Ethnobotanical and Economic Observations of Some Plant Resources from the Northern Parts of Pakistan

Hazrat Sher, Mohammad Elyemeni, Kamran Hussain and Hassan Sher

Research Abstract
A study on the economic value of plants being extracted from a coniferous forest of the Miandam valley of District Swat was conducted during Spring and Summer 2008. The aim of the study was to identify non-timber forest product plants being used from the target area, to identify the trade network that they are sold into, and to evaluate their value as they move within that network in order to make recommendations for socio-economic development of the area. Information was learned through semi-structured questionnaires and participatory interviews with resource uses and traders. 214 species in 79 families were identified as being useful in traditional livelihood. Of these, 150 were herbs, 36 trees, 26 shrubs and 4 climbers. Plant species are locally used as medicinal (115), multipurpose (35), fodder (31), fuel (30), vegetables (12), tools (12), timber (9), poisons (7), roof thatch (7), wild fruits (6), fences/hedges (5), veterinary (5), mud supporter (5), foods (4), spices/condiments (4), religious (4), honey bee (3), brooms (3), and evil repellent (1). Twenty out of 115 medicinal species are collected to sell. The gatherers have very little marketing skills and are often not aware of the high market value. As a result, most of collected materials are sold to local middlemen at low prices. The study revealed that the availability of important medicinal and aromatic plant species is decreasing and the number of rare and threatened species among the medicinal and aromatic plants is increasing. Further study is, therefore, required to quantify the availability of species and to suggest suitable method for their production and conservation. Recommendations are, therefore, given in the spheres of training in identification, sustainable collection, value addition, trade monitoring and cooperative system of marketing.

Introduction
Miandam is located in the north east of district Swat and lies between 34034 and 350-07 N latitude, and 720 36 and 730 35 E longitude in the Hindu Kush mountain range. The elevation of the valley ranges from 3000 ft to 14,000 ft. The total area of the valley is about 36,768 acres. The valley is comprised of 11 big villages and 15 small hamlets with a population of about 20,000 people. The population of the area is mostly dependent upon agriculture and livestock rearing. About 1600 people of the total population are gathering different forest resources including medicinal and aromatic plant (MAP) species in the valley. Pakistan hosts about 6000 species of flowering plants, out of which about 2000 species have medicinal, aromatic and economic value (Williams & Ahmad 1999). The MAP species have supported livelihood of many people in District Swat. They are being collected for export both to national and international markets. The high dependency of

Correspondence

Hazrat Sher, Department of Botany, Kuhat University of Science and Technology, Kuhat, PAKISTAN. Mohammad Elyemeni and Hassan Sher, Department of Botany & Microbiology, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2455, Riyadh 11451, Riyadh, SAUDI ARABIA. hassan.botany@gmail.com / hassansher_2000@yahoo.com Kamran Hussain, World Wildlife Fund-Pakistan, 34-D-2 Sahibzada Abdul Qayyum Road, University Town Peshawar, PAKISTAN.

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Ethnobotany Research & Applications Materials and Methods

A study on the ethnobotanical and economic evaluation of coniferous forest of the Miandam Valley of District Swat was conducted during Spring and Summer 2008. Prior to exploring of the forest resources, topo-sheet, map and other general information of the investigated area were obtained from the Forest Department, Swat. The area was accordingly divided into different sites and then visits were made first in April and May, second in June and July, and third in August and September, 2008. A questionnaire was prepared and used as a tool for the collection of information. The questionnaire was divided into two parts: demographics and ethnobotanical data. The first part included demographic data, location name, age, education and profession. The second part included questions about the pattern of forest resources being utilization. Field Survey Prior to a visit to the research sites, the questionnaire was designed and pre-tested to find out if it actually worked. Revisions needed as a result of this pre-test were noted and undertaken in the following day of the visit. Key informants were identified from each of 210 households determined to be present in the villages in the valley. Focus groups were held with key informants and others in each household. The traditional uses (including medicinal and other use) of plant resources were learned with both the questionnaire and through participatory techniques. Participation focused on learning how people were gathering plant materials. Informants were asked about their interest as local user of plants, collectors and traders of forest resources. Information on the market value of the plants was collected from local collectors, hakims and shopkeepers. A simple procedure was adopted asking how, from whom, and to whom the plants were sold. Respondents were also asked about their annual revenues earned from the sale of the plants and their return on work invested. For each plant species the informants mentioned, they were also asked about its abundance, distribution and population size. This was judged by comparing 20 year old records with the current situation. In addition personal observations were made in the field to note any pertinent events which could help explain the presence, and relative abundance based on the ecological characteristics of the species. The effect of current harvest on the status of each commercially valuable plant species was also studied by comparing 20 years old records with respect to the present population size and status. The effect of current harvest on the population size was finally judged based on

