between the velocity and the field = Since the force on a moving charge is always at right angles to the velocity of the charge the resultant motion can be circular. 37
Marc W. 6.3.5 Define the magnitude and direction of a magnetic field.
IB Session May 2012
6.3.6
Solve problems involving magnetic forces, fields and currents.
The magnetic field strength, B, is defined as follows: = A new unit, the tesla, is introduced. 1T is equal to 1NA-1m-1. The direction that the North pole of a small test compass would point if placed in the field (N to S)
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7.1 The atom

7.1.1 Assessment statement Describe a model of the atom that features a small nucleus surrounded by electrons. Teachers notes Students should be able to describe a simple model involving electrons kept in orbit around the nucleus as a result of the electrostatic attraction between the electrons and the nucleus. The atomic (nuclear) model describes a very small central nucleus surrounded by electrons arranged in different energy levels. The nucleus itself contains protons and neutrons (collectively called nucleons). All of the positive charge and almost all the mass of the atom is in the nucleus. Overall an atom is neutral. The vast majority of the volume is noting at all a vacuum. One of the most convincing pieces of evidence for the nuclear model comes from the Geiger-Marsden experiment. Positive alpha particles were fired at a thin gold leaf. The relative size and velocity of the particles meant that most of them were expected to travel straight through he gold leaf. The idea was to see if there was any detectable structure within the gold atoms. The amazing discovery was that some of the alpha particles were deflected through huge angles.
7.1.2
Outline the evidence that supports a nuclear model of the atom.
A qualitative description of the GeigerMarsden experiment and an interpretation of the results are all that is required.
They were surprised that some of the alpha particles were deflected as they passed through the gold. From this they deduced that the atom was made up of a small positively charged nucleus surrounded by space.
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7.1.3
7.1.4
7.1.5
7.1.6
Evidence for electron energy levels comes from emission and absorption spectra. The existence of isotopes provides evidence for neutrons. Outline one limitation The problem with this theory was that of the simple model of accelerating charges are known to lose the nuclear atom. energy. If the orbiting electrons were to lose energy they would spiral into the nucleus. Also, this model does not explain the emission and absorption spectrum. The model does not account for how the protons and neutrons stay together in the nucleus. Outline evidence for Students should be Evidence for electron energy levels comes the existence of familiar with emission and from emission and absorption spectra. atomic energy levels. absorption spectra, but An energy level of 0 corresponds to the the details of atomic electron escaping from the atom. Electrons models are not required. attached to an atom have negative energy Students should levels. understand that light is not a continuous wave but is emitted as packets or photons of energy, each of energy hf. Explain the terms Nuclide: The name given to a particular nuclide, isotope and species of atom (one whose nucleus nucleon. contains a specified number of protons and a specified number of neutrons) Isotope: Elements that contain the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons. Nucleon: Protons and neutrons are collectively called nucleons. Define nucleon A: Nucleon number Number of nucleons number A, proton (protons + neutrons) in the nucleus number Z and neutron Z: Proton number also called atomic number N. number, equal to number of protons in the nucleus N: Neutron number Number of neutrons in the nucleus N = A Z
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7.1.7
Describe the interactions in a nucleus.
Students need only know about the Coulomb interaction between protons and the strong, short-range nuclear interaction between nucleons.
The protons in a nucleus are all positive. Since like charges repel, they must be repelling one another all the time. This means there must be another force keeping the nucleus together. We know a few things about this force: - It must be strong - It must be very short-ranged as we do not observe this force anywhere other than inside the nucleus - It is likely to involve the neutrons as well The name given to this force is the strong nuclear force.

7.2 Radioactive decay

7.2.1 Assessment statement Describe the phenomenon of natural radioactive decay. Teachers notes The inclusion of the antineutrino in betadecay is required. Radioactive decay is a random process and is not affected by external influences. Some nuclei are more stable than others. When an unstable nucleus disintegrates to acquire a more stable state, radiations are emitted.
Beta Yes 102 per mm travelled A few mm aluminium Medium Less than one m Behaves like a negative charge About 108 m/s Gamma Yes 1 per mm travelled 10cm lead High Effectively infinite Not deflected Speed of light
7.2.2
Describe the properties of alpha and beta particles and gamma radiation.
Property Effect on photographic film Appropriate number of irons produced in air Typical material needed to absorb Penetration ability Typical path length in air Deflection by E and B fields speed
Alpha Yes 104 per mm travelled 10-2 mm aluminium, piece of paper Low A few cm Behaves like a positive charge About 107 m/s
7.2.3
Describe the ionizing properties of alpha and beta particles and gamma radiation.
7.2.4
Outline the biological effects of ionizing radiation.
Students should be familiar with the direct and indirect effects of radiation on structures within cells. A simple account of short-term
All three radiations are ionizing, which means that as they go through a substance, collisions occur which cause electrons to be removed from atoms. Atoms that have lost or gained electrons are called ions. When ionisations occur in biologically important molecules, such as DNA, mutations can occur. At the molecular level, an ionisation could cause damage directly to a biologically important molecule such as DNA. This could cause it to cease functioning. Molecular damage can 41
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7.2.5
Explain why some nuclei are stable while others are unstable.
An explanation in terms of relative numbers of protons and neutrons and the forces involved is all that is required.
7.2.6
State that radioactive decay is a random and spontaneous process and that the rate of decay decreases exponentially with time.
7.2.7
Define the term radioactive half-life.
Exponential decay need not be treated analytically. It is sufficient to know that any quantity that reduces to half its initial value in a constant time decays exponentially. The nature of the decay is independent of the initial amount.
result in a disruption to the functions that are taking place within the cells that make up the organism. As well as potentially causing the cell to die, this could just prevent cells from dividing and multiplying. If malignant cells continue to grow then this is called cancer. The stability of a particular nuclide depends greatly on the numbers of neutrons present. - For small nuclei, the number of neutrons tends to equal the number of protons - For large nuclei there are more neutrons than protons - Nuclides above the band of stability have too many neutrons and will tend to decay with either alpha or beta decay. - Nuclides below the band of stability have too few neutrons and will tend to emit positrons. Radioactive decay is a random process and is not affected by external influences.
The time taken for the number (or mass) of radioactive nuclei present to fall to half its value. This length of time is constant at any point in time - showing that radioactive decay is exponential.
7.2.8
Determine the half-life of a nuclide from a decay curve.
7.2.9
Solve radioactive decay problems involving integral numbers of half- lives.

7.3 Nuclear reactions, fission and fusion

7.3.1 Assessment statement Describe and give an example of an artificial Teachers notes Artificial transmutation is the process whereby a nucleus is 42
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IB Session May 2012 artificially made from another nucleus. It is different from regular radioactivity in that the reaction is not spontaneous; it is made to happen. When nitrogen gas was bombarded by alpha-particles it was found that there were two products: oxygen gas and positively charged particles. !" ! !" ! ! + ! ! + !
7.3.2
Construct and complete nuclear equations.
7.3.3
Define the term unified atomic mass unit.
In order to compare atomic masses we often use unified
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7.3.4
7.3.5
7.3.6
mass units, u. These are defined in terms of the most common isotope of carbon, cabon-12. One unified mass unit is defined as exactly one twelfth the mass of a caron-12 atom. Essentially, the mass of a proton and the mass of a neutron are both 1u. Apply the Einstein mass Students must be familiar with If an object increases in energy, energy equivalence the units MeV c 2 and GeV c 2 then its mass also increases. The relationship. for mass. relationship between mass and energy is described by Einsteins famous equation: = ! When energy is released, there is also a decrease in mass of the products. In Einsteins equation, 1kg of mass is equivalent to 9x1016J of energy. Since mass and energy are equivalent it is sometimes useful to work in units that avoid having to do repeated multiplications by the speed of light. A new possible unit for mass is thus MeV c 2. If 1 MeV c 2 worth of mass is converted you get 1MeV worth of energy. Define the concepts of Mass defect: The difference mass defect, binding between the mass of a nucleus energy and binding energy and the masses of its component per nucleon. nucleons. Binding energy: The amount of energy that is released when a nucleus is assembled from its component nucleons. It comes from a decrease in mass. The binding energy would also be the energy that needs to be added in order to separate a nucleus into its individual nucleons. Binding energy per nucleon: A useful measure of the stability of a nucleus is its binding energy. This is the energy that needs to be supplied to remove a nucleon from the nucleus. Nuclides that have the largest binding energy per nucleon are therefore the most stable. The total binding energy divided by the total number of nucleons. Draw and annotate a Students should be familiar with binding energies plotted as graph showing the positive quantities. variation with nucleon number of the binding energy per nucleon.
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7.3.7 7.3.8
Solve problems involving mass defect and binding energy. Describe the processes of nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.
Nucleons in iron have the most binding energy, so they are the most stable. Nuclides therefore become more stable if they change in mass closer to that of the mass of iron. Therefore nuclides heavier than iron tend to break apart (fission) and nuclides lighter than iron tend to join (fuse) with other light nuclides. Fission: Fission is the name given to the nuclear reaction whereby large nuclei are induced to break up into smaller nuclei and release energy in the process. It is the reaction that is used in nuclear reactors and atomic bombs. A typical single reaction might involve bombarding a uranium nucleus with a neutron. This can cause the uranium nucleus to break up into two smaller nuclei. Fusion: Fusion is the name given to the nuclear reaction whereby small nuclei are induced to join together into larger nuclei and release energy in the process. It is the reaction that fuels all stars.
7.3.9
Apply the graph in 7.3.6 to account for the energy release in the processes of fission and fusion. 7.3.10 State that nuclear fusion is the main source of the Suns energy.
7.3.11 Solve problems involving fission and fusion reactions.
Fusion is the name given to the nuclear reaction whereby small nuclei are induced to join together into larger nuclei and release energy in the process. It is the reaction that fuels all stars.
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8.1 Energy degradation and power generation

8.1.1 Assessment statement State that thermal energy may be completely converted to work in a single process, but that continuous conversion of this energy into work requires a cyclical process and the transfer of some energy from the system. Teachers notes In principle, thermal energy can be completely converted to work in a single process, nut the continuous conversion of this energy into work implies the use of machines that are continuously repeating their actions in a fixed cycle. Any cyclical process must involve the transfer of some energy from the system to the surroundings that is no longer available to perform useful work. Students should understand Any cyclical process must involve that, in any process that the transfer of some energy from involves energy the system to the surroundings transformations, the energy that is no longer available to that is transferred to the perform useful work. This surroundings (thermal energy) unavailable energy is known as is no longer available to degraded energy, in accordance perform useful work. with the principle of the second law of thermodynamics. It is expected that students will be able to construct flow diagrams for various systems including those described in sub-topics 8.3 and 8.4.
8.1.2
Explain what is meant by degraded energy.
8.1.3
Construct and analyse energy flow diagrams (Sankey diagrams) and identify where the energy is degraded.
8.1.4
Outline the principal mechanisms involved in the production of electrical power.
Students should know that electrical energy may be produced by rotating coils in a magnetic field. In sub-topics 8.2 and 8.3 students look in more detail at energy sources used to provide the energy to rotate the coils.
In all electrical power stations the process is essentially the same. A fuel is used to release thermal energy. This thermal energy is used to boil water and to make steam, which is used to turn turbines and the motion of the turbines is used to generate electrical energy. Transformers alter the potential difference.

8.2 World energy sources

8.2.1 Assessment statement Identify different world energy sources. Teachers notes Students should be able to recognize those sources
Renewable Hydroelectric Photovoltaic Non-renewable Coal Oil
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Solar heaters Wind Biofuels
Natural gas Nuclear
8.2.2
Outline and distinguish between renewable and non-renewable energy sources. Define the energy density of a fuel.
8.2.3
Energy density is measured in J kg1.
Most of the energy used by humans can be traced back to energy radiated from the Sun, but not quite all of it. Possible sources are: - The Suns radiated energy - Gravitational energy of the Sun and the Moon - Nuclear energy stored within atoms - The Earths internal heat energy Renewable source of energy are those that cannot be used up, whereas non- renewable source of energy can be used up, cannot easily be replaced and will eventually run out. Energy density provides a useful comparison between fuels and is defined as the energy liberated per unit mass of fuel consumed.
=
8.2.4
Discuss how choice of fuel is influenced by its energy density. State the relative proportions of world use of the different energy sources that are available.
The values of energy density of different fuels will be provided. Only approximate values are needed.
Fuel choice can be particularly influenced by energy density when the fuel needs to be transported: the greater the mass of fuel that needs to be transported, the greater the cost.
8.2.5
8.2.6
Discuss the relative The discussion applies to all advantages and the sources identified in sub- disadvantages of various topics 8.2, 8.3 and 8.4. energy sources.
See sections below + common sense.

8.3 Fossil fuel power production

8.3.1 Assessment statement Outline the historical and geographical reasons for the widespread use of fossil fuels. Teachers notes Students should appreciate that industrialization led to a higher rate of energy usage, leading to industry being developed near to large deposits of fossil fuels. As the industrial revolution spread, the rate of energy usage greatly increased and industry tended to develop near to existing deposits of fossil fuels. Infrastructure was created to allow coal and other fossil fuels to be easily transported as the 47
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IB Session May 2012 higher rates of energy usage demanded the use of fuels with a high energy density. This encouraged the growth of industries near the raw materials.
8.3.2
8.3.3
Discuss the energy density of fossil fuels with respect to the demands of power stations. Discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages associated with the transportation and storage of fossil fuels.
Students should be able to estimate the rate of fuel consumption by power stations.
Advantages: - Very high energy density - Easy to transport - Still cheap compared to other sources - Can be built anywhere with good transportation links - Can be used directly at home to provide heating Disadvantages: - Combustion products can produce pollution, acid rain, contain greenhouse gases - Extraction of fossil fuels can damage the environment - Non-renewable
Fuel Coal Nt. gas Oil Typical E 35% 45% 38% Maximum E 42% 52% 45%
8.3.4
State the overall efficiency of power stations fuelled by different fossil fuels.
Only approximate values are required.

