Chapter 1 Digestive System

Nur Rahimatul Hayati binti Abdul Rahman Centre of Foundation Studies UiTM

Objectives
1.1 1.2 Main feeding mechanisms Review the main feeding mechanisms. Digestive compartments Describe the structures and functions of digestive compartments of animals with simple and complex body plan. Human digestive system Describe the structures and functions of the human digestive system. Describe the stages of food processing. Explain the mechanical and chemical digestion in human including hormonal control. Other vertebrate digestive system Differentiate the digestive systems of different herbivores and carnivores.
2

1.3

1.4

Main feeding mechanisms

Substrate feeders
Suspension feeders

Fluid feeders

Bulk feeders

Main feeding mechanisms

Suspension feeders Sift small food particles from water. Baleen (comb-like plates, gills and cilia. Examples: Whales, clams and oysters.
Baleen

Figure 1. A baleen whale.

Figure 3. Effective stroke (a) and recovery stroke (b) of a cilium. Figure 2. Structures of an oyster. 4

Main feeding mechanisms

Substrate feeders Live in or on their food source. Examples: Leaf miner caterpillars, earthworms and maggots.

Figure 4. Leafminer caterpillar.

Figure 5. A dead cow.

5

Main feeding mechanisms

Bulk feeders Eat relatively large pieces of food. Examples of adaptations: Teeth and poisonous fangs. Example: Snakes.

Figure 6. A snake eating a sheep.

6

Main feeding mechanisms

Fluid feeders Suck nutrient-rich fluid from hosts. Examples: Mosquitoes, leeches and bees.

Figure 8. Bee sucking nectar from a flower.

Figure 7. Mosquito sucking blood from host.

Digestive compartments
Specialized compartments to digest food. Animals with simple body plans - gastrovascular cavity. - examples: hydras and flatworms. Complex animals - alimentary canal. - examples: birds and mollusks.
8

Digestive compartments
Gastrovascular cavity of a hydra
Fill the gastrovascular cavity with prey through the mouth Food goes in and undigested materials go out.

Secrete digestive enzymes, engulf food particles and hydrolyse macromolecules. Figure 9. The digestive compartments of a hydra.

Digests food and distributes nutrients throughout the body.

Digestive compartments
Alimentary canal of an earthworm
Food goes in. Stores and moistens the food. Mouth Crop Digests and absorbs food. Intestine

Pharynx

Esophagus

Gizzard

Sucks food in through the mouth.

Food passes through.

Digests food.

Figure 10. The alimentary canal of an earthworm.

10

Digestive compartments
Alimentary canal of a chicken
Food goes in Mouth Gizzard Esophagus Food passes through. Large intestine Crop Anus Small intestine Waste material goes out. Digests and absorbs food. Digests food.

Stores and moistens the food. Digests and absorbs food.

Figure 11. The alimentary canal of a chicken.

11

Human digestive system

Mouth Salivary glands

Salivary gland Pharynx Esophagus

Liver Gallbladder Large intestine (colon) Rectum

Stomach Pancreas Small intestine

Figure 12. The human digestive system.

12

Human digestive system

The stages of food processing
Ingestion Mechanical digestion Digestion

Chemical digestion Absorption

Elimination Figure 13. The stages of food processing.

13

The stages of food processing

Ingestion The act of eating.

14

Digestion
Mechanical digestion In the oral cavity, pharynx and esophagus. Adaptations: salivary glands, dentition, tongue and palate.

15

Mechanical digestion oral cavity

Adaptation - salivary glands Produce and secrete saliva through ducts to the oral cavity.

Figure 14. The salivary glands.

16

Digestion - Adaptation
Salivary glands
Protects the oral cavity Contains enzyme that breaks down starch

Cleanses the mouth

Saliva

Aids in bolus formation

Moistens and softens food

Figure 15. Functions of saliva.

17

Digestion - Adaptation
Dentition Humans
Pointed canine for tearing Bladelike incisors for biting For grinding

For crushing

Figure 16. Humans dentition.

18

Digestion - Adaptation
Dentition Carnivore and omnivore.
Kill prey and rip or cut away pieces of flesh Crush and shred food

Incisor Molar Premolar Canine Figure 17. Carnivore dentition.