rural people on MAPs for subsistence and unsustainable harvesting practices has resulted over exploitation of resources in different sites of the study area. (Sher et al. 2005, 2010.) Similarly, conversion of natural habitats into agricultural land has greatly decreased the population size of many economically important forest resources including MAPs in different sites of the study area. The traditional practice of extracting forest resources especially MAPs appears to be unsustainable. There is not evidence of resource tenure and custodianship, understanding of sustainable use and management parameters, harvesting and collection procedures and knowledge of market requirements. These are important barriers to the sustainable utilization of MAPs. Besides scientific understanding of population sizes, distributions, availability and abundance of plant species and their interactions with different stochastic environmental factors all play important roles in determining ecological sustainability of these resources. Similarly, quantitative and economic analysis of the effect of extraction on these ecological processes is very important to assess the effect of harvesting on development of the entire forest resources in general and MAPs in particular in order to formulate sustainable harvesting regimes. Harvesting practices used by untrained collectors may endanger the recovery of some plants populations. Lack of knowledge about the part used, time of collection and economic value of MAP species has led to their mismanagement and least profitable exploitation. The appropriate timing to collect the desired parts of plants of certain age will determine the yield percentage and quality of therapeutically active biochemical ingredients. Gathering and processing of MAPs for family use in human and livestock treatment is a widespread, centuries old practice (Hussain et al. 2004). The use of traditional medicine for maintenance of health in most developing countries has been widely observed as a custom. Their collection and sale is an important economic activity in the northern parts of Pakistan and about 5000 families are involved in the collection and processing of MAPs in the region (Olsen & Larsen 2003). The most active members of plant gathering and processing are women and children from middle hill areas. These collectors receive minimum wages in the trade chain of medicinal herbs (Sher et al. 2005). Therefore, the local people are losing the preservation of traditional knowledge of medicinal plants and other important non-timber forest products. The present endeavour was initiated with the aim to identify non-timber forest product plants being used from the area (coniferous forests of Miandam valley, District Swat), to identify the trade network that they are sold into, and to evaluate their value as they move within that network in order to make recommendations for socio-economic development of the area.

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Sher et al. - Ethnobotanical and Economic Observations of Some Plant Resources from the Northern Parts of Pakistan
the distance that local collectors traveled in the past as compared to the present. Voucher specimens of the plants identified by the informants were collected from different sites of the studied valley and were dried and preserved. The fully dried specimens were mounted on herbarium paper identified with the help of available literature (Nasir & Ali 1971-91, Stewart 1972) and deposited in National Agriculture Research Centre, herbarium, Islamabad, (RAW), and University of Karachi, Botany Department, Sindh, Pakistan (KUH). Ethnobotanical uses

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The flora of the study area provides useful species of ethnobotanical importance. The study documented 214 plant species belonging to 79 families (Table 1). They include 148 herbs, 36 trees, 26 shrubs and 4 climbers. Plant species are locally used as medicinal (115), multipurpose (35), fodder (31), fuel (30), vegetables (12), tools (12), timber (9), poisons (7), roof thatch (7), wild fruits (6), fences/hedges (5), veterinary (5), mud supporter (5), foods (4), spices/condiments (4), religious (4), honey bee (3), brooms (3), and evil repellent (1). Ethnomedicinal uses The study showed that the local people have knowledge about distribution, abundance, harvesting, uses and marketing of MAPs. Plants used medicinally were grouped into 12 sub-use categories according to specific disease treatment (Table 1). The highest numbers of plants were

Results
Informants 160 households were contacted out of 210 possible. Generally, the respondents were elderly persons and their age group varied from 40 to 60 years.

Table 1. Plants found to be of economic value in th coniferous forest of the Miandam Valley of District Swat, northern Pakistan. Key to Major Use Categories (Evil: Evil repellent plants; Fen: Fences/hedges; Fod: Fodder plants; Foo: Edible food; Fru: Fruits; Fue: Fuel wood; Hon: Honey bee plants; Med: Medicinal plants; MS: Mud supporter; Poi: Poisonous plants; Roo: Roof thatching; Spi: Spices/condiments; Tim: Timber wood; Too: Tool making plants; Veg: Vegetables). Scientific name Abies pindrow (Royle ex D. Don) Royle Alnus nitida (Spach) Endl. Achillea millefolium L. Achyranthes aspera L. Aconitum violaceum Jacquem. ex Stapf Family Pinaceae Betulaceae Asteraceae Amaranthaceae Ranunculaceae Vernacular name(s) Achar Gerray Jarai, Aqarqarha Charchata, Largakhay Zaharmora, Jadwar, Daghra zahar Zaharmora, Jadwar, Daghra zahar Skha waja Bekar, Bansa Sumbal, Parsiaushah Masle sumbul Sumbal Jawaz, Qatil Bakyarna Booti, Neel Kanti Booti Piaz Da ghra Ouga Major Use Category Tim, Fue Fue Med Fod Med Life Form Tree Tree Herb Herb Herb

Aconitum laeve Royle

Ranunculaceae

Med

Herb

Acorus calamus L. Adhatoda vasica Nees Adiantum capillus-veneris L. Adiantum incisum Forssk. Adiantum venustum D. Don Aesculus indica (Wall. ex Cambess.) Hook. Ailanthus altissima (Mill). Swingle Ajuga bracteosa Wall. ex Benth. Ajuga parviflora Benth. Allium cepa L. Allium humile Kunth

Acoraceae Acanthaceae Pteridaceae Pteridaceae Pteridaceae Sapindaceae Simaroubaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Amaryllidaceae Amaryllidaceae

Med Med Med Med Med Fue, Med Med, Fue Med Med Veg Med

Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Tree Tree Herb Herb Herb Herb

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Scientific name Allium jacquemontii Kunth Allium sativum L. Amaranthus spinosus L. Amaranthus viridis L. Aquilegia fragrans Benth. Arenaria griffithii Boiss. Arisaema flavum (Forssk.) Schott Arisaema jacquemontii Blume Artemisia brevifolia Wall. ex DC. Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kit. Artemisia vulgaris L. Asparagus adscendens Roxb. Asphodelus tenuifolius Cav. Atropa acuminata Royle ex Lindl. Avena sativa L. Berberis lycium Royle Berberis vulgaris L. Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb.