8.3.5
Describe the environmental problems associated with the recovery of fossil fuels and their use in power stations.
- Combustion products can produce pollution, acid rain, contain greenhouse gases - Extraction of fossil fuels can damage the environment - Non-renewable

8.4 Non-fossil fuel power production

8.4.1 Assessment statement Describe how neutrons produced in a fission reaction may be used to initiate further fission reactions (chain reaction). Teachers notes Students should know that only low-energy neutrons (~1 eV) favour nuclear fission. They should also know about critical mass. In each individual reaction, an incoming neutron causes a uranium nucleus to split apart. The fragments are moving fast. In other words the temperature is very high. Among the fragments are more neutrons. If these neutrons go on to initiate further reactions then a chain reaction is created. Critical mass: minimum mass for chain reaction to occur. The design of a nuclear reactor needs to ensure that, on average, only one neutron from each reaction goes on to initiate a further reaction. If more reactions took place then the number 48
8.4.2
Distinguish between controlled nuclear fission (power production) and uncontrolled nuclear
Students should be aware of the moral and ethical issues associated with nuclear weapons.
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8.4.3
Describe what is meant by fuel enrichment.
of reactions would run out of control. If fewer reaction took place, then the number of reactions would be decreasing and the fission process would soon stop. Naturally occurring uranium contains less than 1% of uranium- 235. Enrichment is the process by which this percentage composition is increased to make nuclear fission more likely (to about 3%).
8.4.4
Describe the main energy transformations that take place in a nuclear power station.
8.4.5
Discuss the role of the moderator and the control rods in the production of controlled fission in a thermal fission reactor.
8.4.6
Discuss the role of the heat exchanger in a fission reactor.
Water is heated by heat energy created through nuclear fission Energy is lost to surroundings Steam turns a turbine (heat to kinetic) Energy is lost (friction) Turbine powers a generator Energy is lost (friction, heat, sound) Energy is transformed into electrical energy Three important components in the design of all nuclear reactors are the moderator, the control rods and the heat exchanger: - Collisions between the neutrons and the nuclei of the moderator slow them down and allow further reactions to take place - The control rods are movable rods that readily absorb neutrons. They can be introduced or removed from the reaction chamber in order to control the chain reaction. The heat exchanger allows the nuclear reactions to occur in a place that is sealed off from the rest of the environment. The reactions increase the temperature in the core. This thermal energy is transferred to water and the steam that is produced turns the turbine. - - - - - - -
8.4.7
Describe how neutron capture by a nucleus of uranium-238 (238U) Plutonium-239 is also capable of sustaining fission reactions. This results in the nuclide is formed as a by-product of a conventional nuclear reactor. A production of a nucleus uranium-238 nucleus can capture fast moving neutrons to form 49
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8.4.8
8.4.9
Describe the importance of plutonium-239 (239Pu) as a nuclear fuel. Discuss safety issues and risks associated with the production of nuclear power.
8.4.10 Outline the problems associated with producing nuclear power using nuclear fusion.
8.4.11 Solve problems on the production of nuclear power. 8.4.12 Distinguish between a photovoltaic cell and a
uranium-239. This undergoes beta-decay to neptunium-239, which undergoes further beta-decay to plutonium-239. Reprocessing involves treating used fuel waste from nuclear reactors to recover uranium and plutonium and to deal with other waste products. A fast breeder reactor is one design that utilizes plutonium-239. It is sufficient for students to A fast breeder reactor is one design know that plutonium-239 that utilizes plutonium-239. It is (239Pu) is used as a fuel in capable of sustaining fission other types of reactors. reactions. Such issues involve: - If the control rods were all The possibility of thermal removed, the reaction would meltdown and how it might rapidly increase its rate of arise production. Completely Problems associated with uncontrolled nuclear fission would nuclear waste cause an explosion and thermal Problems associated with the meltdown in the core. The mining of uranium radioactive material in the reactor The possibility that a nuclear could be distributed around the power programme may be surrounding area causing many used as a means to produce fatalities. nuclear weapons. - A significant amount of material produced will remain dangerously radioactive for millions of years. The current solution is to bury this waste in geologically secure sites. - The uranium is mined from underground and any mining operation involves significant risk. - The transportation of the uranium from the mine to a power station needs to be secure (same for transportation of waste). - By-products of the civilian use of nuclear power can be used to produce nuclear weapons. It is sufficient that students Fusion reactors offer the theoretical appreciate the problem of potential of significant power maintaining and confining a generation without many of the high-temperature, high- problems associated with current density plasma. fission reactors. The fuel used, hydrogen, is in plentiful supply and the reaction (if it could be sustained) would not produce significant amounts of radioactive waste. The reaction requires creating temperatures high enough to ionize atomic hydrogen into a plasma state in which electrons and photons are not bound in atoms nut move independently. Currently the principal design challenges are associated with maintaining and confining the plasma at sufficiently high temperature and density for fusion to take place. Students should be able to describe the energy transfers Photovoltaic cell: Converts a portion of the radiated energy directly into a 50
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Hockerill Anglo-European College involved and outline appropriate uses of these devices.
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potential difference. Active solar heater: Designed to capture as much thermal energy as possible. The hot water that it typically produces can be used domestically and would save on the use of electrical energy.
8.4.13 Outline reasons for seasonal and regional variations in the solar power incident per unit area of the Earths surface.
8.4.14 Solve problems involving specific applications of photovoltaic cells and solar heating panels. 8.4.15 Distinguish between different hydroelectric schemes.
Scattering and absorption in the atmosphere means that often less energy arrives at the Earths surface. The amount that arrives depends greatly on the weather conditions. Different parts of the Earths surface will receive different amounts of solar radiation. It will also vary with the seasons since this will affect how spread out the rays have become.
Students should know that the different schemes are based on: water storage in lakes tidal water storage pump storage.
Water storage in lakes: Tidal water storage: Pump storage:
8.4.16 Describe the main energy transformations that take place in hydroelectric schemes.
The source of energy in a hydroelectric power station is the gravitational potential energy of water. - As part of the water cycle, water can fall as rain. It can be stored in large reservoirs as high up as is feasible - Tidal power schemes trap water at high tides and release it during a low tide. - Water can be pumped from a low reservoir to a high reservoir. Gravitational PE of water KE of 51
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8.4.17 Solve problems involving hydroelectric schemes. 8.4.18 Outline the basic features of a wind generator.
water KE of turbines electrical energy.
8.4.19 Determine the power that may be delivered by a wind generator, assuming that the wind kinetic energy is completely converted into mechanical kinetic energy, and explain why this is impossible. 8.4.20 Solve problems involving wind power. 8.4.21 Describe the principle of operation of an oscillating water column (OWC) ocean- wave energy converter.
The area swept out by the blades of the turbine = = ! In one second the volume of air that passes = vA So mass of air that passes the turbine in one second = vAp (where p is the density of air) ! ! ! Kinetic energy available per second = ! = ! = ! ! ! ! Power available. In practice, the kinetic energy of the incoming wind is easy to calculate, but it cannot all be harnessed in other words the wind turbine cannot be 100% efficient. A doubling of the wind speed would mean that the available power would increase by a factor of eight. Students should be aware that energy from a water wave can be extracted in a variety of different ways, but only a description of the OWC is required.
8.4.22 Determine the power
We model the waves as squares to simplify the mathematics. Consider
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a wave of Amplitude A, speed v and wavelength .
8.4.23 Solve problems involving wave power.
8.5 Greenhouse effect

8.5.1 Assessment statement Calculate the intensity of the Suns radiation incident on a planet. Teachers notes As the distance of an observer from a point source of light increases, the power received by the observer will decrease as the energy spreads out over a larger area. A doubling of distance will result in the reduction of the power received to a quarter of the original value. ! = !!! ! The intensity of the received radiation is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the pint source to the observer. This is known as the inverse square law. The proportion of power (or energy) reflected compared to the total power (energy) received. = Students should know that the The albedo of snowy surfaces is Earths albedo varies daily and about 0.85 indicating that this typ is dependent on season (cloud of surface reflects 85% of the suns formations) and latitude. radiation back. The global annual Oceans have a low value but mean albedo of the Earth is 30% snow a high value. The global (so ~70% of the radiation reaching annual mean albedo is 0.3 the Earth is absorbed). (30%) on Earth.
8.5.2
Define albedo.
8.5.3
State factors that determine a planets albedo.
8.5.4
Describe the greenhouse effect.
Short wavelength radiation is received from the sun and causes the
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8.5.5
Identify the main greenhouse gases and their sources.
8.5.6
Explain the molecular mechanisms by which greenhouse gases absorb infrared radiation.
8.5.7
Analyse absorption graphs to compare the relative effects of different greenhouse gases.
surface of the Earth to warm up. The Earth will emit infrared radiation (longer wavelengths than the radiation coming from the sun because the Earth is cooler). Some of this infrared radiation is absorbed by gases in the atmosphere and re-radiated in all directions. The net effect is that the upper atmosphere and the surface of the earth are warmed. The greenhouse effect is a natural process without which the temperature of the Earth would be much lower. The gases to be considered are Methane CH4: Principal component CH4, H2O, CO2 and of natural gas and the product of N2O. It is sufficient for students decay, decomposition or to know that each has natural fermentation. and man-made origins. Water H2O: The small amounts of water vapour in the upper atmosphere have a significant effect. Carbon dioxide CO2: Combustion releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere which can significantly increase the greenhouse effect. Nitrous oxide N2O: Livestock and industries are major sources of nitrous oxide. Its effect is significant as it can remain in the upper atmosphere for long periods. Students should be aware of These gases absorb infrared the role played by resonance. radiation as a result of resonance. The natural frequency of The natural frequency of oscillation oscillation of the molecules of of the bonds within the molecules greenhouse gases is in the of the gas is in the infrared region. If infrared region. the driving frequency (radiation from Earth) is equal to the natural frequency of the molecule, resonance will occur. Students should be familiar with, but will not be expected to remember, specific details of graphs showing infrared transmittance through a gas.
8.5.8
Outline the nature of black-body radiation.
Students should know that black-body radiation is the radiation emitted by a perfect emitter.
The perfect emitter will also be a perfect absorber of radiation. A black object absorbs all of the light falling on it. For this reason the radiation from a theoretical perfect emitter is known as black-body radiation.
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8.5.10 State the Stefan Boltzmann law and apply it to compare emission rates from different surfaces. 8.5.11 Apply the concept of emissivity to compare the emission rates from the different surfaces. 8.5.12 Define surface heat capacity Cs.
Surface heat capacity is the energy required to raise the temperature of unit area of a planets surface by one degree, and is measured in J m2 K1.
The Stefan-Boltzman law links the total power radiated by a black body (per unit are) to the temperature of the black body: ! = ! Emissivity is a number (from 0 to 1) measuring how well a surface emits radiation. Good emitters have an emissivity close to 1 (black body emissivity = 1) Surface heat capacity is the energy required to raise the temperature of unit area of a planets surface by one degree, and is measured in J m 2 K1.
! =
8.5.13 Solve problems on the greenhouse effect and the heating of planets using a simple energy balance climate model.
Students should appreciate that See left, important. the change of a planets temperature over a period of time is given by: (incoming radiation intensity outgoing radiation intensity) x time / surface heat capacity. Students should be aware of limitations of the model and suggest how it may be improved.

8.6 Global warming

8.6.1 Assessment statement Describe some possible models of global warming. Teachers notes Students must be aware that a range of models has been suggested to explain global warming, including changes in the composition of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, increased solar flare activity, cyclical changes in the Earths orbit and volcanic activity. It is sufficient for students to be
8.6.2
State what is meant by the
An enhancement of the 55
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Hockerill Anglo-European College aware that enhancement of the greenhouse effect is caused by human activities. Students should be aware that, although debatable, the generally accepted view of most scientists is that human activities, mainly related to burning of fossil fuels, have released extra carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. For example, international ice core research produces evidence of atmospheric composition and mean global temperatures over thousands of years (ice cores up to 420,000 years have been drilled in the Russian Antarctic base, Vostok).
IB Session May 2012 greenhouse effect caused by human activities. Although it is still being debated, the generally accepted view is that the increased combustion of fossil fuels has released extra carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, which has enhanced the greenhouse effect.
8.6.4
Describe the evidence that links global warming to increased levels of greenhouse gases.
8.6.5
Outline some of the mechanisms that may increase the rate of global warming.
8.6.6
Define coefficient of volume expansion.
8.6 .7
State that one possible effect of the enhanced greenhouse effect is a rise in mean sea-level.
8.6.8
Outline possible reasons for a predicted rise in mean sea-level.
One piece of evidence that links global warming to increased levels of greenhouse gases comes from ice core data. Isotopic analysis allows the temperature to be estimated and air bubbles trapped in the ice cores can be used to measure the atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases. The record provides data from over 400,000 years ago to the present. The variations of temperature and carbon dioxide are very closely correlated. Students should know that: Not only does deforestation Global warming reduces result in the release of further ice/snow cover, which in turn CO2into the atmosphere, the changes the albedo, to increase reduction in number of trees rate of heat absorption reduces carbon fixation. Temperature increase reduces Temperature increase reduces the solubility of CO2 in the sea the solubility of CO2 in the sea and increases atmospheric and thus increases atmospheric concentrations concentrations. Deforestation reduces carbon fixation. Students should know that the The coefficient of volume coefficient of volume expansion expansion records the fractional is the fractional change in change in volume per degree volume per degree change in change in temperature. temperature. = ! Between 0C and 4C, the coefficient of volume expansion for water is negative. This means that if the temperature of water is increased within the range of 0C to 4C this will cause a decrease in volume. When ice that is floating on seawater melts, the overall water level is predicted to initially decrease. Ice that is on land, however, is not displacing water and when it melts it will increase the sea level. Students should be aware that See above for explanation. precise predictions are difficult to make due to factors such as: 56
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8.6.9
Identify climate change as an outcome of the enhanced greenhouse effect.
8.6.10 Solve problems related to the enhanced greenhouse effect. 8.6.11 Identify some possible solutions to reduce the enhanced greenhouse effect.
8.6.12 Discuss international efforts to reduce the enhanced greenhouse effect.
anomalous expansion of water different effects of ice melting on sea water compared to ice melting on land. Most of the observed increase in globally averaged temperature since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic [human caused] greenhouse gas concentrations. (IPCC) Problems could involve volume expansion, specific heat capacity and latent heat. Students should be aware of the Look left, should all be common following: sense. greater efficiency of power production replacing the use of coal and oil with natural gas use of combined heating and power systems (CHP) increased use of renewable energy sources and nuclear power carbon dioxide capture and storage use of hybrid vehicles. These should include, for IPCC: Hundreds of governmental example: scientific representatives from Intergovernmental Panel on more than a hundred countries Climate Change regularly assess the up to date (IPCC) evidence from international Kyoto Protocol research into global warming Asia-Pacific Partnership on and human induced climate Clean Development and Climate change. (APPCDC). Kyoto Protocol: This is an amendment to UN Framework Convention on Climate Change. By signing the treaty, countries agree to work towards achieving a stipulated reduction in greenhouse gas emission. USA and Australia have not signed. APPCDC: Founding partners are Australia, China, India, Japan, Korea, US. They have agreed to work together to meet goals for energy security, air pollution reduction and climate change in was that promote sustainable economic growth and poverty reduction.
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9.1 Projectile motion

9.1.1 Assessment statement Teachers notes State the independence of the vertical and the horizontal components of velocity for a projectile in a uniform field. Describe and sketch the trajectory of projectile motion as parabolic in the absence of air resistance. A ball that is thrown up in the air is moving horizontally and vertically at the same time but the horizontal and vertical components of the motion are independent of one another. Assuming the gravitational force is constant, this is always true. Proof of the parabolic nature of the trajectory is not required.
9.1.2
9.1.3
Describe qualitatively the effect of air resistance on the trajectory of a projectile. Solve problems on projectile motion.
9.1.4
Horizontal: There are no forces in the horizontal direction, so there is no horizontal acceleration. This means that the horizontal velocity must be constant. Vertical: There is a constant vertical force acting down, so there is a constant vertical acceleration (g due to gravity). The path is no longer parabolic. The maximum height and range decrease. The angle at which the projectile impacts the ground steepens. Problems may involve projectiles launched horizontally or at any angle above or below the horizontal. Applying conservation of energy may provide a simpler solution to some problems than using projectile motion kinematics equations.