Broad, ridged surfaces for grinding

Figure 18. Omnivore dentition.

19

Digestion - Adaptation
Palate and tongue
Provides a hard surface for the tongue to press food.

Soft palate

Hard palate

Tongue For tasting, shapes food into bolus and pushes bolus into the pharynx.

Figure 19. Palate and tongue.

20

Mechanical digestion
Pharynx A junction that opens to esophagus and trachea.

Figure 20. The structure of pharynx.

21

Mechanical digestion
Esophagus Conducts food from the pharynx to the stomach Involves peristalsis.

22

Mechanical digestion - esophagus

Esophagus Wall consists of four tunics or layers.
Outermost layer Striated muscles Smooth muscles Connective tissue layer and nerve tissues Epithelium

Figure 21. The structures of the esophagus wall.

23

Mechanical digestion esophagus

Swallowing
Hard palate Food bolus Tongue Epiglottis up Glottis Trachea

When not swallowing - Epiglottis up - Glottis open - Esophageal sphincter muscle is contracted

During swallowing - Epiglottis tips over the glottis - Esophageal sphincter muscle is relaxed

After swallowing - Epiglottis up - Glottis open

Figure 22. Swallowing reflex.

24

Mechanical digestion esophagus

Peristalsis Waves of contraction and relaxation in the smooth muscles. Bolus moves down the esophagus to the stomach.

Figure 23. Esophageal peristalsis.

25

Chemical digestion
Stomach
Esophagus Spinchter Small intestine

- Convoluted - Acidic (pH 2). - Functions: 1) Stores food. 2) Continues digestion. 3) Allows food to the small intestines.

Figure 24. The stomach

26

Chemical digestion - Stomach

Secretes gastric juice - Two components: 1) Hydrochloric acid (HCl) 2) Pepsin - Pepsin is released in an inactive form (pepsinogen). - Mixes with food to form chyme.

Pepsinogen (inactive) HCl

pepsin

Protein Pepsin Small polypeptides

27

Chemical digestion - Stomach

Fig. 41-12
Esophagus Sphincter Stomach

5 m

Sphincter Small intestine Epithelium Pepsinogen 2 HCl Folds of epithelial tissue 3 Pepsin 1 Pepsinogen and HCl are secreted. 2 HCl converts pepsinogen to pepsin. 3 Pepsin activates more pepsinogen.

Interior surface of stomach

Gastric gland 1 Mucus cells Cl

H+

Chief cells Chief cell Parietal cells Parietal cell

Figure 25. The stomach and its secretion.

28

Chemical digestion - Stomach

Movement of chyme in the stomach

Figure 26. The movement of chyme in the stomach

- Aided by peristalsis - Regulated by sphincters.

29

Chemical digestion
Small intestine In the duodenum, chyme mixes with digestive juice from: - pancreas - liver - gallbladder - gland cells from the intestinal walls (brush border).

Figure 27. The small intestine

30

Chemical digestion - Small intestine

Small intestine Substances in food Protein Enzymes Trypsin and chymotrypsin Lumen Products Smaller polypeptides Brush border Enzymes Carboxypeptidase, aminopeptidase and dipeptidase Disaccharidase Products Amino acids

Carbohydrate (polysaccharides and disaccharides) Nucleic acid (DNA and RNA) and (nucleotides) Fats (fat globules) Fats (droplets)

Pancreatic amylases

Disaccharides and monosaccharides Nucleotides

Monosaccharides

Pancreatic nucleases

Intestinal nucleases

Bases and sugars

Bile salts Pancreatic lipase

Fat droplets Fatty acids and glycerol

Table 1. Chemical digestion in the small intestine.

31

Chemical digestion - Small intestine

Emulsification Accelerates fat digestion. Formation of emulsion droplets. Emulsion droplets high surface area for lipase to act on.

32

Chemical digestion - Small intestine

Emulsification

Figure 28. Emulsification of fats

33

Accessory digestive organs/glands

Pancreas Pancreatic fluids : 1) trypsin and chymotrypsin (protein digestion) 2) pancreatic amylase (carbohydrate digestion) 3) lipase (fat digestion) 4) Bicarbonate (neutralizes the acidity of the chyme). Releases inactive enzymes (zymogen). Zymogen is activated by brush border enzymes.
34

Accessory digestive organs/glands

Gallbladder

Stores and concentrates the bile salts. Contracts and injects stored bile salts into the duodenum.