Ethnobotany Research & Applications

Family Amaryllidaceae Amaryllidaceae Amaranthaceae Amaranthaceae Ranunculaceae Caryophyllaceae Araceae Araceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asparagaceae Solanaceae Poaceae Berberidaceae Berberidaceae Saxifragaceae Saxifragaceae Polygonaceae Apiaceae Apiaceae Fabaceae Apocynaceae Ranunculaceae Cannabaceae Brassicaceae Apocynaceae Apiaceae Pinaceae Cannabaceae Fabaceae Asteraceae Amaranthaceae Amaranthaceae Asteraceae Vernacular name(s) Da ghra Ouga Ougakai Da Ghany Chalvaray Chalvaray Samer parna Kinar Marjarey Margarai Tarkha Dada tarkha Tarkha, Afsanthen Tindorai Bargak Jamdaray Spin Kwaray Tour Kwaray Ghat Pana, Bogandi Tarwa Pana, Anjabar Zankai Gillo Da pali gul, Goli tisu Goli Madar, Goli akk, Spalmai Makan path Bang Bambesa Pamankai Zankee Diar Tagha Jara Babona Sarmay Skha Kharawa Han/ Kasni Major Use Category Med Med Fod Fod, Veg Med MS, Roo Med Pois Med Bro Bro Med Med Med Med, Fod Med, Fue Med, Fue Med Life Form Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Shrub Herb Herb Herb Shrub Shrub Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Shrub Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Tree Tree Shrub Herb Herb Herb Herb

Xanthorrhoeaceae Ougakai

Bergenia stracheyi (Hook. f. & Thomson) Engl. Bistorta amplexicaulis (D. Don) Greene Bunium persicum B. Fedstch. Bupleurum longicaule Wall. ex DC. Butea frondosa K.D. Koenig ex Roxb. Calotropis procera (Aiton) W.T. Aiton Caltha alba Cambess. Cannabis sativa L. Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik. Caralluma edulis (Edgew.) Benth. ex Hook. f. Carum carvi L. Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D. Don) G. Don Celtis australis L. Caesalpinia decapetala (Roth) Alston Chamomilla recutita (L.) Rauschert. Chenopodium album L. Chenopodium botrys L. Cichorium intybus L.

Spinsar Ghat Pana Med Med Spi Med Fod, Med Med Med, Veg Med Med Veg Spi Tim, Fue, Med Fue, Rel Fen Med Med, Veg Pois Med, Veg

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Sher et al. - Ethnobotanical and Economic Observations of Some Plant Resources from the Northern Parts of Pakistan
Scientific name Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad. Colchicum autumnale L. Family Curcurbitaceae Colchicaceae Vernacular name(s) Hunzal, Tuma Sarba Zeala, Atees, Suranjan Sherin Qaimat guallay Suranjan-e-Talkh Narray Desi Mamera Mamera Zangali Badam Kharawa Thampas Zalai, Aptemum, Akash beel Kabal Gat gul Taryela, nagar motha, saad kopi Laiughunai Jesmasal Dahthora, Harhnada Ajlai Jadwar Kaneez Sur Amloke Toor amlok Ladorey Kwanjey Manzari mangual Ghanum ranga Bandakai Jawawa (Taramera) Mandanro Shangla Azghakai, Dhamasa Inzer Inzer Major Use Category Med Med

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Life Form Herb Herb

Colchicum luteum Baker Commelina benghalensis L. Corydalis govaniana Wall. Corydalis stewartii Fedde Corylus jacquemontii Decne. Cotoneaster microphyllus Wall. ex Lindl. Crataegus curvisepala Lindm. Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Cynoglossum lanceolatum Forssk. Cyperus brevifolius (Rottb.) Endl. ex Hassk. Daphne mucronata Royle, Datura inoxia Mill. Datura stramonium L. Debregeasia saeneb (Forssk.) Hepper & Wood Delphinium denudatum Wall. ex Hook. f. & Thomson Dioscorea deltoidea Wall. ex Griseb. Diospyros kaki Thunb. Diospyros lotus L. Dryopteris filix-mas (L.) Schott Dryopteris juxtaposita H. Christ Echinops echinatus Roxb. Elaeagnus angustifolia L. Equisetum arvense L. Eruca sativa Mill. Euphorbia helioscopia L. Euphorbia wallichii Hook. f. Fagonia arabica L. Ficus carica L. Ficus palmata Forssk.