9.2 Gravitational field, potential and energy

9.2.1 Assessment statement Define gravitational potential and gravitational potential energy. Teachers notes Students should understand the scalar nature of gravitational potential and that the potential at infinity is taken as zero. Students should understand that the work done in moving a mass between two points in a Gravitational potential: scalar quantity (V), the work done per unit mass in bringing a small point mass from infinity to a point (always negative) Gravitational potential energy: the work done in moving a mass 58
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IB Session May 2012 form infinity to a point in space (independent of path taken) = = The units are J kg-1.
9.2.2
9.2.3
State and apply the expression for gravitational potential due to a point mass. State and apply the The change in potential per metre. Gravitational field strength is the formula relating negative of the potential gradient. gravitational field strength to gravitational potential gradient.
9.2.4 9.2.5
Determine the potential due to one or more point masses. Describe and sketch the pattern of equipotential surfaces due to one and two point masses.
9.2.6
State the relation between equipotential surfaces and gravitational field lines. Explain the concept of escape speed from a planet.
9.2.7
9.2.8
Derive an expression for the escape speed of an object from the surface of a planet.
Students should appreciate the simplifying assumptions in this derivation.
There is a simple relationship between field lines and lines of equipotential they are always at right angles to one another. The escape speed of a rocket is the speed needed to be able to escape the gravitational attraction of the planet. This means getting to an infinite distance away. 1 ! = 2 So = 2
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9.3 Electric field, potential and energy

9.3.1 Assessment statement Define electric potential and electric potential energy. Teachers notes Students should understand the scalar nature of electric potential and that the potential at infinity is taken as zero. Students should understand that the work done in moving a point charge between two points in an electric field is independent of the path taken. Electric potential: The work done per unit charge in bringing a positive test charge from infinity to a point in an electric field. Electric potential energy: Energy that a charge has due to its position in an electric field. If the total work done in bringing a positive test charge q from infinity to a point in an electric field is W, then the electric potential at that point V is defined to be: = = 4! If several charges all contribute to the total potential at a point, it can be calculated by adding up the individual potentials due to the individual charges. The electric potential at any point outside the charge conducting sphere is exactly the same as if all the charge had been concentrated at its centre.
9.3.2
State and apply the expression for electric potential due to a point charge.
9.3.3
9.3.4
State and apply the formula relating electric field strength to electric potential gradient. Determine the potential due to one or more point charges.
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9.3.6
State the relation between equipotential surfaces and electric field lines.
9.3.7
Solve problems involving electric potential energy and electric potential.

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9.4 Orbital motion

9.4.1 Assessment statement State that gravitation provides the centripetal force for circular orbital motion. Derive Keplers third law. Teachers notes Gravitation provides the centripetal force for circular orbital motion. Expressing the above in formulae ! = ! ! = =
9.4.2
Since a satellite does one orbit in time T, 2 = = Substituting: 2 ! 4 ! ! = = ! ! As G, M and 4 are all constants,
! ! !!
9.4.3
Derive expressions for the kinetic energy, potential energy and total energy of an orbiting satellite.
Kinetic energy: 1 ! 2 From above: 1 => 2 Potential energy: Total energy: Total energy = Kinetic energy + Potential energy 1 1 = 2 2 =
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9.4.5
Discuss the concept of weightlessness in orbital motion, in free fall and in deep space.
9.4.6
Solve problems involving orbital motion.
If the lift cables beak and the lift (and passenger) accelerate down at 10m s-2, the person would appear to be weightless for the duration of the fall. Given the ambiguity of the term weight, it is better to call this situation the apparent weightlessness of objects in free fall together. In a space station, the gravitational pull on the astronaut provides the centripetal force needed to stay in the orbit. This resultant force causes the centripetal acceleration. The same is true for the gravitational pull on the satellite and the satellites acceleration. There is no contact force between the satellite and the astronaut so, once again, we have apparent weightlessness.
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10.1 Thermodynamics

Assessment statement 10.1.1 State the equation of state for an ideal gas. The three ideal gas laws can be combined together to produce one mathematical relationship: = This constant will depend on the mass and type of gas. If we compare the value of this constant for different masses of different gases, it turns out to depend on the number of molecules that are in the gas - not their type. In this case we use the definition of the mole to state that for n moles of ideal gas: = This constant is called the molar gas constant R. pV=nRT 10.1.2 Describe the difference Students should be aware of the An ideal gas is one that follows between an ideal gas and a circumstances in which real gas the gas laws for all values of p, V real gas. behaviour approximates to and T and this cannot be ideal gas behaviour. Students liquefied. Real gases, however, should also appreciate that can approximate to ideal ideal gases cannot be liquefied. behaviour providing that the intermolecular forces are small enough to be ignored. For this to apply, the pressure/density of the gas must be low and the temperature must be reasonably high. For an ideal gas, there are no intermolecular forces, collisions between particles are elastic and particles are considered to be points (small size). 10.1.3 Describe the concept of the absolute zero of temperature and the Kelvin scale of temperature. Teachers notes Students should be aware that an ideal gas is one that has the equation of state PV = nRT and that this equation also defines the universal gas constant R.
10.1.4 Solve problems using the equation of state of an ideal gas.
The linear relationship can be extrapolated back to -273K, known as absolute zero. At absolute zero, a body would not have any volume. e.g. What volume will be occupied by 8g of helium (mass number 4) at room temperature (20C) and atmospheric pressure (1x105Pa) 64
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IB Session May 2012 n=8/4=2 moles T=20+273=293K 28.314293 = = 110! = 0.049 !

10.2 Processes

Assessment statement 10.2.1 Deduce an expression for the work involved in a volume change of a gas at constant pressure. Teachers notes
For a gas in the cylinder expanding by a small distance dx = and = = and = =

!!
10.2.2 State the first law of thermodynamics. Students should be familiar with the terms system and surroundings. They should also appreciate that if a system and its surroundings are at different temperatures and the system undergoes a process, the energy transferred by non- mechanical means to or from the system is referred to as thermal energy (heat).
!!
Thermodynamic system: Most of the time when studying the behaviour of an ideal gas in particular situations, we focus on the macroscopic behaviour of the gas as a whole. In terms of work and energy, the gas can gain or lose thermal energy and it can do work or work can be done on it. In this context, the gas can be seen as a thermodynamic system. Surroundings: If we are focusing our study on the behaviour of an ideal gas, then everything else can be called its surroundings. First law: The first law is simply a statement of the principle of energy conservation as applied to a system. If an amount of thermal energy is given to a system, 65
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IB Session May 2012 then one of two things must happen (or a combination of both). The system can increase its internal energy or it can do work .
10.2.3 Identify the first law of thermodynamics as a statement of the principle of energy conservation. 10.2.4 Describe the isochoric (isovolumetric), isobaric, isothermal and adiabatic changes of state of an ideal gas.
Stated above.
In each process, the energy transferred, the work done and the internal energy change should be addressed. Students should realize that a rapid compression or expansion of a gas is approximately adiabatic.
Isochoric: constant volume Isobaric: constant pressure Isothermal: constant temperature Adiabatic: no thermal energy transfer between gas and surrounds
10.2.5 Draw and annotate thermodynamic processes and cycles on PV diagrams. 10.2.6 Calculate from a PV diagram the work done in a thermodynamic cycle. 10.2.7 Solve problems involving state changes of a gas.
See above.
The area under the graph (between the lines of change in a cycle) represents the work done.

10.3 Second law of thermodynamics and entropy

Assessment statement 10.3.1 State that the second law of thermodynamics implies that thermal energy cannot spontaneously transfer from a region of low temperature to a region of high temperature. Teachers notes No heat engine, operating in a cycle, can take in heat from its surroundings and totally convert it into work. No heat pump can transfer thermal energy from a low- temperature reservoir to a high- temperature reservoir without work being done on it. Heat flows from hot to cold objects. The entropy of the universe can 66
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IB Session May 2012 never decrease. Entropy is a property that expresses the disorder in the system. When thermal energy flows from a hot object to a colder object, the overall entropy has increased. Water freezes at 0C because this is the temperature at which the entropy increase of the surroundings (when receiving the latent heat) equals the entropy decrease of the water molecules becoming more ordered. It would not freeze at a higher temperature because this would mean that the overall entropy of the system would decrease.
10.3.2 State that entropy is a system property that expresses the degree of disorder in the system. 10.3.3 State the second law of thermodynamics in terms of entropy changes. 10.3.4 Discuss examples of natural processes in terms of entropy changes.
A statement that the overall entropy of the universe is increasing will suffice or that all natural processes increase the entropy of the universe. Students should understand that, although local entropy may decrease, any process will increase the total entropy of the system and surroundings, that is, the universe.
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11.1 Standing (stationary) waves

Assessment statement 11.1.1 Describe the nature of standing (stationary) waves. 11.1.2 Explain the formation of one-dimensional standing waves. Teachers notes Students should consider energy transfer, amplitude and phase. Students should understand what is meant by nodes and antinodes. A standing wave will be formed if waves of the same amplitude and frequency travelling in different directions interfere.
11.1.3 Discuss the modes of vibration of strings and air in open and in closed pipes.
The lowest-frequency mode is known either as the fundamental or as the first harmonic. The term overtone will not be used.
Node: Points along the wave that are always at rest. Antinode: Points along the wave where maximum movement takes place. The lowest-frequency mode is known either as the fundamental or as the first harmonic.
11.1.4 Compare standing waves and travelling waves.
Stationary wave
All points on the wave have different amplitudes. The maximum amplitude is 2A at the antinodes. It is zero at the nodes.
Travelling wave
All points on the wave have the same amplitude.
All points oscillate with the same frequency. Wavelength is twice the distance from one node to the next node.
All points oscillate with the same frequency. Wavelength is the shortest distance along the wave between two points
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All points between one node and the next node are moving in phase. Energy is not transmitted by the wave, but it does have energy associated with it.
that are in phase. All points along a wavelength have different phases. Energy is transmitted by the wave.
11.1.5 Solve problems involving standing waves.

11.2 Doppler effect
An organ pipe (open at one end) is 1.2m long. Calculate its fundamental frequency. The speed of sound is 330ms-1. ! L=1.2m = 1.2 ! = 4.8 = 330 = = 69 4.8

Assessment statement 11.2.1 Describe what is meant by the Doppler effect. Teachers notes A change in frequency of a wave due to a moving source or observer. The Doppler effect is the name given to the change of frequency of a wave as a result of the movement of the source or the movement of the observer.
11.2.2 Explain the Doppler effect by reference to wave front diagrams for moving- detector and moving- source situations.
11.2.3 Apply the Doppler effect equations for sound.
The frequency of a cars horn is measured by a stationary observer as 200Hz when the car is at rest. What frequency will be heard if the car is approaching the observer at 30ms-1 (speed of sound is 330ms-1). ! = 200 ! =? ! = 30 !! = 330 !!
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11.2.4 Solve problems on the Doppler effect for sound. 11.2.5 Solve problems on the Doppler effect for electromagnetic waves using the approximation f =
Problems will not include situations where both source and detector are moving. Students should appreciate that the approximation may be used only when v << c.
30 330 ! = 220 See above for an example problem. 1
! = 200
11.2.6 Outline an example in which the Doppler effect is used to measure speed.
Suitable examples include blood-flow measurements and the measurement of vehicle speeds.
Unfortunately, the above equations do not apply to light the velocities cannot be worked out relative to the medium. It is, however, possible to derive an equation for light that turns out to be in exactly the same form as the equation for sound as long as two conditions are met: 1. The relative velocity of source and detector is used in the equation 2. This relative velocity is a lot less than the speed of light. Radar detectors can be used to measure the speed of a moving object. They do this by measuring the change in the frequency of the reflected wave.

11.3 Diffraction

Assessment statement 11.3.1 Sketch the variation with angle of diffraction of the relative intensity of light diffracted at a single slit. Teachers notes Diffraction is a wave effect. The objects involved have a size that is of the same order of magnitude as the wavelength of visible light.
11.3.2 Derive the formula = ! ! for the position of the first minimum of the diffraction pattern produced at a single slit.
We can treat the slit as a series of secondary wave sources. In the forward direction (=0) these are all in phase so they add up to give a maximum intensity. At any other angle, there is a path difference between the rays that depends on the angle. The overall result is the 70
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11.3.3 Solve problems involving single-slit diffraction.

11.4 Resolution

Assessment statement 11.4.1 Sketch the variation with angle of diffraction of the relative intensity of light emitted by two point sources that has been diffracted at a single slit. Teachers notes Students should sketch the variation where the diffraction patterns are well resolved, just resolved and not resolved.
11.4.2 State the Rayleigh criterion for images of two sources to be just resolved.
Students should know that the criterion for a circular ! aperture is = 1.22 !
11.4.3 Describe the significance of resolution in the development of devices such as CDs and DVDs, the electron microscope and radio telescopes.
For a slit, the first minimum is at ! the angle: = ; for a circular ! aperture, the first minimum is at ! the angle: = 1.22 . ! If two sources are just resolved, then the first minimum of one diffraction pattern is located on top of the maximum of the other diffraction pattern. This is known as the Rayleigh criterion. CDs and DVDs: The maximum amount of information that can be stored depends on the size and the method used for recording information. Electron microscope: Resolves items that cannot be resolved using a light microscope. The electrons have an effective wavelength that is much smaller than the wavelength of visible light. Radio telescope: The size of the dish limits the maximum resolution possible. Several radio telescopes can be linked together in an array to create a virtual radio telescope with a greater diameter 71
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IB Session May 2012 and with a greater ability to resolve astronomical objects. Late one night, a student was observing a car approaching from a long distance away. She noticed that when she first observed the headlights of the car, they appeared to be one point of light. Later, when the car was closer, she became able to see two separate points of light. If the wavelength of the light can be taken as 500nm and the diameter of her pupil is approximately 4mm, calculate how far away the car was when she could first distinguish two points of light. Take the distance between the headlights to be 1.8m. When just resolved: = 1.22 510!! = 1.22 0.004 !! = 1.52510 Since the angle is very small: 1.8 = 1.8 = = 12 1.52510!!
11.4.4 Solve problems involving resolution.
Problems could involve the human eye and optical instruments.