35

Accessory digestive organs/glands

Liver

Releases bile bile pigments + bile salts. Bile pigments - eliminated with feces. Bile salts digest and absorb lipids.

36

Hormonal control of digestion

Hormones - control secretion of digestive enzymes.
From the duodenum. Stimulates release of enzymes from the pancreas and the gallbladder. From the stomach Stimulates production of gastric juice.

Gastrin

CCK

From the duodenum. Stimulates release of bicarbonate from the pancreas.

Secretin

Enterogastron

From the duodenum. Inhibits peristalsis and acid secretion.

Figure 29. Hormonal control of digestion

37

Absorption
Small intestine Absorption of nutrients. Villi and microvilli - high surface area. - increase nutrient absorption. Each villus contains a network of blood vessels and a small lymphatic vessel called a lacteal.

38

Absorption Small intestine

Fig. 41-15

Vein carrying blood to hepatic portal vein

Microvilli (brush border) at apical (lumenal) surface Lumen

Blood capillaries Epithelial cells Large circular folds Basal surface Lacteal Lymph vessel

Muscle layers Villi Key Nutrient absorption

Epithelial cells

Intestinal wall

Villi

Figure 30. The structure of the small intestine.

39

Absorption Small intestine

Carbohydrates and proteins Lumen Epithelial cells Blood vessels Hepatic portal vein Liver Heart Tissues and organs 40

Absorption of fats Small intestine

Fig. 41-16

Lumen Triglycerides of small intestine Fatty acids Epithelial cell Monoglycerides

Triglycerides
Phospholipids, cholesterol, and proteins

Chylomicron

Lacteal

Figure 31. Absorption of fats.

41

Absorption
Large intestine Three sections: Colon, cecum and rectum. Recovers water that has entered the alimentary canal. Two sphincters control bowel movement. Feces - pass through the rectum and exit via the anus. - stored in the rectum until they can be eliminated. 42

Absorption Large intestine

Figure 32 . The large intestine.

43

Other vertebrate digestive system

Herbivores Lack enzymes that hydrolyze cellulose. Depends on symbiotic microorganisms. Adaptations: Multiple fermentation chambers. Examples: Ruminants such as cows, sheeps and goats. Enlarged cecum. Example: Rodents, rabbits and deers. Longer alimentary canals. Example: Koalas.

44

Other vertebrate digestive system

Ruminant digestive system Four fermentation chambers:
Rumen. Reticulum. Omasum. Abomasum.

Involves rumination process that increases the surface area for enzymatic reaction.
45

Ruminant digestive system

Figure 33. Ruminant digestion.

46

Rabbit digestive system

Enlarged cecum. Cecotropes are swallowed for absorption process to happen.

47

Rabbit digestive system

Figure 34. Rabbit digestive system.

48

Koala digestive system

Longer alimentary canal For longer vegetation digestion. Increase the surface area for absorption.

49 Figure 35. Koala digestive system.

Carnivore digestive system

Coyote digestive system
Large expandable stomach and shorter alimentary canal Carnivores has a long intervals between meal. Meat is easier to be digested.

Figure 36. Coyote digestive system.

50

Brian said you should now be able to:

1. Describe the four main feeding mechanisms.

2. Distinguish between a gastrovascular cavity and a complete digestive tract. 3. Describe the four main stages of food processing. 4. List important enzymes and describe their roles. 5. Describe the digestive system of a ruminant, a rabbit, a herbivore and a carnivore.
51

You learn something everyday if you pay attention.

52

References
Campbell, N., A., Reece, J., B., Urry, L., A., Cain, M., L., Wasserman, S., A., Minorsky, P., V. and Jackson, R., B., (2008). Biology 8th Edition, Benjamin Cummings Pearson Publication. Campbell, N., A., Reece, J., B., Taylor, M., R., Simon, E., J. and Dickey, J., L. (2009). Biology Concepts & Connections 6th Edition, Benjamin Cummings Pearson Publication.
53

End of Chapter 1
Digestive System