Colchicaceae Commelinaceae Papaveraceae Papaveraceae Betulaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Convolvulaceae Poaceae Boraginaceae Cyperaceae Thymelaeaceae Solanaceae Solanaceae Urticaceae Ranunculaceae Dioscoreaceae Ebenaceae Ebenaceae Dryopteridaceae Dryopteridaceae Asteraceae Elaeagnaceae Equisetaceae Brassicaceae Euphorbiaceae Euphorbiaceae Zygophyllaceae Moraceae Moraceae

Med Med, Fod, Veg Med Med Med Med Med Med Fod Med Fue Fue, Fen Med Med Med, Fue Med Med Fru, Fue Fru, Fue Veg Veg Med, Med, Fen Med Veg Poi Poi Med Fru, Med, Rel Fru

Herb Herb Herb Herb Tree Shrub Shrub Climber Herb Herb Herb Shrub Herb Herb Shrub Herb Climber Tree Tree Herb Herb Herb Shrub Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Tree Tree

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Scientific name Foeniculum vulgare Mill. Fragaria vesca L. Fumaria indica Pugsley

Ethnobotany Research & Applications

Family Apiaceae Rosaceae Papaveraceae Geraniaceae Gentianaceae Iridaceae Araliaceae Apiaceae Solanaceae Hypericaceae Hypericaceae Lamiaceae Fabaceae Lamiaceae Oleaceae Juglandaceae Cupressaceae Fabaceae Asteraceae Brassicaceae Fabaceae Malvaceae Meliaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Morchellaceae Morchellaceae Morchellaceae Moraceae Vernacular name(s) Kaga valaney, Sonf Da Zmaki toot Papra, Shahtara Srazela, Ratanjothe Gensing Cabdichar Prewatai Kadu Pana Bargag Shin chai Shin chai Goli Zofa Ghwarija Sperkai Rambil chambil Ghuz Awbeer Korkamanai Shauda pai Halam Fateh khana, Bopali Panerak Tora bakyana Valenay Podina Naray shamakay Gujhai Da kwar Guchhi Spina Guchhi Toot (Panjakha) Major Use Category Med Fru Med Med Med Med Med Med Med MS Med Med Fue, Roo Med Med Fru, Tim, Fue Fue Fod Med, Fod Med Med, Fod Veg Fue, Vet Med Med Fod, Hon Foo Foo Foo Med, Tim, Fue, Fru, Too Med, Tim, Fue, Fru, Too Tim, Fue, Fru ,Too Life Form Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Climber Herb Herb Shrub Herb Herb Shrub Shrub Climber Tree Tree Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Tree Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Tree

Geranium wallichianum D. Don ex Sweet Gentiana kurroo Royle Gynandriris sisyrinchium Parl. Hedera nepalensis K. Koch Heracleum candicans Wall. ex DC. Hyoscyamus niger L. Hypericum oblongifolium Choisy Hypericum perforatum L. Hyssopus officinalis L. Indigofera heterantha Wall. ex Brandis Isodon rugosus (Wall. ex Benth.) Codd Jasminum officinale L. Juglans regia L. Juniperus communis L. Lathyrus aphaca L. Launaea procumbens (Roxb.) Ramayya & Rajagopal Lepidium sativum L. Lotus corniculatus L. Malva officinalis (L.) Schimp. & Spenn. ex Schimp. & Spenn. Melia azedarach L. Mentha longifolia (L.) Huds. Mentha spicata L. Micromeria biflora (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) Benth. Morchella vulgaris (Pers.) Boud. Morchella elata Fr. Morchella esculenta (L.) Pers. Morus alba L.

Morus nigra L.

Moraceae

Tour Toot

Tree

Morus laevigata Wall. ex Brandis

Moraceae

Shah Toot

Tree

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Sher et al. - Ethnobotanical and Economic Observations of Some Plant Resources from the Northern Parts of Pakistan
Scientific name Myrsine africana L. Myrtus communis L. Narcissus tazetta L. Nasturtium officinale R. Br. Neolitsea chinensis (Gamble) Chun Family Primulaceae Myrtaceae Amaryllidaceae Brassicaceae Lauraceae Vernacular name(s) Babrang, Marurang, Manru Barge abulanse Gulinargus Talmera Pewand zeala, medachob, Khadang Bardranjbuya Khona Kwaga abai Shamakay Spin azghai Tarukay Mamekh Qashqash Bararra Mangazai Spalani Chir Peyoach, Kail Kakar singi, Shanai Jabai Gwa jabai Chinar Sperkay Kakora Nooreallam Nooreallam Masloon Spina Supida Toura Supida Warkharae Mamera Tangwan Kwanjai Major Use Category Med Med Med, Veg Med, Fod

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Life Form Herb Shrub Herb Herb Herb

Nepeta govaniana (Wall. ex Benth.) Benth. Olea ferruginea Royle Onosma hispida Wall. ex G. Don Origanum vulgare L. Otostegia limbata (Benth.) Boiss. Oxalis corniculata L. Paeonia emodi Wall. ex Royle Papaver dubium L. Periploca aphylla Decne. Picea smithiana (Wall.) Boiss. Peganum harmala L. Pinus roxburghii Sarg. Pinus wallichiana A.B. Jacks. Pistacia integerrima J.L. Stewart ex Brandis Plantago lanceolata L. Plantago major L. Platanus orientalis L. Plectranthus rugosus Wall. ex Benth. Podophyllum hexandrum Royle Polygonatum multiflorum (L.) All. Polygonatum verticillatum (L.) All. Polygonum aviculare L. Populus alba L. Populus nigra L. Portulaca oleracea L. Primula denticulata Sm. Prunus persica (L.) Batsch Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn.