11.5 Polarization

11.5.1 Assessment statement Describe what is meant by polarized light. Teachers notes Any EM wave is said to be unpolarised if the plane of vibration varies randomly whereas place-polarised light has a fixed plane of vibration. A mixture of polarized light and unpolarised light is partially plane-polarised. If the plane of polarisation rotates uniformly the light is said to be circularly polarised.
11.5.2
Describe polarization by reflection.
This may be illustrated using light or microwaves. The use of polarized sunglasses should be included.
A ray of light incident on the boundary between two media will, in general, be reflected and refracted. The reflected ray is always partially plane-polarized. If the reflected ray and the
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IB Session May 2012 refracted ray are at right angles to one another, then the reflected ray is totally plane-polarised. The angle of incidence for this condition is known as the polarising angle. Brewsters law relates the refractive index of medium 2, n, to the incident angle: ! ! = = = ! ! ! A polariser is any device that produces plane-polarized light from an unpolarised beam. An analyser is a polariser used to detect polarised light. The intensity of light is proportional to the amplitude squared. ! ! ! ! Maluss law: = ! ! I is the transmitted intensity ! is the incident intensity is the angle between the plane of vibration and the analysers preferred direction An optically active substance is one that rotates the plane of polarisation of light that passes through it. Many solutions are optically active.
11.5.3
State and apply Brewsters law.
11.5.4
Explain the terms polarizer and analyser.
11.5.5
Calculate the intensity of a transmitted beam of polarized light using Malus law.
11.5.6
Describe what is meant by an optically active substance.
Students should be aware that such substances rotate the plane of polarization.
11.5.7
Describe the use of polarization in the determination of the concentration of certain solutions.
11.5.8
Outline qualitatively how polarization may be used in stress analysis.
A polarimeter is a device that measures for a given solution. It consists of two polarisers (1 polariser and 1 analyser) that are initially aligned. The optically active solution is introduced between the two and the analyser is rotated to find the maximum transmitted light. Glass and some plastics become birefringent when placed under stress. When polarised white light is passed through stressed plastics and then analysed, bright coloured lines are observed in the regions of maximum stress.
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Hockerill Anglo-European College Aim 8: The use of LCD screens in a wide variety of different applications/devices can be mentioned.
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11.5.10 Solve problems involving the polarization of light.
1. Polarising filter film with a vertical axis to polarise light as it enters 2. Glass substrate with ITO electrodes. The shapes of these electrodes will determine the shapes that will appear when the LCD is turned on. 3. Twisted liquid crystal 4. Glass substrate with common electrode film with horizontal ridges to line up with the horizontal filter 5. Polarising filter film with a horizontal axis to block/pass light 6. Reflective surface to send light back to viewer. (in a backlit LCD, this layer is replaced with a light source)
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12.1 Induced electromotive force (emf)

Assessment statement 12.1.1 Describe the inducing of an emf by relative motion between a conductor and a magnetic field. When a conductor moves through a magnetic field, an emf is induced. It depends on: - The speed of the wire - The strength of the magnetic field - The length of the wire in the magnetic field 12.1.2 Derive the formula for the Students should be able to Electrical force due to emf: emf induced in a straight derive the expression induced ! = = conductor moving in a emf = Blv without using Magnetic force due to movement magnetic field. Faradays law. ! = So = = As no current is flowing, the emf=potential difference = 12.1.3 Define magnetic flux and Magnetic flux: A measurement of magnetic flux linkage. the amount of field lines passing through an area, at right angles to that area. = B = magnetic field strength A = area (square metres) = angle between flux and line normal to area 1Wb (weber) = 1Tm2 Magnetic flux linkage: A measure of the number of turns of wire linked to (passing through) magnetic flux. (flux linkage = flux x number of turns) 12.1.4 Describe the production of An emf is induced in a conductor whenever flux is cut. If the an induced emf by a time- magnetic flux is perpendicular to the surface, the magnetic flux changing magnetic flux. passing through the area is defined in terms of the magnetic flied strength B as follows: = = The alternative name for magnetic field strength is flux density. If the area is not perpendicular, but at an angle to the field lines: = ! !"! Since = and = = Also, = =
! !! !
Teachers notes
12.1.5 State Faradays law and Lenzs law.
Then, = = In words, the emf induced is equal to the rate of cutting of flux. If the conductor is kept stationary and the magnets are moved, the same effect is produced. Faradays law: The induced emf in a circuit is equal to the rate of change of flux linkage through 75
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12.1.6 Solve electromagnetic induction problems.
The minus sign indicates that the emf is always induced so as to oppose the change causing it (Lenzs law) Lenzs law: The direction of the induced emf is such that if an induced current were able to flow, it would oppose the change which caused it.

12.2 Alternating current

Assessment statement 12.2.1 Describe the emf induced in a coil rotating within a uniform magnetic field. Teachers notes Students should understand, without any derivation, that the induced emf is sinusoidal if the rotation is at constant speed.
12.2.2 Explain the operation of a basic alternating current (ac) generator.
The coil of wire rotates in the magnetic field due to an external force. As it rotates the flux linkage of the coil changes with time and induces an emf causing a current to flow. A coil rotating at constant speed will produce a sinusoidal induced emf. Increasing the speed of rotation will reduce the time period of the oscillation and increase the amplitude of induced emf.
12.2.3 Describe the effect on the induced emf of
Students will be expected to compare the output from
Changing the frequency will affect the time between peaks and the emf 76
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Hockerill Anglo-European College generators operating at different frequencies by sketching appropriate graphs.
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(amplitude peaks). For example, it the frequency is doubled, the period will be halved and the emf (amplitude) will be doubled:
12.2.4 Discuss what is meant by the root mean squared (rms) value of an alternating current or voltage.
Students should know that the rms value of an alternating current (or voltage) is that value of the direct current (or voltage) that dissipates power in a resistor at the same rate. The rms value is also known as the rating.
If the output of an a.c. generator is connected to a resistor an alternating current will flow. A sinusoidal potential difference means a sinusoidal current.
The graph shows that the average power dissipation is half the peak power dissipation for a sinusoidal current. ! ! = 2 Thus the effective current through the resistor is called the root mean square or rms current. ! !.!.!. = 2 The rms value is also known as the rating. 12.2.5 State the relation between peak and rms values for sinusoidal currents and voltages.
12.2.6 Solve problems using peak and rms values. 12.2.7 Solve ac circuit problems
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for ohmic resistors. 12.2.8 Describe the operation of The value of output potential difference can be changed by changing an ideal transformer. the runs ratio. A step-up transformer increases the voltage, whereas a stet-down transformer decreases the voltage.
12.2.9 Solve problems on the operation of ideal transformers.

12.3 Transmission of electrical power

Assessment statement 12.3.1 Outline the reasons for power losses in transmission lines and real transformers. Teachers notes Resistance of the windings of a transformer result in the transformer warming up. Eddy currents are unwanted currents induced in the iron core. The currents can be reduced by laminating he core into individually electrically insulates thin strips. Hysteresis losses cause the iron core to warm up as a result of the continues cycle of changes to its magnetism Flux losses are caused by magnetic leakage. A transformer is only 100% efficient if all of the magnetic flux that is produced by the primary links with the secondary. The wires cannot have zero resistance. This means they must dissipate some power. Over large distance, the power wasted would be very significant. A very high potential difference is much more efficient but very dangerous to the user. Use step-up transformers to increase the voltage for the 78
12.3.2 Explain the use of high- voltage step-up and step-
Students should be aware that, for economic reasons, there is
Marc W. down transformers in the transmission of electrical power.
Hockerill Anglo-European College no ideal value of voltage for electrical transmission.
IB Session May 2012 transmission stage and then use step-down transformers for the end user. (power dissipated is = ! if the current is large then the power dissipated will be large)
12.3.3 Solve problems on the operation of real transformers and power transmission. 12.3.4 Suggest how extra-low- frequency electromagnetic fields, such as those created by electrical appliances and power lines, induce currents within a human body. 12.3.5 Discuss some of the possible risks involved in living and working near high-voltage power lines. Students should be aware that current experimental evidence suggests that low-frequency fields do not harm genetic material. Students should appreciate that the risks attached to the inducing of current in the body are not fully understood. These risks are likely to be dependent on current (density), frequency and length of exposure.
Electrical power lines carry alternating current, which means they produce changing extra- low-frequency electromagnetic fields. These changing fields are theoretically able to induce currents within any conductor, including human bodies. Electrical power lines on pylons are not insulated along their length and are thus extremely dangerous if they become unattached from the pylon. In addition, some statistical evidence exists which suggests that there are regions (near power lines) where more children are diagnosed with leukaemia, a cancer of the blood, than usual. Students should appreciate that the risks attached to the inducing of current in the body are not fully understood. These risks are likely to be dependent on current (density), frequency and length of exposure.
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13.1 Quantum physics

13.1.1 Assessment statement Teachers notes Describe the photoelectric effect. Under certain conditions, when light (ultra-violet) is shone onto a metal surface, electrons are emitted from the surface. Below a certain threshold frequency, not photoelectrons are emitted. Above the threshold frequency, the maximum kinetic energy of the electrons depends on the frequency of the incident light. The number of electrons emitted depends on the intensity of the light and does not depend on the frequency. There is no noticeable delay between the arrival of the light and the emission of electrons. These observations cannot be reconciled with the view that light is a wave. A wave of any frequency should eventually bring enough energy to the metal plate. Einstein introduced the idea of thinking of light as being made up of particles. His explanation was: Electrons at the surface need a certain minimum energy in order to escape from the surface. This minimum energy is called the work function of the metal () The UV light energy arrives in lots of little packets of energy photons The energy in each packet is fixed by the frequency of UV light that is being used, whereas the number of packets arriving per second is fixed by the intensity of the source The energy carried by a photon is given by E=hf
13.1.2
Describe the concept of the photon, and use it to explain the photoelectric effect.
Students should be able to explain why the wave model of light is unable to account for the photoelectric effect, and be able to describe and explain the Einstein model.
13.1.3
Describe and explain an experiment to test the Einstein model.
Millikans experiment involving the application of a stopping potential would be suitable.
13.1.4
Solve problems involving the photoelectric effect.
Example: What is the maximum velocity of electrons emitted from a zinc surface ( = 4.2eV) when illuminated by EM radiation of wavelength 200nm? = 4.2eV = 4.2 x 1.6 x 10-19 J = 6.72 x 10-19 J Energy of photon: =
! ! !.!"!"!!" !!"! !!"!!
= 9.945 10!!"
K.E. of electron = 9.945 6.72 10!!" = 3.225 10!!" Therefore: =

!!" !
= 8.4 10! !! 80
Marc W. 13.1.5 Describe the de Broglie hypothesis and the concept of matter waves.
Hockerill Anglo-European College Students should also be aware of waveparticle duality (the dual nature of both radiation and matter).
IB Session May 2012
Every particle has a wavelength ! associated to its momentum p. = ! The hypothesis assigns wave-like properties to something that is normally thought to be a particle. This state of affairs is called the duality of matter.
13.1.6
Outline an experiment to verify the de Broglie hypothesis.
A brief outline of the DavissonGermer experiment will suffice.
13.1.7
Solve problems involving matter waves.
For example, students should be able to calculate the wavelength of electrons after acceleration through a given potential difference.
In the Davisson-Germer experiment, electrons of kinetic energy 54eV were directed at a surface of nickel where a single crystal had been grown and were scattered b it. Using the Bragg formula and the known separation of the crystal atoms allowed the determination of the wavelength, which was then seen to agree with the de Broglie formula. Find the de Broglie wavelength of a proton that has been accelerated from rest by a potential difference of 500V. The kinetic energy of the proton is given by: ! = 2 The work done in accelerating the proton through a potential difference V is qV and this work goes into kinetic energy. Thus ! = 2 = 2 Hence = 2 =
!.!"!"!!" !!.!"!"!!" !.!"!"!!" !"" !!"
13.1.8
Outline a laboratory procedure for producing and observing atomic spectra.
Students should be able to outline procedures for both emission and absorption spectra. Details of the spectrometer are not required.
= 1.3 10 When hydrogen gas is heated to a high temperature or exposed to a high electric field, it will glow, emitting light. In the laboratory, this can be seen with a tube of hydrogen whose ends are at a high potential difference. The emitted light may be analysed by letting it go through a spectrometer. In the case of hydrogen, the emitted light consists 81
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of a series of bright lines. This is the emission spectrum of hydrogen.
A similar phenomenon takes pace when white light is allowed to pass through hydrogen gas. When the light that has been transmitted through the gas is analysed, a series of dark lines superimposed on the continuous band of colours is seen. This is the absorption spectrum of hydrogen.
absorption:
emission
The dark lines in the absorption spectrum are at precisely the same wavelengths as the coloured bright lines in the emission spectrum. 13.1.9 Explain how atomic spectra provide evidence for the quantization of energy in atoms. An explanation in terms of energy differences between allowed electron energy states is sufficient.
13.1.10 Calculate wavelengths of spectral lines from energy level differences and vice versa.
e.g. Calculate the wavelength of the photon emitted in the transition from n=3 to n=2. The energy of the level n=3 is: 13.6 ! = 1.51 3 82
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The energy of the level n=2 is: 13.6 ! = 3.40 2 The energy difference is the 1.89eV and that is the energy of the emitted photon. 1.89 = 1.89 1.6 10!!" = 6.63 10!!" = 4.56 10!" 13.1.11 Explain the origin of The model assumes that, if Imagine that an electron is confined atomic energy levels in an electron is confined to within a box of linear size L. The terms of the electron in move in one dimension by a electron, treated as a wave, according a box model. box, the de Broglie waves to de Broglie, has a wavelength associated with the electron associated with it given by = !. ! will be standing waves of Since the electron cannot escape from !! wavelength where L is the the box, it is reasonable to assume ! length of the box and n is a that the electron wave is zero at the positive integer. Students edges of the box. In addition, since should be able to show that the electron cannot lose energy, it is the kinetic energy EK of the also reasonable to assume that the !! ! ! wave associated with the electron in electron in the box is . !!! !! this case is a standing wave. So we want a standing wave that will have nodes at x=0 and x=L. This implies !! that = where n is an integer. ! Therefore the momentum of the electron is = = 2 2 The kinetic energy is then ! ! ! = 2 = 2 8! 13.1.12 Outline the Schrdinger The model assumes that The theory gives probabilities for model of the hydrogen electrons in the atom may be finding an electron somewhere it atom. described by wavefunctions. does not pinpoint an electron at a The electron has an particular point in space. undefined position, but the The probability of finding a particle at square of the amplitude of any point in space within the atom is the wavefunction gives the given by the square of the amplitude probability of finding the of the wave function at that point. electron at a particular The wave function provides a way of point. working out the probability of finding an electron at that particular radius. The (amplitude)2 of the wave at any given point is a measure of the probability of finding the electron at that distance away from the nucleus in any direction. The exact position of the electron is not known but we know where it is more likely to be.
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13.1.13 Outline the Heisenberg uncertainty principle with regard to position momentum and time energy.
Students should be aware The basic idea behind the principle is that the conjugate the wave-particle duality. Particles quantities, position sometimes behave like waves and momentum and time waves sometimes behave like energy, cannot be known particles, so that we cannot cleanly precisely at the same time. divide physical objects as either They should know of the link particles or waves. between the uncertainty The Heisenberg uncertainty principle principle and the de Broglie applied to position and momentum hypothesis. For example, states that it is not possible to students should know that, if measure simultaneously the position a particle has a uniquely and momentum of something with defined de Broglie indefinite precision. The uncertainty wavelength, then its in position and in momentum momentum is known are related by: precisely but all knowledge of its position is lost. 4 This says that making momentum as accurate as possible makes position inaccurate, whereas accuracy in position results in inaccuracy in momentum. If one is made zero, the other has to be infinite. If a particle has a uniquely defined de Broglie wavelength, then its momentum is known precisely but all knowledge of its position is lost.

