What is a Thermistor?

The name thermistor, derived from thermally-sensitive-resistor, was coined to describe form of resistive device that possesses a large temperature coefficient of resistance over an extended temperature range. Two forms of thermistors are distinguished according to the sign of the temperature coefficient of resistance. 1. Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC thermistor), whose resistance decreases with increase in temperature 2. Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC Thermistor), with a resistance that increases with increase in temperature. Both forms of thermistors are made from semi conducting materials. In NTC Thermistors the semi conducting material usually consists of sintered ceramic fabricated in a variety of shapes and sizes from a mixture of oxides chosen from the elements Mn, Ni, Co, Cu, and Fe. By varying the composition and size of the semi conducting elements, resistance value between 106 Ohms at room temperature can be achieved with temperature coefficient lying between -2 arid -6.5'C. NTC Thermistor element are commercially available in a wide variety of sizes which range from beads from 0.3 mm diameter through disc and washers with diameters between 3 and 20 mm in diameter. The final physical form of these devices is almost varied as their electrical properties. Bead devices maybe encapsulated either in solid glass, glass envelopes or thermsitor can and these encapsulated devices may be further mounted inside metal or plastic housing to suit a particular application. Disc devices are frequently encased in an insulated coating of lacquer or epoxy coating resin, mounted on metal plated or encapsulated either in a metal can or within a moulded or plastic box. Our standard beta's are amongst the most common in the industry.

Use of NTC Thermistors in Batteries

Keeping in mind the ever increasing demand for high-tech products, the use of NTC thermistors plays a / mandatory, important & vital role in the use of NiCd & NiMh batteries. Nicd or NiMH secondary batteries cannot be charged over a specified temperature, and they can be quickly charged only within a specified temperature range. EU's, EUD Series NTC thermistor is used to promptly detect the temperature range that will allow quick charging. EU's EUD Series NTC thermistor reliably detects the completion of charging

by detecting a temperature rise of the battery itself. (In addition to this method, the Delta-V detection method (which uses a decrease in the battery's electromotive force occurring at the completion of charging) is available to check whether charging has completed. However, this method may cause detection errors if the ambient temperature changes during charging.) Role of the NTC thermistor in NiCd or NiMH batteries.

Detects temperature rises of the battery cell during charging. Detects the ambient temperature that will allow quick charging. Detects heat generation of a battery cell caused by abnormal current.

Performs temperature compensation for voltage measurement for display of the remaining amount of energy.

Applications:

Temperature compensation of transistors, IC's and crystal oscillators in mobile telecommunication equipment. Temperature measurement and control. Temperature detection. LCD controls. Consumer Electronics. Automotive Electronics. Production for the same is still under development & hence these devices are not yet available but will be, in a short period of time.

The construction material used for photovoltaic cells is silicon, a crystalline substance found easily on earth. To construct the photovoltaic or solar cell thin wafers of silicon are formed from its crystal. Two wafers of opposite electrical properties are joined together with the wires to enable the flow of electrons between them. When the sunrays fall on the photovoltaic cells the electrons start moving from one layer of silicon chip to the other layer in natural manner because of the difference in properties of the two layers. The amount of electricity produced by the single photovoltaic cell is very small. The single solar cells are used in the devices that require very small amount of electricity these include calculators, small light bulbs, watches etc. To increase the amount of electricity generated by the photovoltaic cells, the numbers of layers of the crystalline silicon in the photovoltaic cell are increased. These layers are joined together by the wires to form what is called as photovoltaic arrays.

It is the photovoltaic cells arranged in the form of arrays that find wide range of applications in our day-to-day life. The electricity generated from photovoltaic cells is stored in battery. This electricity can be used in the homes and businesses for lights and other appliances, in the street lights, billboards, emergency lights, solar lanterns etc. The photovoltaic cells are presently also being used in the cars on experimental basis. Soon we will have the cars that will run on the renewable solar energy that wont need expensive and pollution creating fossil fuels.

Read more: http://www.brighthub.com/engineering/mechanical/articles/5296.aspx#ixzz0rw VuUC8I- A photovoltaic cell (PV cell) is a specialized semiconductor diode that converts visible light into direct current (DC). Some PV cells can also convert infrared (IR) or ultraviolet (UV) radiation into DC electricity. Photovoltaic cells are an integral part of solar-electric energy systems, which are becoming increasingly important as alternative sources of utility power. The first PV cells were made of silicon combined, or doped, with other elements to affect the behavior of electrons or holes (electron absences within atoms). Other materials, such as copper indium diselenide (CIS), cadmium telluride (CdTe), and gallium arsenide (GaAs), have been developed for use in PV cells. There are two basic types of semiconductor material, called positive (or P type) and negative (or N type). In a PV cell, flat pieces of these materials are placed together, and the physical boundary between them is called the P-N junction. The device is constructed in such a way that the junction can be exposed to visible light, IR, or UV. When such radiation strikes the P-N junction, a voltage difference is produced between the P type and N type materials. Electrodes connected to the semiconductor layers allow current to be drawn from the device. Large sets of PV cells can be connected together to form solar modules, arrays, or panels. The use of PV cells and batteries for the generation of usable electrical energy is known as photovoltaics. One of the major advantages of photovoltaics is the fact that it is non-polluting, requiring only real estate (and a reasonably sunny climate) in order to function. Another advantage is the fact that solar energy is unlimited. Once a photovoltaic system has been installed, it can provide energy at essentially no cost for years, and with minimal maintenance