Lamiaceae Oleaceae Boraginaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Oxilidaceae Paeoniaceae Papaveraceae Apocynaceae Pinaceae Nitrariaceae Pinaceae Pinaceae Anacardiaceae Plantaginaceae Plantaginaceae Platanaceae Lamiaceae Berberidaceae Asparagaceae Asparagaceae Polygonaceae Salicaceae Salicaceae Portulacaceae Primulaceae Rosaceae Dennstaedtiaceae

Med Rel, Fru Med Hon Fen Med Med Med Med Tim, Fue Evil Fue, Tim, Too Fue, Tim, Too Med, Fue Med Med Tim, Fue, Too Hon, Roo Med Med Med Med Fue Fue Veg Med Fru, Fod, Fue Veg

Herb Tree Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Shrub Tree Herb Tree Tree Tree Herb Herb Tree Shrub Herb Herb Herb Herb Tree Tree Herb Herb Tree Herb

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Scientific name Punica granatum L.

Ethnobotany Research & Applications

Family Lythraceae Vernacular name(s) Nangoray, Narsawai, Anarpos Shangetei Toor banj Spin banj Ziar Gulay Ziar Gulay Chotial, Rewand chini Samaqdana Harhanda Kurach, Gulab Phalwari Srajarai / mangeet Karwara Shalkhay Tarukey Kahay Naray kahay Spera botai Kherghwag Wala Wala Wala Benakai Reta Ladanr Sharshamay Kut Da Ghra Gul Tori Kowanzali, til seah Matorangay Rai, Khak Sher Kamsal arway Nazar Panra Manraghonay Marraghonary Major Use Category Fru, Med Life Form Shrub

Pyrus pashia Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Quercus dilatata Lindl. Quercus incana W. Bartram Ranunculus arvensis L. Ranunculus muricatus L. Rheum webbianum Royle Rhus semialata Murray Ricinus communis L. Rosa moschata Mill. Rosa webbiana Wall. ex Royle Rubia cordifolia L. Rubus fruticosus L. Rumex dentatus L. Rumex hastatus D. Don, Saccharum griffithii Munro ex Boiss. Saccharum spontaneum L. Salvia lanata Roxb. Salvia moorcroftiana Wall. ex Benth. Salix alba L. Salix babylonica L. Salix tetrasperma Roxb. Sambucus wightiana Wall. ex Wight & Arn. Sapindus detergens Roxb. Sarcococca saligna (D. Don) Mll. Arg. Saussurea atkinsonii C.B. Clarke Saussurea lappa (Decne.) Sch. Bip. Senecio chrysanthemoides DC. Sesamum indicum L. Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke Sisymbrium irio L.

Rosaceae Fagaceae Fagaceae Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae Polygonaceae Anacardiaceae Euphorbiaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rubiaceae Rosaceae Polygonaceae Polygonaceae Poaceae Poaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Salicaceae Salicaceae Salicaceae Caprifoliaceae Sapindaceae Euphorbiaceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Pedaliaceae Caryophylaceae Brassicaceae

Fru Fue, Fod, Too Med, Fue, Fod, Too Poi Fod Med Med Pois Med, Fen Med, Fod Med, Fen Veg Med Too Too Med Med, Roo Too Too, Roo Too Fue, Roo Med, Roo Med Med Med Med Med Med Evil, Vet Vet Poi

Tree Tree Tree Herb Herb Herb Herb Shrub Shrub Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Tree Tree Tree Herb Shrub Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb

Skimmia laureola (DC.) Siebold & Zucc. ex Walp. Rutaceae Solanum nigrum L. Solanum surattense Burm. f. Solanum xanthocarpum Schrad. & H. Wendl. Solanaceae Solanaceae Solanaceae

Kamacho, Makoha Med, Vet

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Sher et al. - Ethnobotanical and Economic Observations of Some Plant Resources from the Northern Parts of Pakistan
Scientific name Sonchus asper (L.) Hill Sorgum halepense (L.) Pers. Spiraea chinensis Maxim. Stachys parviflora Benth. Stellaria media (L.) Vill. Swertia alata C.B. Clarke Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg. Taxus wallichiana Zucc. Thymus serpyllum L. Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague Tribulus terrestris L. Trifolium repens L. Trigonella foenum-graecum L. Urtica dioica L. Valeriana jatamansi Jones Verbascum thapsus L. Verbena officinalis L. Viburnum grandiflorum Wall. ex DC. Viburnum nervosum D. Don Viola biflora L. Viola serpens Wall. ex Ging. Vitex negundo L. Withania coagulans (Stocks) Dunal Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz Zanthoxylum armatum DC. Ziziphus sativa Gaertn. Zizyphus mauritiana Lam. Zizyphus vulgaris Lam. Family Asteraceae Poaceae Rosaceae Lamiaceae Caryophyllaceae Gentianaceae Asteraceae Taxaceae Lamiaceae Apiaceae Zygophylaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Urticaceae Caprifoliaceae Scrophulariaceae Verbenaceae Adoxaceae Adoxaceae Violaceae Violaceae Verbenaceae Solanaceae Solanaceae Lythraceae Rutaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Vernacular name(s) Shauda pai Spirkey Krachae Sper Botai, Kundiyari Oulalai Chirat botay Ziar guali Banrya Zangali ajwain, Sperkai Sperkai Markundai Shaftal Malkhwazi Jalbang Mushk-e-Bala Khardag Shamakai Amoch, Ghuz mava Amoch, Ghuz mava Banafsha Banafsha Maravandai Paneer doda, Shapiyanga Kotilal, Asgand Zangali anar Dambara Markhanai, Unnab Karkana Markhanai/Beer Major Use Category Fod, Vet Fod Roo Pois Fod Med Fod, Med, Fue Med Spi Med Fod Spi Veg Med Med Fod MS MS Med Med Rel, MS Med Med Med, MS Med Fru, Fod Fru, Roo, Fod Fue, Fod