13.2 Nuclear physics

Assessment statement 13.2.1 Explain how the radii of nuclei may be estimated from charged particle scattering experiments. Teachers notes Use of energy conservation for determining closest-approach distances for Coulomb scattering experiments is sufficient. Consider an alpha particle (charge 2e) that is shot head-on toward a stationary nucleus of charge Q=Ze. Initially the system has a total energy consisting of the alpha particles kinetic energy = ! . We take the separation of the alpha particle and the nucleus to be large so no potential energy exists. At the point of closest approach, a distance d from the centre of the nucleus, the alpha particle stops and is about to turn 84
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IB Session May 2012 back. Thus, the total energy now it the electric potential energy of the alpha particle and the nucleus, given by: (2)() 2 ! = = = Then, by conservation of energy: 2 ! ! = 2 ! = ! As the energy of the incoming particle is increased, the distance of closest approach decreases, The smallest it can get is, however, of the same order as the radius of the nucleus.
13.2.2 Describe how the masses of nuclei may be determined using a Bainbridge mass spectrometer.
Students should be able to draw a schematic diagram of the Bainbridge mass spectrometer, but the experimental details are not required. Students should appreciate that nuclear mass values provide evidence for the existence of isotopes.
13.2.3 Describe one piece of evidence for the existence of nuclear energy levels.
Ions enter through the collimating slits S1. They then enter a region of magnetic and electric fields and approach a second slit, which only allows ions of a given velocity to pass. A second magnetic field bends these ions into circular paths according to their mass. If the beam contains atoms of equal mass, all atoms will hit the plate at the same point. If, however, isotopes are present, the heavier atoms will follow a longer radius and will hit the plate further to the right. Measurement of the radius of each isotopes paths thus allows for the determination of its mass. For example, alpha particles The main evidence for the produced by the decay of a existence of nuclear energy levels nucleus have discrete energies; comes form the fact that the gamma-ray spectra are energies of the alpha particles discrete. and gamma ray photons are Students should appreciate that discrete (in contrast to beta the nucleus, like the atom, is a decays, where the electron has a quantum system and, as such, continuous range of energies). has discrete energy levels.
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13.2.4 Describe beta+ decay, including the existence of the neutrino.
Students should know that beta energy spectra are continuous, and that the neutrino was postulated to account for these spectra.
13.2.5 State the radioactive decay law as an exponential function and define the decay constant.
Students should know that the decay constant is defined as the probability of decay of a nucleus per unit time.
13.2.6 Derive the relationship between decay constant and half-life.
The beta decay originates from a decay of a neutron inside an atomic nucleus: ! ! ! ! ! ! + !! + !! The neutron decays into a proton, an electron and an antineutrino. Sine the energy of a beta decay has a range of possible values, it means that a third very light particle must also be produced so that it carries the remainder of the available energy. Neutrino stands for the little neutral one. The law of radioactive decay states that the number of nuclei that will decay per second is proportional to the number of atoms present that have not yet decayed: = Here lambda is the decay constant. Its physical meaning is that it represents the probability of decay per unit time. If the number of nuclei originally present (at t=0) is ! , by integrating the above equation it can be sen that the number of nuclei of the decaying element present at time t is: = ! !!" After one half-life, ! , half of the nuclei present have decayed, so: !!!! ! = ! ! 2 Taking logarithms we find: ! = 2 This is the relationship between the decay constant and the half- life. When measuring the activity of a source, the background rate should be subtracted. - If the half-life is short, then readings can be taken of
!
!
13.2.7 Outline methods for measuring the half-life of an isotope.
Students should know the principles of measurement for both long and short half-lives.
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IB Session May 2012 activity against time. A simple graph of activity against time would produce the normal exponential shape. Several values could be read from the graph and then averaged. This method is simple and quick but not the most accurate. a graph of ln(activity) against time could be produced. This should give a straight lines and the decay constant can be calculated from the gradient. - If the half-life is long, then the activity will effectively be constant over a period of time. In this case one needs to find a way to calculate the number of nuclei present and then use !" =
13.2.8 Solve problems involving radioactive half-life.
e.g. Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5730yr and in living organisms it has a decay rate of 0.25Bq g-1. A quantity of 20g of carbon-14 was extracted from an ancient bone and its activity was found to be 1.81 Bq. What is the age of the bone? The decay constant is 2 = = 1.21 10!! !! 5730 When the bone was part of the living body the 20g would have had an activity of 5Bq. If the activity now is 1.81Bq, then = ! !!" !! 1.81 = 5 !!.!"!" ! = 8400
!"

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14.1 Analogue and digital signals

Assessment statement 14.1.1 Solve problems involving the conversion between binary numbers and decimal numbers. Teachers notes Students should be aware of the term bit. An awareness of the least-significant bit (LSB) and most-significant bit (MSB) is required. Problems will be limited to a maximum of five bits in digital numbers. Students may consider LPs, cassette tapes, floppy disks, hard disks, CDs, DVDs, and so on. Students must know that destructive interference occurs when light is reflected from the edge of a pit. e.g. 13=1101 (1+4+8) where 1 is the most significant bit (highest power) and 1 is the least significant bit (smallest power)
14.1.2 Describe different means of storage of information in both analogue and digital forms. 14.1.3 Explain how interference of light is used to recover information stored on a CD.
14.1.4 Calculate an appropriate depth for a pit from the wavelength of the laser light.
A phase difference between successive laser beams means that a land has changed to a pit or vice versa. 1. The speed of rotation of the disc is controlled so that a constant length of track is scanned in a given time. 2. The CD has a higher speed of revolution when the laser is reading near the centre compared with the outer edge. 3. The laser beam is focused on the track. 4. When the beam reflects from a land or a pit, a strong signal is received. 5. When the beam reflects from the edge between a land and a pit, destructive interference takes place and a weak signal is received. 6. A strong signal = 0, a weak signal = 1. ! Bump height is always equal to ! for destructive interference to occur. e.g. Laser light of frequency 6x1014 Hz is used in a laser. Calculate the appropriate depth of a pit on a CD. 3 10! = = = 500 6 10!" Depth of pit: 500 = = 125 4 4 88
Marc W. 14.1.5 Solve problems on CDs and DVDs related to data storage capacity.
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14.1.6 Discuss the advantage of the storage of information in digital rather than analogue form.
14.1.7 Discuss the implications for society of ever- increasing capability of data storage.
e.g. Information is stored on a CD at a rate of 44100 words per second. The information consists of 32-bit words. A CD lasts for 74 minutes. Calculate the storage capacity of the CD. The number of bits imprinted on the CD is 44100x32x74x60 = 6.27 10! bits. Since 1 byte = 8 bits this corresponds to 6.27 10! = 780 8 Students should consider Quality: There must be a complex quality, reproducibility, set of rules for the conversion of retrieval speed, portability of input into digital signal and from stored data and manipulation of digital to output. data. Reproducibility: Optical techniques can ensure that each subsequent retrieval is virtually identical. Retrieval speed: Text and simple data can be retrieved at great speed. More complex data takes longer but selecting different sections of information often does not add significant time. Portability: Modern miniaturization techniques have ensured that large quantities of data can be stored in a very small device. Manipulation: Manipulation of data can be easily achieved without significant corruption. Teachers should consider Common sense + see revision moral, ethical, social, economic guide for table. and environmental implications.
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14.2 Data capture; digital imaging using charge-coupled devices (CCDs)

14.2.1 14.2.2 Assessment statement Define capacitance. Describe the structure of a charge-coupled device (CCD). Teachers notes Students should know that a CCD is a silicon chip divided into small areas called pixels. Each pixel can be considered to behave as a capacitor. The amount of charge that can be stored on a body per unit electrical potential.
14.2.3
Explain how incident light Students are required to use causes charge to build up the photoelectric effect. within a pixel.
14.2.4
Outline how the image on a CCD is digitized.
Students are only required to know that an electrode measures the potential difference developed across
A CCD is a silicon microchip that can be used to electronically record an image focused onto its surface. The surface is divided into a large number of small areas called pixels. 1. During a photo exposure, each element within the CCD generates a charge proportional to the incident light as a result of the photoelectric effect 2. The charge is collected in different pixels. The pixel behaves as a capacitor and a charge builds up. 3. The charge collected from each pixel is transferred in turn by coupling charges from one pixel to the next in turn. 4. Individual charge packets are converted to an output voltage and then digitally encoded. The value of the p.d. is converted into a digital signal in binary code. The light intensity information from each pixel can be stored along with other digital signal representing the position of the pixel on the surface. See above.
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Hockerill Anglo-European College each pixel and this is then converted into a digital signal. The pixel position is also stored. Define quantum efficiency Quantum efficiency is the ratio of a pixel. of the number of photoelectrons emitted to the number of photons incident on the pixel. Define magnification. Students are required to know that magnification is the ratio of the length of the image on the CCD to the length of the object. State that two points on an object may be just resolved on a CCD if the images of the points are at least two pixels apart.
IB Session May 2012
14.2.5
The ratio of the number of electrons emitted to the number of incident photons on a pixel. Magnification is the ratio of the length of the image on the CCD to the length of the object. If we think about an image looking like this: | | | then if the white squares are on adjacent pixels on the CCD, they will look like one object and not like two separate. Therefore, there has to be at least on pixel in a different colour between them. The greater the quantum efficiency, the greater the sensitivity of the device. A greater magnification means that more pixels are used for a given section of the image. The image will be more detailed. The greater the resolution, the greater the amount of detail recorded. An improvement in resolution will mean a given image will occupy more memory. See left + common sense.
14.2.6
14.2.7
14.2.8
Discuss the effects of quantum efficiency, magnification and resolution on the quality of the processed image.
14.2.9
Describe a range of practical uses of a CCD, and list some advantages compared with the use of film.
14.2.10 Outline how the image stored in a CCD is retrieved. 14.2.11 Solve problems involving the use of CCDs.
Students should appreciate that CCDs are used for image capturing in a large range of the electromagnetic spectrum. They should consider items such as digital cameras, video cameras, telescopes, including the Hubble Telescope, and medical X-ray imaging.
See 14.2.3 A digital camera is used to photograph an object. Two points on the object are separated by 0.002cm. The CCD in the camera has a collecting area of 16cm2 and contains 4 megapixels. The magnification of the camera is 1.5. Can the image of the points be resolved? Area corresponding to each pixel: = 4.0 10!!" ! !!"! Separation of pixels:
!"!"!!
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4.0 10!!" = 2.0 10!! Equivalent separation on the object: 2.0 10!! = 0.0013 1.5 Distance between two pixels < 0.0020cm so the image can be resolved.
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E1 Introduction to the universe

E.1.1 Assessment statement Outline the general structure of the solar system. Teachers notes Students should know that the planets orbit the Sun in ellipses and moons orbit planets. (Details of Keplers laws are not required.) Students should also know the names of the planets, their approximate comparative sizes and comparative distances from the Sun, the nature of comets, and the nature and position of the asteroid belt.

Planet Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Pluto Distance from Sun 60m km 110m km 150m km 230m km 780m km 1400m km 2900m km 4500m km 6000m km Mass (Earth =1) 0.055 0.814 1 0.107 320 95 15 17 0.0026
E.1.2
Distinguish between a stellar cluster and a constellation.
Asteroid belt: consists of thousands of small objects (small planets) in orbit around the sun. One theory about the asteroid belt involves the disruption of one planet into many pieces. Another invokes the effect of nearby Jupiter, whose large mass did not allow the material that was there at the time of the formation of the solar system to assemble into a planet. Comets: A small body (mainly ice and dust) orbiting the sun in an elliptical orbit. Stellar cluster: A group of stars that are physically near each other in space, created by the collapse of the 93
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E.1.3
Define the light year.
E.1.4
Compare the relative distances between stars within a galaxy and between galaxies, in terms of order of magnitude. Describe the apparent motion of the stars/constellations over a period of a night and over a period of a year, and explain these observations in terms of the rotation and revolution of the Earth.
E.1.5
This is the basic background for stellar parallax. Other observations, for example, seasons and the motion of planets, are not expected.
same gas cloud. Constellation: A group of stars in a recognizable pattern that appear to be near each other in space when observed from Earth. Stars in a constellation are not necessarily close to one another. We define the light year (ly) as the distance travelled by light in one year. Thus: 1ly = 9.46 x 1015m The average distance between stars in a galaxy is about 1pc. The average distance between galaxies varies from about 100kpc for galaxies within the same cluster to a few Mpc for galaxies belonging to different clusters. The constellations appear to move over the period of one night. They appear to rotate around one direction. In the northern hemisphere everything seems to rotate about the pole star. The same movement is continued during the day. The Sun rises in the East and sets in the West, reaching its maximum height at midday. At this time in the northern hemisphere the sun is in a southerly direction. Every night, the constellations have the same relative positions to each other, but the location of the pole star 8and thus the portion of the night sky that is visible above the horizon) changes slightly from night to night. Over the period of a year this slow change returns back to the exact same position. The sun continues to rise in the East and set in the West, but as the year goes from winter into summer, the arc gets bigger and the sun climbs higher in the sky.
E2 Stellar radiation and stellar types