Applications
[edit] Power stations

President Barack Obama speaks at the DeSoto Next Generation Solar Energy Center. Main article: List of photovoltaic power stations As of October 2009, the largest photovoltaic (PV) power plants in the world are the Olmedilla Photovoltaic Park (Spain, 60 MW), the Strasskirchen Solar Park (Germany, 54 MW), the Lieberose Photovoltaic Park (Germany, 53 MW), the Puertollano Photovoltaic Park (Spain, 50 MW), the Moura photovoltaic power station (Portugal, 46 MW), and the Waldpolenz Solar Park (Germany, 40 MW).[34] As of October 2009, the largest photovoltaic power plant in North America is the 25 MW DeSoto Next Generation Solar Energy Center in Florida. The plant consists of over 90,000 solar panels.[35] World's largest photovoltaic (PV) power plants (40 MW or larger)[34] Nominal Name of PV GWh Capacity Country Power Notes power plant /year factor (MWp) Siliken crystalline silicon Olmedilla [36] [34] Spain 55 85 0.16 modules. Completed Photovoltaic Park September 2008 Strasskirchen Solar Germany 54 Park Lieberose 700'000 First Solar CdTe Photovoltaic Park Germany 53 53[38] 0.11 modules, opened 2009[39] [37][38] Puertollano Spain Photovoltaic Park 47.6 93[40] 0.23 231'653 crystalline silicon modules, Suntech and Solaria, opened 2008 Completed December 2008 2009 2009 40[42] 0.11 550,000 First Solar thinfilm CdTe modules. Completed December 2008

Moura photovoltaic Portugal 46 power station[40] Kothen Solar Park Germany 45 Finsterwalde Solar Germany 41 Park Waldpolenz Solar Germany 40 Park[41][42]

Topaz Solar Farm is a proposed 550 MW solar photovoltaic power plant which is to be built northwest of California Valley in the US at a cost of over $1 billion.[43] Built on 9.5 square miles (25 km2) of ranchland,[44] the project would utilize thin-film PV panels designed and manufactured by OptiSolar in Hayward and Sacramento. The

project would deliver approximately 1,100 gigawatt-hours (GWh) annually of renewable energy. The project is expected to begin construction in 2010,[44] begin power delivery in 2011, and be fully operational by 2013.[45] High Plains Ranch is a proposed 250 MW solar photovoltaic power plant which is to be built by SunPower in the Carrizo Plain, northwest of California Valley.[45]

[edit] In buildings
Photovoltaic arrays are often associated with buildings: either integrated into them, mounted on them or mounted nearby on the ground. Arrays are most often retrofitted into existing buildings, usually mounted on top of the existing roof structure or on the existing walls. Alternatively, an array can be located separately from the building but connected by cable to supply power for the building. In 2010, more than four-fifths of the 9,000 MW of solar PV operating in Germany was installed on rooftops.[5]

Photovoltaic solar panels on a house roof. Building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) are increasingly incorporated into new domestic and industrial buildings as a principal or ancillary source of electrical power. [46] Typically, an array is incorporated into the roof or walls of a building. Roof tiles with integrated PV cells are also common. The power output of photovoltaic systems for installation in buildings is usually described in kilowatt-peak units (kWp).

[edit] In transport
Main article: Photovoltaics in transport PV has traditionally been used for auxiliary power in space. PV is rarely used to provide motive power in transport applications, but is being used increasingly to provide auxiliary power in boats and cars. Recent advances in solar race cars, however, have produced cars that with little changes could be used for transportation.
[47]

[edit] Standalone devices

Solar parking meter. Until a decade or so ago, PV was used frequently to power calculators and novelty devices. Improvements in integrated circuits and low power LCD displays make it possible to power such devices for several years between battery changes, making PV use less common. In contrast, solar powered remote fixed devices have seen increasing use recently in locations where significant connection cost makes grid power prohibitively expensive. Such applications include water pumps,[48] parking meters,[49] emergency telephones,[50] trash compactors,[51] temporary traffic signs, and remote guard posts & signals.

[edit] Rural electrification

Developing countries where many villages are often more than five kilometers away from grid power have begun using photovoltaics. In remote locations in India a rural lighting program has been providing solar powered LED lighting to replace kerosene lamps. The solar powered lamps were sold at about the cost of a few month's supply of kerosene.[52][53] Cuba is working to provide solar power for areas that are off grid.[54] These are areas where the social costs and benefits offer an excellent case for going solar though the lack of profitability could relegate such endeavors to humanitarian goals.

[edit] Solar roadways

Main article: Solar roadway A 45 mi (72 km) section of roadway in Idaho is being used to test the possibility of installing solar panels into the road surface, as roads are generally unobstructed to the sun and represent about the percentage of land area needed to replace other energy sources with solar power.[55]

[edit] Solar Power satellites

Main article: Solar power satellite Design studies of large solar power collection satellites have been conducted for decades. The idea was first proposed by Peter Glaser, then of Arthur D. Little Inc;

NASA conducted a long series of engineering and economic feasibility studies in the 1970s, and interest has revived in first years of the 21st century. From a practical economic viewpoint, the key issue for such satellites appears to be the launch cost. Additional considerations will include developing space based assembly techniques, but they seem to be less a hurdle than the capital cost. These will be reduced as photovoltaic cell costs are reduced or alternatively efficiency increased