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Life Form Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Tree Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Shrub Shrub Herb Herb Shrub Herb Shrub Shrub Tree Tree Shrub Tree

found to be used for the treatment of stomach and gastrointestinal problems (15 species). Similarly 10 species were used as general body tonic and arthritis, 10 species used for curing of skin disease, aching, scabies and eczema, 05 species were used as anti helmenthic, 7 species were used for curing of sore throat, chest pain and fever, 4 species for treating liver diseases, 6 species for the removal of kidney stone, 3 species for swelling, 2 species

for cut and wound healing, 2 species for curing of nervous disorder, 2 species as laxative and 3 used for the control of diabetes. Sustainable harvesting of the plants depends on the parts used, time and method of harvesting. Therefore, information regarding the harvesting and use of specific parts of MAPs species were also collected. Out of 115 MAP spe-

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Ethnobotany Research & Applications

cies, about 20 plants were used and harvested for their roots and rhizomes. Other most common plants parts were leaves (18 species) followed by other plant parts (Figure 1). Level of knowledge about plant resources The study revealed that the level of knowledge differs in extent among gender, occupational and social groups. For example the Hakims and tenants possess comparatively higher knowledge about MAPs than the general population. Similarly, men have more knowledge than women. Among the men elders were more aware than the younger members of the community. Market study

Fruits & Seeds (5 species) 9% 9% 6% 4% 34% Exudates (2 Species) Whole Plants (5 Species) Leaves (16 Species) Roots & Rhizomes (12 Species) 25% 9% Flowers (4 species) Bark (3 species)

Figure 1. Medicinal and aromatic plant species by category of parts used in coniferous forest of the Miandam Valley of District Swat, northern Pakistan. reported MAPs a total twenty species (Table 2) have high market value and are collected in large amounts for sale. Among these plants the highest price is paid for Morchella esculenta (L.) Pers., Viola serpens Wall. ex Ging., Valeriana jatamansi Jones, Podophyllum hexandrum Royle, Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague, and Bistorta amplexicaulis (D. Don) Greene . The prices of each species vary from year to year and also depend on demand and supply.

The survey revealed that the marketing of MAPs in the area is in the hands of specific collectors and few local shopkeepers. In the study area there are several regular collectors among the residents. They collect considerable quantities of MAPs and supply them to various domestic and national trading centers of Pakistan including local bazaars in Mingora, Peshawar, Islamabad, Lahore and Karachi as well as abroad. The study revealed that out of 114

Table 2. Prices and production volumes for maketable medicinal plants of Miandam Valley, northern Pakistan when sold in Miandam, Madam and other markets. Scientific Name Local Name Part Used In Miandam Price/ Kg (Rs) Adiantum venustum D. Don Ajuga bracteosa Wall. ex Benth. Allium sativum L. Berberis lycium Royle Persusha Booti Ouga Kwaray dried herb dried herb dried whole plant dried root bark dried rhizome fresh floral shoot fresh root 10 15 50 20 50 10 10 10 14 60 40 50 20 14 13 Total prod / year 2000 15 200 70 2500 5000 9000 In Madam Price / Kg (Rs) 18 80 25 120 25 20 Total prod / year 9500 100 50000 100 60000 600000 Oher markets Price / Kg (Rs) 40 200 50 150 40 30

Bistorta amplexicaulis (D. Don) Tarwa Greene Pana Caltha alba Cambess. Cichorium intybus L. Diospyros lotus L. Makan path Han

Toor amlok dried/ ripe fruits

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Sher et al. - Ethnobotanical and Economic Observations of Some Plant Resources from the Northern Parts of Pakistan
Scientific Name Local Name Part Used In Miandam Price/ Kg (Rs) Dryopteris juxtaposita H. Christ Kwanjay Mentha longifolia (L.) Huds. Morchella esculenta (L.) Pers. Paeonia emodi Wall. ex Royle Pistacia integerrima J.L. Stewart ex Brandis Podophyllum hexandrum Royle Punica granatum L. Skimmia laureola (DC.) Siebold & Zucc. ex Walp. Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague Valeriana jatamansi Jones Viola serpens Wall. ex Ging. Zanthoxylum armatum DC. Valenay Gujhai Mamekh Shanai Fresh whole frond dried shoots dried whole fruiting body dried herb 10 10 300 80 13 30 5000 30 Total prod / year 5000 20 20000 1000 In Madam Price / Kg (Rs) 15 60 6000 40 Total prod / year 1000 150 1000 7000

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Oher markets Price / Kg (Rs) 20 100 11000 80

dried insect 80 galls, leaves and bark dried rhizome dried capsule 75 50 20 150 200 30 100 20 120 120 200 60 1000 10 1500 3000 20 40 150 160 270 90 6000 50 60000 70000 100 70 180 200 320 120 140 50 170 100 400