E.2.1 Assessment statement State that fusion is the main energy source of stars. Teachers notes Students should know that the basic process is one in which hydrogen is converted into helium. They do not need to know about the fusion of elements with higher proton numbers. The source of the energy of the sun is nuclear fusion in the interior, where nuclei of hydrogen fuse to produce helium and release energy in the process. Because of the high temperatures in the interior of the star, the electrostatic repulsion between protons can be overcome and hydrogen nuclei can fuse. Because of the high pressure in stellar interiors, the nuclei are sufficiently close to each other to give a high probability of 94
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E.2.2
Explain that, in a stable star (for example, our Sun), there is an equilibrium between radiation pressure and gravitational pressure.
collision and hence fusion. The sequence of nuclear fusion reactions that take place is called the proton-proton cycle. Nuclear fusion provides the energy that is needed to keep the star hot, so that the radiation pressure is high enough to oppose further gravitational contraction.
E.2.3
Define the luminosity of a star. Define apparent brightness and state how it is measured.
E.2.4
E.2.5
Apply the Stefan Boltzmann law to compare the luminosities of different stars.
Luminosity is the amount of energy radiated by a star per second; that is the power radiated by the star. Luminosity depends on the surface temperature and surface area of the star. The received energy per second per unit area of detector is called the apparent brightness and is ! given by = . The units of apparent !!! ! brightness are Wm-2. Apparent brightness is measured using a CCD. A CCD has a photosensitive silicon surface that releases and electron when it is hit by a photon. The number of electrons released is proportional to the number of photons that hit the surface. Thus, the amount of charge is a direct measure of the brightness of the object being observed. CCDs are more than 50 times more efficient in recording the photons arriving at the device than conventional photographic film. The amount of energy per second radiated by a star of surface area A and absolute surface temperature T is given by: = ! e.g. A star has half the suns surface temperature and 400 times its luminosity. How many times bigger is it? We have that 400 = !"# 4 ! ! = 4!"# ! !!" ! ! ! !"# 2 = !"# ! !"# ! ! = 16 !"# ! ! = 400 16 !"# ! = 80 !"# 95
Marc W. E.2.6 State Wiens (displacement) law and apply it to explain the connection between the colour and temperature of stars.
IB Session May 2012
The Wien displacement law relates the wavelength ! to surface temperature T: ! = = 2.9 10!! which implies that the higher the temperature, the lower the wavelength at which most of the energy is radiated. Most energy is emitted around the peak wavelength ! . We see that the colour of the star is mainly determined by the colour corresponding to ! . The area under the black-body curve is the total power radiated from a unit area, irrespective of wavelength, and is thus given by ! .
E.2.7
Explain how atomic spectra may be used to deduce chemical and physical data for stars.
Students must have a qualitative appreciation of the Doppler effect as applied to light, including the terms red-shift and blue- shift.
E.2.8
Describe the overall Students need to refer classification system only to the principal of spectral classes. spectral classes (OBAFGKM).
Temperature: The surface temperature of the star is determined by measuring the wavelength at which most of the radiation is emitted. Chemical composition: In the absorption spectrum each dark line represents the absorption of light of a specific frequency by a specific chemical element in the stars atmosphere. It has been found, that most stars have essentially the same chemical composition, yet show different absorption spectra. The reason for this difference is that different stars have different temperatures. Radial velocity: If a star moves away from or toward us, its spectral lines will show a Doppler shift. The shift will be toward red if the star moves away, and toward blue if it comes toward us. Measurement of the shift allows the determination of the radial velocity of the star. Rotation: If a star rotates, then part of the star is moving toward the observer and part away from the observer. Thus, the light from the different parts of the star will again show Doppler shifts. Magnetic fields: In a magnetic field a spectral line may split into two or more lines. Measurement of the amount of splitting yields information on the magnetic field of the star. Stars are divided into seven spectral classes according to their colour (therefore surface temperature).
Class O B Colour Blue Blue- white Temperature 25000-50000 12000-25000
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A F G K M
White Yellow- White Yellow Yellow- red Red
7500-12000 6000-7500 4500-6000 3000-4500 2000-3000
E.2.9
Describe the different types of star.
E.2.10 Discuss the characteristics of spectroscopic and eclipsing binary stars.
Oh Be A Fine Girl Kiss Me. Students need to refer Single star: Our sun is a single star. only to single and Binary star: Stars that are in orbit around each binary stars, Cepheids, other (their common centre of mass). A visual red giants, red binary star is one that can be distinguished as supergiants and white two separate stars using a telescope. (also see dwarfs. Knowledge of below) different types of Cepheid: Stars that are a little unstable. They are Cepheids is not observed to have a regular variation in bright required. ness and hence luminosity. This is thought to be due to an oscillation in the size of the star. Red giant: Very large, cool stars with a reddish appearance. The luminosity of red giants is considerably greater than the luminosity of main sequence stars of the same temperature. The mass of a red giant can be as much as 1000 times the mass of our sun, but their huge size also implies small densities. A red giant will have a central hot core surrounded by an enormous envelope of extremely tenuous gas. Red supergiant: A bigger version of a red giant. The production of energy does not stop with at helium or carbon. White dwarf: Very common, but their faintness makes them hard to detect. Very small in size and white in colour. Since they are white, they are comparatively hot. They turn out to be one of the final stages for some stars, Fusion is no longer taking place, and a white dwarf is just a hot remnant that is cooling down. Eventually it will cease to give out light when it becomes sufficiently cold. It is then known as a brown dwarf. Spectroscopic: Identified from the analysis of the spectrum of light from the star. Over time the wavelengths show a periodic shift or splitting in frequency.
Eclipsing: Identified from the analysis of the brightness of the light from 97
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the star. Over time the brightness shows a periodic variation. The explanation for the dip in brightness is that as a result of its orbit, one star gets in front of the other. If the stars are of equal brightness, then this would cause the total brightness to drop to 50%.
E.2.11 Identify the general regions of star types on a Hertzsprung Russell (HR) diagram.
Main sequence, red giant, red supergiant, white dwarf and Cepheid stars should be shown, with scales of luminosity and/or absolute magnitude, spectral class and/or surface temperature indicated. Students should be aware that the scale is not linear. Students should know that the mass of main sequence stars is dependent on position on the HR diagram.
Once we know the temperature of a star (for example, through its spectrum), the HR diagram can tell us the luminosity of the star with an acceptable degree of accuracy, provided its a main sequence star.

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E3 Stellar distances

E.3.1 Assessment statement Define the parsec. Teachers notes When a star with a parallax angle of exactly one second of arc, its distance must be 3.26ly. This distance is defined as on parsec (pc). [One parsec is the distance to a star whose parallax is 1 arc second.]
E.3.2
Describe the stellar parallax method of determining the distance to a star.
The parallax angle can be measured by observing the changes in a ! !"#$! !" !"# stars position over the period of a year. Then: tan = Sine the angle is small, tan = . Then: = E.3.3 Explain why the method of stellar parallax is limited to measuring stellar distances less than several hundred parsecs. Solve problems involving stellar parallax.
! !"# !" !"#$ ! !"#"$$"% !"#$% (!)
E.3.4
E.3.5
Describe the apparent magnitude scale.
Students should know that apparent magnitude depends on luminosity and the distance to a star. They should also know that a magnitude 1 star is 100 times brighter than a magnitude 6 star.
The parallax method can be sued to measure stellar distances that are less than several hundred parsecs. The parallax angle for stars that are at greater distances becomes too small to measure accurately. e.g. A star is 1.32 10!" away. Calculate its parallax angle. = 1.32 10!" 1.32 10!" = 42.9 3.08 10!" Then the parallax angle is: 1 = 0.023 42.9 The scale was introduced over 2000 years ago as a way of classifying stars. They were all assigned to one of six classifications according to their brightness as seen by the naked eye. Very bright stars were called magnitude 1 stars, whereas the faintest stars were called 99
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IB Session May 2012 magnitude 6. With the aid of telescopes, we can now see stars that are fainter than the magnitude 6 stars. A magnitude 1 star is 100 times brighter than a magnitude 6 star and the scale is logarithmic. As the magnitude numbers get bigger, the stars are getting dimmer. Magnitudes are negative for very bright stars. Each step on the scale equates to a brightness increase/decrease of 2.512.
E.3.6
Define absolute magnitude. Solve problems involving apparent magnitude, absolute magnitude and distance.
E.3.7
E.3.8 E.3.9
Solve problems involving apparent brightness and apparent magnitude. State that the luminosity of a star may be estimated from its spectrum.
The absolute magnitude M of a star is the apparent magnitude it would have if place d at a distance of 10pc from earth. e.g. Calculate the absolute magnitude of a star whose distance is 25ly and whose apparent magnitude is 3.45. We must first change light years into parsecs: 25 25 = = 7.67 3.26 = 5 log 10 = 5 log = 4.03 10
E.3.10 Explain how stellar distance may be determined using apparent brightness and luminosity. E.3.11 State that the method of spectroscopic parallax is limited to measuring stellar distances less than about 10 Mpc.
Temperature can be deduced from examining the spectrum of a star. Knowing the temperature and using the HR diagram (assuming the star is a main sequence star) allow us to determine the luminosity. Assuming that we know the luminosity and apparent brightness of a star, we can find the distance, since: = = 4 ! 4
E.3.12 Solve problems involving stellar distances, apparent
The term spectroscopic parallax refers to a method of finding the distance to a star given the stars luminosity and apparent brightness.The method of spectroscopic parallax is limited to measuring stellar distances less than about 10 Mpc. e.g. A main sequence star emits most of its energy at a 100
Marc W. brightness and luminosity.
IB Session May 2012 wavelength of 2.4x10-7m. Its apparent brightness is measured to be 4.3x10-9. How far is the star? From Wiens law we find the temperature of the star to be ! = 2.9 10!! 2.9 10!! = = 12000 2.4 10!! From the HR diagram we see that such a temperature corresponds to a luminosity of about 100 times that of the sun, that is = 3.9 10!" Thus = = 4
3.9 10!" 4 4.3 10!!
E.3.13 Outline the nature of a Cepheid variable.
Students should know that a Cepheid variable is a star in which the outer layers undergo a periodic expansion and contraction, which produces a periodic variation in its luminosity.
E.3.14 State the relationship between period and absolute magnitude for Cepheid variables. E.3.15 Explain how Cepheid variables may be used as standard candles. E.3.16 Determine the distance to a Cepheid variable using the luminosityperiod relationship.
= 8.5 10!" Cepheid variable stars are stars whose luminosity is not constant in time but varies from a minimum to a maximum periodically. The brightness increases sharply and then fades off more gradually. The reason for this has to do with the interaction of radiation with matter in the atmosphere of the star. This interaction causes the outer layers of the star to undergo periodic expansions and contractions. The longer the period, the larger the luminosity of a Cepheid variable.
It is sufficient for students to If the luminosity of the Cepheid is know that, if a Cepheid variable found, the distance between is located in a particular galaxy, earth and the galaxy that then the distance to the galaxy contains the Cepheid can be may be determined. found. e.g. A Cepheid has a period of about 22 days, this corresponds to a luminosity of about 7000 solar luminosities, or about L=2.73x1030W.
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The peak apparent magnitude is about m=3.7. The peak apparent brightness can be found from = 2.512!! 2.52 10!! = 2.52 10!! 2.512!!.! = 8.34 10!!" !! Then, = = 1.6 10!" = 1700 = 520 4

E4 Cosmology

E.4.1 Assessment statement Describe Newtons model of the universe. Teachers notes Students should know that Newton assumed an infinite (in space and time), uniform and static universe. Newton used an extreme version of the cosmological principle when he suggested that the universe is infinite in extent, has no beginning an is static, meaning it has been uniform and isotropic at all times. He assumed and infinite, uniform and static universe. Students should be able to show If the universe is really like quantitatively, using the inverse Newton imagined then the night square law of luminosity, that sky should be bright. Newtons model of the universe Imagine a universe that is leads to a sky that should never infinite and contains an infinite be dark. number of stars more or less uniformly distributed in space. The very distant stars contribute very little light to an observer on earth but there are very many of them. Mathematically, let n stand for the number of stars per unit volume of space. At a distance d from a star of luminosity L, the received energy per area per second is
E.4.2
Explain Olbers paradox.
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IB Session May 2012 4 ! The number of stars in a thin shell of thickness t at a distance d from the observer is number density * volume = 4 ! . =
E.4.3
Suggest that the red-shift of light from galaxies indicates that the universe is expanding.
Hence the received energy per second per area from all the stars in the thin shell is 4 ! = 4 ! This number does not depend on the distance d to the shell. Since there is an infinite number of such shells surrounding the observer, and since each contributes a constant amount of energy, the total energy received must be infinite, making the night sky infinitely bright, which it is not. This is Olbers paradox. Hubble interpreted the redshift of the spectral lines as evidence of a velocity of the galaxy away from us, as in the Doppler shift. The faster the galaxy, the larger the redshift.
E.4.4
Describe both space and time as originating with the Big Bang.
Students should appreciate that the universe is not expanding into a void.
Hubbles observations thus suggest an expanding universe with galaxies moving away from us and from each other. It also suggests that in the past the universe was much smaller. The universe appears to have started from a kind of explosion that set matter moving outward. This is the idea of the Big Bang model of cosmology. See above. It is important to realize that the universe is not expanding into 103
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IB Session May 2012 empty space. The galaxies that are moving away from us are not moving into another, previously unoccupied, part of the universe. Space is being created in between the galaxies and so the distance between them increases, creating the illusion of motion of one galaxy relative to another. Two radio astronomers working at Bell Laboratories accidentally discovered CMB when an antenna they designed was picking up a signal the persisted no matter what part of the sky the antenna was pointing at. The spectrum of this signal turned out to be a black-body spectrum corresponding to a temperature of 2.7K. Today we observe the background radiation at 2.7K. This is consistent with a small, hot universe in the distant past, which began to cool down as it expanded. Penzias and Wilson realised that the radiation detected was the remnant of the hot explosion at the beginning of time. It was the afterglow of the enormous temperature that existed in the early universe. As the universe has expanded, the temperature has kept falling to reach its present value of 2.7K. Big Bang theory says that the universe is not infinite, therefore a solution to the paradox.
E.4.5
Describe the discovery of cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation by Penzias and Wilson.
E.4.6
Explain how cosmic radiation in the microwave region is consistent with the Big Bang model.
A simple explanation in terms of the universe cooling down is all that is required.
E.4.7
E.4.8
Suggest how the Big Bang model provides a resolution to Olbers paradox. Distinguish between the terms open, flat and closed when used to describe the development of the universe.
If the distance between two galaxies was ! at some arbitrary time, then the separation of these two galaxies at some time t later is given by the expression = ()! Where R(t) is the scale factor of the universe , that can be interpreted as follows: 1. R(t) starts from zero, increases to a maximum value and then decreases back to zero again. The universe collapses after an initial period of expansion. This is called the closed universe. 2. The scale factor R(t) increases without limit, the universe continues to expand forever. This is called the open universe. 3. The universe does expand forever, but the rate of expansion decreases, this is called a flat universe.
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E.4.9
Define the term critical density by reference to a flat model of the development of the universe.
E.4.10 Discuss how the density of the universe determines the development of the universe.
E.4.11 Discuss problems associated with determining the density of the universe.
Depending on which solution is taken, the age of the universe is different. The theoretical value of density that would create a flat universe is called the critical density (5x10-26 kg m-3). If the density is equal to the critical density, the universe expands forever at a rate that approaches zero (flat universe). Let p be the actual density and pc the critical density. Then: p < pc the universe expands forever at a slowing rate. (open) p = pc the universe expands forever at a slowing rate that approaches zero. (flat) p > pc the universe collapses after a period of expansion (closed) This statement is included to The density of the universe is not give the students a flavour for an easy quantity to measure, It is the ongoing and complex reasonably easy to estimate the current nature of research. mass in a galaxy by estimating They should be able to discuss the number of stars and their relevant observations and average mass. This calculation possible explanations. results in a galaxy mass that is to They should recognize that, in small. We know this because we common with many other can use the mathematics or aspects of our universe, much orbital motion to work out how about the phenomena is much mass there must be currently not well understood. keeping the outer stars in orbit Teachers should include dark around the galactic centre. matter, MACHOs and We think we can see a maximum WIMPs. of 10% of the matter that must exist in the galaxy. This means that much of the mass of a galaxy and indeed the universe itself must be dark matter in other words we cannot observe it because it is not radiating 105
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E.4.12 State that current scientific evidence suggests that the universe is open. E.4.13 Discuss an example of the international nature of recent astrophysics research.
E.4.14 Evaluate arguments related to investing significant resources into researching the nature of the universe.
sufficiently for us to detect it. The matter could be found in MACHOs (massive astronomical compact halo objects). There is some evidence that lots of ordinary matter does exist in these groupings. These can be thought of as low-mass failed stars of high-mass planets. They could even be black holes, which would produce little or no light. There also could be few particles that we do not know about. These are WIMPs (weakly interacting massive particles) Furthermore, it might be that our current theories of gravit are not completely correct. Current scientific evidence suggests that the universe is open. There is also evidence that the rate of expansion may have increased. It is sufficient for students to e.g. The Cassini spacecraft that outline any astrophysics project has been in orbit around the that is funded by more than one Saturn for several years sending country. information about the planet back to Earth and it is designed to continue doing so for many more years. The Cassini-Huygens spacecraft was funded by ESA, NASA and ASI. As well as general information about Saturn, an important focus of the mission was a moon of Saturn called Titan. The Huygens probe was released and sent back information as it descended towards the surface. The information discovered is shared among the entire scientific community. Students should be able to demonstrate their ability to understand the issues involved in deciding priorities for scientific research as well as being able to express their own opinions coherently. Advantages Disadvantages Understanding the nature of The money could be more the universe (why are we usefully spent providing food, here?, is there life elsewhere in shelter and medical care the universe?) All fundamental research will If money is to be allocated on give rise to technology that research, it is much more may eventually improve the worthwhile to invest limited quality of life resources into medical research. Life on earth will, at some time It is better to fund a great deal in the distant future, become of small diverse research and impossibility. Therefore rather than concentrating all we must be able to travel to funding into one expensive 106
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distant stars and colonise new planets

area. Is the information gained really worth the cost?
E5 Stellar processes and stellar evolution

E.5.1 Assessment statement Describe the conditions that initiate fusion in a star. Teachers notes In order for the proton-proton cycle to take place, two positively charges particles need to come close to each other for interactions to take place. Obviously, they will repel one another. This means that they must be at a high temperature. If a large cloud of hydrogen is hot enough, then these nuclear reactions can take place spontaneously. As the cloud comes together, the loss of gravitational potential energy must mean an increase in kinetic energy and hence temperature. In simple terms the gas molecules speed up as they fall in towards the centre to form a proto-star. The star cannot continue in its main sequence state forever. It is fusing hydrogen into helium and at some point hydrogen in the core will become rare. The route that is followed after the red giant phase depends on the initial mass of the star. An important critical mass is called the Chandrasekhar limit and is equal to approximately 1.4 times the mass of our sun. If a star has a mass less than 4 solar masses, its remnant will be less than 1.4 solar masses and so it is below the Chandrasekhar limit. In this case the red giant forms a planetary nebula and becomes a white dwarf. If a star is greater than 4 solar masses, its remnant will have a mass greater than 1.4 solar masses. In this case the red supergiant experiences a supernova, it then becomes a neutron star or collapses to a black hole
E.5.2
State the effect of a stars mass on the end product of nuclear fusion.
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Marc W. E.5.3 Outline the changes that take place in nucleosynthesis when a star leaves the main sequence and becomes a red giant.
Hockerill Anglo-European College Students need to know an outline only of the processes of helium fusion and silicon fusion to form iron.
IB Session May 2012 If it has sufficient mass, a red giant can continue to fuse higher and higher elements and the process of nucleosynthesis can continue. This process of fusion as a source of energy must come to an end with the nucleosynthesis of iron. The iron nucleus has the greatest binging energy per nucleon of all nuclei. On other words the fusion of iron to form a higher mass nucleus would need to take in energy rather than release energy.
E.5.4
Apply the mass luminosity relation.
E.5.5
Explain how the Chandrasekhar and OppenheimerVolkoff limits are used to predict the fate of stars of different masses.
For stars in the main sequence, there is a mass-luminosity relation: ! where n is between 3 and 4. The uncertainty in the value of a comes from the fact that the composition of stars is not precisely known. One application of the mass- luminosity relation is to estimate the lifetime of a star on the main sequence. Sine luminosity is the power radiated by the star: ! For the purpose of an estimate, we may assume that the total energy the star can radiate will come from converting all its mass into energy according to = ! ! ! ! !!! If the mass of the core of a star is less than the Chandrasekhar limit of about 1.4 solar masses, the star will become a stable white dwarf in which electron pressure keeps the star from collapsing further. If the core is more massive than the Chandrasekhar limit, the core will collapse further until electrons are driven into protons, turning them into neutrons. Neutron pressure now keeps the star from collapsing further and the star has become a neutron star. 108
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IB Session May 2012 If the core is substantially more massive than the Oppenheimer- Volkhoff limit of about 2-3 solar masses, neutron pressure will not be enough to oppose the gravitational collapse and the star will become a black hole. See E.5.2
E.5.6
E.5.7
Compare the fate of a red Students should know that: giant and a red supergiant. a red giant forms a planetary nebula and then becomes a white dwarf a white dwarf is stable due to electron degeneracy pressure a red supergiant experiences a supernova and becomes a neutron star or collapses to a black hole a neutron star is stable due to neutron degeneracy pressure. Draw evolutionary paths of stars on an HR diagram.
E.5.8
Outline the characteristics of pulsars.
A neutron star may have a magnetic field of quite large magnitude (108T) and may rotate as well, with a period ranging from 30ms to 0.3s. Rotating neutron stars emit 109
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IB Session May 2012 electromagnetic waves in the radio part of the spectrum and so neutron stars can be detected by radio telescopes. Rotating neutron stars that radiate n this way are called pulsars. The radiation emitted by the pulsar is in a narrow cone around the magnetic field. If the magnetic field is not aligned with the axis of rotation, then, as the star rotates, the cone containing the radiation precesses around the rotation axis. An observer who can receive some of this radiation will then do so every time the cone sweeps past.

E6 Galaxies and the expanding universe

E.6.1

Assessment statement Describe the distribution of galaxies in the universe. Teachers notes Students should understand the terms galactic cluster and galactic supercluster. Galaxies are not distributed randomly throughout space. They tend to be found clustered together. For example, in the region of the Milky Way there are twenty or so galaxies in less then 2.5m light years. On a larger scale, galactic clusters are grouped into huge superclusters of galaxies. In general, these superclusters often involve galaxies arranged together in joined bands that are arranged as though randomly throughout empty space. The velocity of recession is found by an application of the Doppler effect to light. Light from galaxies arrives on earth redshifted. This means that the wavelength of the light measured upon arrival is longer than the wavelength at emission. According to the Doppler effect, this implies that the source of light (galaxy) is moving away from the observer on earth. e.g. A hydrogen line has a wavelength of 434nm. When received from a distant galaxy, this line is measured on earth at 110
E.6.2
Explain the red- shift of light from distant galaxies.
Students should realize that the red-shift is due to the expansion of the universe.
E.6.3
Solve problems involving red- shift and the
Marc W. recession speed of galaxies.
IB Session May 2012
E.6.4
State Hubbles law.
E.6.5
Discuss the limitations of Hubbles law.
486nm. What is the speed of recession of this galaxy? From formula booklet: (486 434) 3 10! 434 3.6 10! !! Hubble studied a large number of galaxies and found that, the more distant the galaxy, the faster it moves away from us. This is Hubbles law, which states that the velocity of recession is directly proportional to the distance: v = Hd, where d is the distance between the earth and the galaxy, and v its velocity of recession. The constant of proportionality, H, is the slope of the graph and is known as the Hubble constant. The uncertainties in H come mainly from the enormous difficulties in measuring distances to remote galaxies accurately. It is also not clear whether the expansion of the universe happened at a constant rate. Some theories suggest that the expansion is currently accelerating.
E.6.6
Explain how the Hubble constant may be determined.
E.6.7
Explain how the Hubble constant may be used to estimate the age of the universe.
Students need only consider a constant rate of expansion.
E.6.8
Solve problems involving
Imagine a galaxy, which is now a distance r from us. Its velocity is thus v = Hr. In the beginning the galaxy and the earth were at zero separation from each other. If the present separation of r is thus covered at the same constant velocity Hr, the time, T, taken to achieve this separation must be given by 1 = = = Where T is the age of the universe. Find the age of the universe ( = 72 10! !! !! )
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E.6.9
Explain how the expansion of the universe made possible the formation of light nuclei and atoms.
Students should appreciate that, at the very high temperatures of the early universe, only elementary (fundamental) particles could exist and that expansion gave rise to cooling to temperatures at which light nuclei could be stable.
1 1 = ! !! !! 72 10 1 10! 72 10! !! 1 10! 3.09 10!" 72 10! !! 4.29 10!" = 13.6 10! At t=10-2s, the temperature had fallen sufficiently to 1011K for quarks to bind together and to form protons and neutrons and their antiparticles. The universe had a size of 10-10 of its present size. At t=1s after the Big Bang, T=1010K, and protons, neutrons, electrons and their antiparticles were in thermal equilibrium with each other. [At the very high temperatures of the early universe, only elementary (fundamental) particles could exist and that expansion gave rise to cooling to temperatures at which light nuclei could be stable.] =
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H1 Introduction to relativity

H.1.1 Assessment statement Describe what is meant by a frame of reference. Teachers notes A frame of reference may refer to a coordinate system or set of axes, within which to measure the position, orientation and other properties of objects in it. [The observer along with the rulers and clocks that he or she uses to measure distances and times constitute what is called a frame of reference.] It is possible to formalise the relationship between two different frames of reference. The idea is to use the measurement in one frame of reference to work out the measurements that would be recorded in another frame of reference. The equations that do this without taking the theory of relativity into consideration are called Galilean transformations. [The relation between coordinates of events when one frame moves past the other with uniform velocity on a straight line.] Simple e.g. A ball rolls on the floor of a train at 2ms-1 (with respect to the floor). The train moves with respect to the ground to the right at 12ms-1 (a); to the left at 12ms-1 (b) What is the velocity of the ball relative to he ground? a) v = 14ms-1 b) v = -10ms-1
H.1.2
Describe what is meant by a Galilean transformation.
H.1.3
Solve problems involving relative velocities using the Galilean transformation equations.

H2 Concepts and postulates of special relativity

H.2.1 Assessment statement Describe what is meant by an inertial frame of reference. State the two postulates of the special theory of relativity. Discuss the concept of simultaneity. Teachers notes Frames moving with uniform velocity past each other on straight lines are called inertial frames of reference. These are non-accelerating frames. 1) The laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames 2) The speed of light in a vacuum is the same for all inertial observers Events that are simultaneous for one observer and which take 113
H.2.2
H.2.3
Students should know that two events occurring at different
Marc W.
Hockerill Anglo-European College points in space and which are simultaneous for one observer cannot be simultaneous for another observer in a different frame of reference.
IB Session May 2012 place at different points in space, are not simultaneous for another observer in motion relative to the first. On the other hand, if two events are simultaneous for one observer and take place at the same point in space, they are simultaneous for all other observers as well. [Simultaneity, like motion, is a relative concept. Our notion of absolute simultaneity is based on the idea of absolute time: events happen at specific times that all observers agree on. Einstein has taught us that the idea of absolute time, just like the idea of absolute motion, must be abandoned.]

H3 Relativistic kinematics

H.3.1 Assessment statement Describe the concept of a light clock. Teachers notes Only a very simple description is required here. For example, a beam of light reflected between two parallel mirrors may be used to measure time. A light clock is an imaginary device. A beam of light bounces between two mirrors the time taken by the light between bounces is one tick of the light clock. The path taken by light in a light clock that is moving at constant velocity is longer. We know that the speed of light is fixed so the time between the ticks on a moving clock must also be longer. This effect that moving clocks run slow is called time dilation. A proper time interval is the same separating two events that take place at the same point in space. It turns out to be the shortest possible time that any observer could correctly record for the event. If we imagine a stationary observer with one light clock then t is the time between ticks on the stationary clock. In this stationary frame, a moving clock runs slowly and t is the time between ticks on the moving clock: t is greater than t.
H.3.2
Define proper time interval.
H.3.3
Derive the time dilation formula.
Students should be able to construct a simple derivation of the time dilation formula based on the concept of the light clock and the postulates of relativity.
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In the time t, the clock has moved on a distance = vt. Distance travelled by the light: ! = ! ! + ! ! ! ! + ! ! = = ! ! + ! !" = ! ! ! !" 1 ! = ! Since ! = ! ! ! !" 1 ! = ! 1 ! = ! 1 ! This equation is true for all measurements of time, whether they have been made using a light clock or not. H.3.24 Sketch and annotate a graph showing the variation with relative velocity of the Lorentz factor.
(Lorentz factor)
H.3.5
Solve problems involving time dilation.
e.g. The time interval between the ticks of a clock carried on a fast rocket is half of what observers on earth record. How fast is the rocket moving with respect to earth? From the time dilation formula: 1 2= ! 1 ! 1 ! 1 = ! 2 ! 3 = ! 4
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IB Session May 2012 = 8.866 The proper length of an object is the length recorded in a frame where the object is at rest. One of the peculiar aspects of Einstein's theory of special relativity is that the length of objects moving at relativistic speeds undergoes a contraction along the dimension of motion. An observer at rest (relative to the moving object) would observe the moving object to be shorter in length. That is to say, that an object at rest might be measured to be 200 feet long; yet the same object when moving at relativistic speeds relative to the observer/measurer would have a measured length which is less than 200 ft. This phenomenon is not due to actual errors in measurement or faulty observations. The object is actually contracted in length as seen from the stationary reference frame. The amount of contraction of the object is dependent upon the object's speed relative to the observer. [Note that it is only lengths in the direction of motion that are contracted.] e.g. An unstable particle has a life time of 4.0 10!! in its own rest frame. If the frame is moving at 98% of the speed of light, calculate (a) its life time in the lab frame and (b) the length travelled in both frames. a) =
! !!!.!"!
H.3.6 H.3.7
Define proper length.
Describe the phenomenon The derivation of the length of length contraction. contraction formula is not required.
H.3.8
Solve problems involving length contraction.
= 5.025
= ! = 5.025 4.0 10!! = 2.01 10!! b) in the lab frame, the particle moves: length = speed x time. 0.98 3 10! 2.01 10!! = 59.1 in the particles frame, the laboratory moves 59.1 = = 11.8
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H4 Some consequences of special relativity