Kakora Nangoray

Nazar pana fresh leaves Sperkai Muske Bala Banafsha Dambara dried fruit dried rhizome dried herb dried fruit

During the survey it was generally observed that for obtaining the plant materials from the study area, the dealers from national markets send representatives to local dealers in Mingora and put their demand. The local dealers pass the message to their agents, i.e., the local shopkeepers of the valley. These agents inform small shopkeepers and collectors. The collectors gather the species for the local shopkeepers and agents. The collectors are illiterate and do not negotiate for the price of the plant materials and gather sizeable quantities but do not receive reasonable returns (Table 2). The dealers of Mingora get the material from the agents when that is ready. In this way the medicinal plants pass through three or four hands (Table 2). Some times daily wages laborers working for Rs. 200-300 per day are employed by the local agents for plant collection but this is not usual. Price fluctuations of species at collector level and beyond The present study evaluated that the price of the plants gradually increases from collector to local, national and international markets at each step in the chain (Table 3). The price was lowest at the collectors level and increasing many fold from collectors to the national markets and

abroad. However, while guessing at the increase of the price from the collector level and beyond, it may be kept in mind that considerable weight of the plant material is lost during drying, cleaning, processing, grading, packing etc. at each level when value is added to the material. This weight loss varies from species to species and the modes of processing for sale. One of the reasons for the low price at collectors level was their lack of awareness of the price of the plants in the trade markets. Investment of work by collectors Time invested was based on the relative availability of the species with respect to the distance and the characteristics of the plant parts. Usually 4-8 hours work at 3-4 km distance was required to gather a bundle of roots of 40-50 kg of for plants like Dioscorea deltoidea Wall. ex Griseb., B. amplexicaule, P. hexandrum, Paeonia emodi Wall. ex Royle and V. jatamansi. The flowers of V. serpens and Hypericum perforatum L. required 6-8 hours time at 3-4 km to collect one kg of flowers (Table 4). Each species is collected manually with high labor cost as compared to other daily activities conducted by locals so the collectors get much less money for their labor.

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Table 3. Market value chain of average prices in Pakistan rupee (PKR) Rs. per kilogram of plant material at different market points. measured from the source of medicinal plant material in Miandam Valley, northern Pakistan. Scientific Name Parts Collected Demand Rates (Rs. per kg) Form Collectors Markets Collector Aconitum laeve Royle Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle Berberis lycium Royle Berberis vulgaris L. Bistorta amplexicaulis (D. Don) Greene Dioscorea deltoidea Wall. ex Griseb. Morchella esculenta (L.) Pers. Podophyllum hexandrum Royle Paeonia emodi Wall. ex Royle Viola serpens Wall. ex Ging. Valeriana jatamansi Jones rhizomes rhizomes bark bark rhizomes rhizomes fruiting bodies rhizomes rhizomes leaves & flowers rhizomes dried dried dried dried dried dried fresh dried dried dried dried 60 60 40 50 80 30 5000 140 40 200 160 Local Market 100 100 60 80 120 50 10000 170 60 250 200 Whole Sale 150 150 80 100 150 80 18000 200 100 350 300 National 200 200 150 200 200 150 25000 250 150 500 350 International 300 300 ------300 250 35000 500 200 1000 500

Table 4 indicates that the population of the selected species has been reduced by more than half in the last 20 to 30 years. The local people traveled one to two km for the collection of some quantity (e.g., 50 kg of rhizomes of D. deltoidea, P. hexandrum, P. emodi, V. jatamansi and B.

amplexicaule and one kg flower / leaves of V. sepens and H. perforatum) of the species in the past and now they traveled 2 to 4 km for the same quantity. Similarly they used to spend one to 4 hours 20 to 30 years ago and now they spend 3 to 8 hours for the same collections.

Table 4. Differences in work investment (distance traveled and time spent) for collection of targeted plants in Miandam Valley, northern Pakistan over a 20 year period of time. Scientific Name Distance Traveled (km) 2008 Aconitum laeve Royle Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle Berberis lycium Royle Berberis vulgaris L. Bistorta amplexicaulis (D. Don) Greene Dioscorea deltoidea Wall. ex Griseb. Hypericum perforatum L. Morchella esculenta (L.) Pers. Paeonia emodi Wall. ex Royle Podophyllum hexandrum Royle Valeriana jatamansi Jones Viola serpens Wall. ex Ging. 3 3 3 2 3 3 3-4 3 3 3 3 3-4 1988 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 Time Spent (hours) 2008 4-5 4-5 4-5 3-4 4-5 4-5 6-8 4-5 4-5 4-5 4-5 6-8 1988 2-3 2-3 2-3 1-2 2-3 2-3 3-4 2-3 2-3 2-3 2-3 3-4 Form of material sold dried dried dried dried dried dried fresh dried dried dried dried fresh