H.4.1 Assessment statement Describe how the concept of time dilation leads to the twin paradox. Teachers notes Different observers versions of the time taken for a journey at speeds close to the speed of light may be compared. Students should be aware that, since one of the twins makes an outward and return journey, this is no longer a symmetrical situation for the twins. A rocket follows a long circular path. It sets off from space station P and will eventually come back. The passenger in the rocket sets his clock by looking at the stations clock. The time is 0. When he returns, he looks at his watch and finds that it is slow compared with the station clock. Thus, if the trip lasted, say 6 years, by the passengers watch, the passenger is 6 years older. However, the passengers twin brother, who is the stationmaster, is older by 10 years. (assuming that v=0.8c). The stationmaster may claim that it was he who moved away. So when the stationmaster again meets the rocket passenger, he will claim that his clock is slower than the passengers. So the stationmaster is only 6y older while the passenger is 10y older. Which of the twins is older when they meet again? This is often referred to as the twin paradox. At all times the stationmaster was in an inertial frame. However, the rocket had been moving in a circle (thus experiencing centripetal acceleration) and so the rockets frame had not been inertial. Careful application of the laws of relativity to this asymmetric situation leads to the conclusion that the stationmaster has aged by 10y and the passenger by 6y. Even if the roket moves in a straight line and then reverses direction to return to the space station, this does not help because in this case the rocket must decelerate and then accelerate. Atomic clocks were put into aircraft and flown, both eastwards and westwards, around the world. Before and after the flights, the times on the clocks were compared with clocks that remained fixed in the same location on the surface of the Earth. An observer in the centre of the Earth would describe the clock 117
H.4.2
Discuss the Hafele Keating experiment.
Marc W.
IB Session May 2012 flying eastwards as moving the fastest, the clock that is on the same location on the Earths surface as also moving eastwards (due to the rotation of the earth) but not as fast as the clock in the airplane, and the clock flying westwards as moving the slowest. The results of their experiment agreed with the predictions within the uncertainties of the experiment. ! + = ! + e.g. An electron has a speed of 2.00x108ms-1 relative to a rocket, which itself moves at a speed of 1.00x108ms-1 with respect to the to the ground. Applying the formula above with ! = 2.00 10! !! and = 1.00 10! !! we find = 2.45 10! !! Mass and energy are equivalent. This means that energy can be converted into mass and vice versa. The energy required to create a particle at rest is called the rest energy and can be calculated from the rest mass: ! = ! ! The rest mass of an object is its mass as measured in a frame where the object is at rest. A frame that is moving with respect to the object would record a higher mass. See H.4.8
H.4.3
Solve one-dimensional problems involving the relativistic addition of velocities.
The derivation of the velocity addition formula is not required.
H.4.4
State the formula representing the equivalence of mass and energy.
H.4.5
Define rest mass.
Students should be aware that rest mass is an invariant quantity. Students should be familiar with the unit MeV c2 for mass.
H.4.6
H.4.7
Distinguish between the energy of a body at rest and its total energy when moving. Explain why no object can ever attain the speed of light in a vacuum.
H.4.8
Determine the total energy of an accelerated particle.
Students should be able, for example, to calculate the total energy of an electron after acceleration through a known potential difference.
= ! ! ! ! = ! 1 ! It is very important to notice that, as the speed of a particle approaches the speed of light, the total energy approaches infinity. Therefore, a particle with mass cannot reach the speed of light. Only particles without mass, such as photons, can move at the speed of light. If a particle is accelerated by a potential difference of V volts, its total energy will increase by an amount qV, where q is its charge. Thus, if a particle is initially at 118
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IB Session May 2012 rest, its total energy is the rest energy ! = ! ! . After going through the potential difference, the total energy will be = ! ! + . e.g. An electron f rest energy 0.511 MeV is accelerated through a potential difference of 5.0MV in a lab. (a) What is its total energy with respect to the lab? (b) What is its speed with respect to the lab? a) The total energy will increase by = 1 5.0 10! = 5 And so the total energy is: = ! ! + = 0.511 + 5.0 = 5.511 b) We know that = ! ! 5.511 = 0.511 5.511 = = 10.785 0.511 Since 1 = ! 1 ! 1 10.785 = ! 1 ! = 0.966

H5 Evidence to support special relativity

H.5.1 Assessment statement Discuss muon decay as experimental evidence to support special relativity. Teachers notes Muons are particles with properties similar to those of the electrons except that they are more massive, unstable and they decay into electrons. Muons are created high up in the atmosphere (10km). Cosmic rays from the sun can cause them to be created with huge velocities: 0.99c. As they travel towards the earth some of them decay but there is still a detectable number of arriving at the surface of the Earth. Without relativity, no muons would be expected to reach the surface at all. A particle with a lifetime of 2.2 10!! which is travelling near the speed of light would be expected to travel less than a kilometre 119
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IB Session May 2012 before decaying. The muons speed means that the Lorentz ! factor is high. = = 7.1. ! Therefore an average lifetime of 2.2 10!! in the muons frame of reference will be time dilated to a longer time as far as a stationary observer on earth is concerned. Many muons will still decay but some will make it through to the surface this is exactly what is observed. In the muons frame of reference they exist for 2.2 10!! on average. They make it down to the surface because they atmosphere is moving with respect to the muons. This means that the atmosphere will be length- contracted. The 10km distance !" will only be = 1.4. A !.! significant number of muons will exist long enough for the Earth to travel this distance.
!!!.!!
H.5.2 H.5.3
Solve problems involving the muon decay experiment. Outline the Michelson Morley experiment.
Students should be able to outline the principles of the Michelson interferometer using a simple sketch of the apparatus.
H.5.4
Discuss the result of the MichelsonMorley experiment and its
The implication that the ether does not exist and that the result is consistent with the
The aim of the experiment was to measure the speed of the earth through space (the ether). It involved two beams of light travelling down two paths at right angles to one another. Having travelled different paths, the light was brought together where it interfered and produced fringes of constructive and destructive interference. If the apparatus were rotated around, the speed down the paths would change. This would move the interference pattern. The idea was to measure the change and thus work out the speed of the Earth through the ether. The experiment was tried but the rotation of the apparatus did not produce any observable change in the interference pattern. The above null result can be easily understood from the first postulate of relativity the 120
Marc W. implication.
Hockerill Anglo-European College constancy of the speed of light is the accepted explanation.
IB Session May 2012 constancy of the speed of light. The interference pattern does not change because the speed of light along the paths is always the same. It is unaffected by the motion of the Earth. Also, it can be concluded that the ether does not exist. The first conclusive experiment that demonstrated the constancy of the speed of light with great accuracy was performed at CERN in 1964. In this experiment, neutral pions moving at 0.99975c decayed into a pair of photons moving in different directions. The speed of the photons in both directions was measured to be c with extraordinary accuracy. The speed of light does not depend on the speed of its source.
H.5.5
Outline an experiment that indicates that the speed of light in vacuum is independent of its source.
Students should be familiar with pion decay experiments involving the decay of a fast- moving pion into two gamma- ray photons.

H6 Relativistic momentum and energy

H.6.1 Assessment statement Apply the relation for the relativistic momentum = ! of particles. Teachers notes Students should be familiar with momentum expressed in the unit MeV c1. In classical mechanics, the momentum is given by the product of mass times velocity, but in relativity this is modified to = ! . We still have the usual law of momentum conservation, which states that, when no external forces act on a system, the total momentum stays the same. The kinetic energy ! is defined as the total energy minus the rest energy: ! = ! ! This can be rewritten as ! = 1 ! ! This definition ensures that the kinetic energy is zero when v = 0. The familiar result from mechanics that the work done by the new force equals the change in kinetic energy holds in relativity as well. e.g. Find the kinetic energy of an electron whose momentum is 1.5 !! The total energy of the electron is given by ! ! = ! ! + ! ! to give = 1.58 121
H.6.2
Apply the formula ! = 1 ! ! for the kinetic energy of a particle.
H.6.3
Solve problems involving relativistic momentum and energy.
Students should be able to calculate, for example, the kinetic energy, total energy, speed and momentum of an accelerated particle and for particles produced in reactions.
Marc W.
Hockerill Anglo-European College And So
IB Session May 2012
! = ! ! ! = 1.07

H7 General relativity

H.7.1 Assessment statement Explain the difference between the terms gravitational mass and inertial mass. Teachers notes Inertial mass: The property of an object that determines how it responds to a given force (different masses have different accelerations when a force acts on them) ! = Gravitational mass: The property of an object that determines how much gravitational force it feels when close to another object. ! Gravitational and inertial effects are indistinguishable.
H.7.2
Describe and discuss Einsteins principle of equivalence.
Students should be familiar with Einsteins closed elevator thought experiment.
H.7.3
Deduce that the principle of equivalence predicts bending of light rays in a gravitational
Consider an elevator motionless in space (so that there is no gravity inside and any occupants are in freefall). This elevator has a pin- sized hole in the wall, through which a tiny beam of light enters, creating a speck of light on the opposite wall, directly across from the 122
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IB Session May 2012
H.7.4
Deduce that the principle of equivalence predicts that time slows down near a massive body.
hole (if one measured the distance from the floor of the elevator to the hole and to the speck of light, it would be equal). Now, if this elevator began to be pulled forward through space, the inertial mass would pull the occupants to the floor of the elevator (mimicking the pull of gravity), and something peculiar would happen to the beam of light: As the elevators acceleration increases, the prick of light will appear to move downward, for in the time it takes for the light to travel from the hole to the opposite wall, the elevator would already have moved forward slightly (though it would have to be moving rather quickly for this effect to be at all noticeable). In other words, because of the motion of the elevator, the beam of light would bend as it enters the elevator. Now, carrying this thought through to its conclusion remember that the occupants of this elevator would have no way of knowing if the sensation they are feeling is caused by the elevators inertia or by some gravitational force (it could feel to them that they are on the surface of the Earth), so to these people, the bending of the beam of light appears to be caused by gravity. Consider two waves on a wavefront AB, which are bend as they pass near a massive object:
H.7.5
Describe the concept of spacetime.
H.7.6
H.7.7
State that moving objects follow the shortest path between two points in spacetime. Explain gravitational attraction in terms of the warping of spacetime by matter.
AC is longer than BD, however the speed of light is constant. As: = time must slow down near a massive object. Space-time is a four-dimensional world with three space and one time coordinates. [The mass and energy content of space determine the geometry of that space and time. The geometry of space-time determines the motion of mass and energy in the space-time.] In the absence of any forces, a body moves in this four-dimensional world along paths of shortest length, called geodesics. The motion of a planet around the sun is, according to Einstein, not the result of a gravitational force acting on the planet (as Newton would have it) but rather due to the curved geometry in the space and time around the sun created by the large 123
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mass of the sun. The planet follows a geodesic in the curved space-time around the earth. This geodesic appears as a circular path if we view space-time as flat.
H.7.8
Describe black holes.
Students should know that black holes are a region of spacetime with extreme curvatures due to the presence of a mass.
H.7.9
Define the term Schwarzschild radius.
H.7.10 Calculate the Schwarzschild radius.
H.7.11 Solve problems involving time dilation close to a black hole.
Some objects contract under the influence of their own gravitation, becoming ever smaller objects. The object is expected to become a hole in space-time around this point. This creates an immense bending of space-time around this point and it is known as a black hole since noting can escape from it. The Schwarzschild radius is not the actual radius of a black hole (the black hole is a point) it is the distance from the holes centre that separates space into a region from which an object can escape and a region from which no object can escape. Any object closer to the centre of the black hole than this radius will fall into the hole; no amount of energy supplied to this body will allow it to escape from the black hole. 2 ! = ! For the sun: 2 6.67 10!!! 2 10!" ! = 3 10! ! ! 3 10! Two observers who are at different points in a gravitational field measure the time interval between the same two events differently. This is an example of how masses curve not just space but also time. !"#$ !"# = 1 ! e.g. Consider a theoretical observer approaching a black hole. This observer sends signals to a far-away observer in a spacecraft of his position. When his distance from the centre of the black hole is = 1.5! , the observer stops and sends two signals one second apart (as 124
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H.7.12 Describe the concept of gravitational red-shift.
Students should be aware that gravitational red-shift is a prediction of the general theory of relativity.
H.7.13 Solve problems involving frequency shifts between different points in a uniform gravitational field.
H.7.14 Solve problems using the gravitational time dilation formula.
measured by his clocks). The spacecraft observers will receive the signals a time apart given by !"#$ !"# = ! 1 1 !"# = = 1.73 1 1 1.5 Gravitational redshift is an effect that the general theory of relativity predicts clocks slow down in a gravitational field. In other words a clock on the ground floor of a building will run slowly when compared with a clock in the attic the attic is further away from the centre of the earth. A UFO travels at such a speed to remain above one point on the Earth at a height of 200km above the Earths surface. A radio signal of frequency of 110MHz is sent to he UFO. What is the frequency received by the UFP? = 1.1 10! = 10 !! = 2.0 10! = ! 10 2.0 10! = 1.1 10! 3 10! ! = 2.4 10!! Therefore, the received frequency: 1.1 10! 2.4 10!! = 109999999.998 1.1 10!

H8 Evidence to support general relativity

H.8.1 Assessment statement Outline an experiment for the bending of EM waves by a massive object. Teachers notes An outline of the principles used in, for example, Eddingtons measurements during the 1919 eclipse of the Sun is sufficient. When the sun is between the earth and the star, the suns light would completely wipe out the light from the star. This is why such an observation is possible only during a total solar eclipse. The bending of light that Eddington measured in 1919 was in agreement with the Einstein prediction, within experimental error, but the accuracy was not enough for this to constitute a test of the theory. 125
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IB Session May 2012 The measurements have since been refined to include radio signals from distant galaxies, and these agree with general relativity predictions. The bending of light is important to astronomers in the following was. Light from a distant star will be bent on its way to earth if it goes past a massive star or galaxy. This means that the star will not be observed to be at its true position. In some cases this leads to the formation of multiple images of the star. In this way massive objects act as a king of gravitational lens. Pound-Rebka: The decrease in frequency of a photon as it climbs out of a gravitational field can be measured in the lab. The measurements need to be very sensitive, but they have been successfully achieved on many occasions. The frequencies of gamma-ray photons were measured after they ascended or descended a tower at Harvard university. Atomic clock: Because they are so sensitive, comparing the difference in tie recorded by two identical atomic clocks can provide a direct measurement of gravitational redshift. One of the clocks is taken to high altitude by a rocket, whereas a second one remains on the ground. The clock that is at the higher altitude will run faster. Shapiro time delay: The time taken for a radar pulse to travel to another nearby planet and back can be accurately recorded. The gravitational field of the sun can affect the time taken. The extent of the effect depends on the orientation of the planets and the sun. The experiment was first performed in the 1960s and the result confirmed the predictions of general relativity.
H.8.2
Describe gravitational lensing.
H.8.3
Outline an experiment that provides evidence for gravitational red-shift.
The PoundRebka experiment (or a suitable alternative, such as the shift in frequency of an atomic clock) and the Shapiro time delay experiments are sufficient.

126

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IB

Physics HL Syllabus (2009)

Hockerill Anglo-European College

IB Session May 2012

Hockerill Anglo-European College

IB Session May 2012

Hockerill Anglo-European College

IB Session May 2012

1.1 The realm of physics

Hockerill Anglo-European College

IB Session May 2012

10-8 10-13 10-15 10-19 10-23

1.2 Measurement and uncertainties

1.2.3 1.2.4 1.2.5

Distinguish between precision and accuracy.

Hockerill Anglo-European College has a zero offset error).

Hockerill Anglo-European College

IB Session May 2012

1.3 Vectors and scalars

Resolve vectors into perpendicular components along chosen axes.

For example, resolving parallel and perpendicular to an inclined plane.

Hockerill Anglo-European College

IB Session May 2012

Solve problems involving the equations of uniformly accelerated motion.

Describe the effects of air resistance on falling objects.

IB Session May 2012

State Newtons first law of motion.

Hockerill Anglo-European College

Solve problems involving Newtons second law.

Hockerill Anglo-European College

IB Session May 2012

2.3 Work, energy and power

2.3.3 2.3.4 2.3.5 2.3.6

The energy that an object has as a result of its motion.

Distinguish between elastic and inelastic collisions.

Hockerill Anglo-European College

Identify the force producing circular motion in various situations.

Solve problems involving circular motion.

Hockerill Anglo-European College

Hockerill Anglo-European College

IB Session May 2012

3.1 Thermal concepts

Define the mole and molar mass.

Define the Avogadro constant.

Hockerill Anglo-European College

IB Session May 2012

3.2 Thermal properties of matter

Solve problems involving specific heat capacities and thermal capacities.

Only a simple model is required.

Hockerill Anglo-European College

IB Session May 2012

Hockerill Anglo-European College

IB Session May 2012

Define specific latent heat.

Solve problems involving specific latent heats.

Problems may include specific heat calculations.

Hockerill Anglo-European College

IB Session May 2012

3.2.10 State the assumptions of the kinetic model of an ideal gas.

Hockerill Anglo-European College

IB Session May 2012

Hockerill Anglo-European College

IB Session May 2012

Hockerill Anglo-European College