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Sher et al. - Ethnobotanical and Economic Observations of Some Plant Resources from the Northern Parts of Pakistan
Collectors involved The information at the local level had shown that in the study area children were the main collectors (60%) followed by women (30%) local men (15%) and outsiders (5%). Holy and religious plants Table 1 shows that a total of six species, namely Celtis australis L., Ficus carica L., Olea ferruginea Royle and Vitex negundo L. were considered holy or religious trees. They were mostly grown in holy and sacred places such as in shrines, mosques or grave yards. Tool making species Twelve species, including Morus nigra L., Morus alba L., O. ferruginea, Saccharum griffithii Munro ex Boiss., Saccharum spontaneum L. and Quercus dilatata Lindl. were utilized in toll making purposes like plough, digger handle, axles handles, cart handles, and water wheel. Writing pens were made from S. griffithii and S. spontanum. The needles of Pinus roxburgii Sarg. and Pinus wallichiana A.B. Jacks. are used for fruit packing. Similarly, P. roxburgii leaves and the stems of S. griffithii and S. spontanum are used for making brooms (Table 1). Fuel wood A total of 30 species (Table 1) are used for fuel wood. All of the human population in district Swat is dependant on the forests for fuel wood requirements so these plants are essential. Fodder Twenty-eight species are used as fodder. Fodder is drawn from forest, pasture and rangeland. Vegetables and Wild Fruits Twelve wild plants are collected and used as vegetables. Most of these are consumed locally, because of low quantities, higher cost of collection and low prices. Six wild fruit species are gathered with very small quantities marketed.

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cal population could play a useful role in raising the living standard of these rural people as forests are just one element within the complex fabric of rural life. The natural vegetation of the study area is under heavy pressure as a result of overgrazing, illicit cutting, and unauthorized collection of MAPs. Although, plants have varied ethnobotanical uses, they may not be well managed. Olsen and Larsen (2003) and Hussain et al. (2004) reported that the number of endangered species is increasing due to environmental degradation, over grazing and over exploitation in the form of medicinal plants extraction and deforestation. Most of the reported species have multiple uses and these are invariably used for treating local health care needs and for earning extra income. McDicken and Mehl (1990), besides highlighting the improvement aspect in multipurpose trees, also touched upon fruit and fodder aspects of these species. The present study revealed that multipurpose trees and other woody perennials are important sources of food and income generation for rural households. In addition to these advantages, some species have other uses such as fodder, fuel wood, timber wood and medicine. Gunasena (1994) reported that in Sri Lanka, fruit trees (e.g., break fruit, Artocarpus altilis (Parkinson) Fosberg) were supplementing or substituting for the staple rice diet. In Swat several species of fruit trees may serve as a genetic resource base for improvement of commercial species. Some are already used as root stock for grafting/budding of commercial fruit varieties. Exchanging of germplasm in these fruit trees having a wider range of distribution would be very useful. Examples are: Juglans regia L., Diospyros lotus L., F. carica, Pyrus communis L., M. alba and M. nigra. There is a need to conserve these resources for the future, as they are refuges for valuable and endangered animals, especially birds, as well as for our own survival. Most of the species identified from Swat are marketable and provide the opportunity to supplement household income. The market information revealed that district Swat is the collection and trading center for many MAPs. It has a well-established market which supplies sizeable quantities of MAPs to various trading centers of Pakistan and abroad. Sher et al. (2005) also reported that majority of marketable MAPs are collected from Northern areas of Pakistan including Swat. The present study noticed that the structure of MAP trade is complex involving many players. The middlemen who purchase material from collectors sell them either to small shops in the region or to regional middlemen or agents of large dealers, and through this chain of middlemen the material reaches the wholesale dealers of large cities. Wholesalers supply the plant materials then to retailers or pharmaceutical companies or exporters. The price may go quite high as the materials move from the collectors to international markets. The present study observed that prices increase 3 to 5

Discussion
The study identifies that the people of the area rely on 214 plants for medicines, food, fuel, fodder, building materials and other daily products. In spite of the economic importance of any of these species, it is unclear if any are either locally endangered or appears to be on the verge of becoming locally extinct. FAO, (1995) reported the major links between forestry and food security viz: environment, production and socio-economic linkages, which are interrelated. Therefore, forestation with the participation of lo-

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conservation of MAPs, documenting of indigenous knowledge systems and their constant and consistent support is essential for success of conservation in Swat.

fold from collectors to local dealers. However, income derived from the sale of wild plant species is of particular importance to the poorer households who must supplement food production with cash in order to meet basic needs. It was also observed that the MAP species are collected from the wild of the study area on what is apparently a first-come, first-serve basis. There is no management structure tied to the harvesting of resources at present. Therefore, collection volume is likely beyond the regeneration rate. Similar observations were also reported by Sher et al. (2010) and Sher et al. (2005). They stated that the trade and collection of plant materials is mostly handled by unskilled persons. As a result valuable MAPs are damaged due to lack of scientific methods of collection. It was also discovered that collectors now have to exert greater effort and to walk longer distances to collect the same materials of MAPs when compared to twenty years ago. We recorded an increase in elevation and remoteness of the area within the Swat valley where plants are collected, involvement of children and women in the collection of, and dependence on MAPs increased. This agrees with the studies of Khan (1998) who reported that women and children usually gather medicinal plants as a part time business, in the northern areas of Pakistan.

Acknowledgements
We greatly thank the local communities for their willingness to sharing their valuable empirical knowledge and experiences on wild medicinal plants. Thanks are also due to the Forest Department for secondary data of the study area.

Literature Cited
FAO. 1995. Forest Resources Assessment 1990 - Global synthesis. Food and Agriculture Organization, Forestry Paper No. 124. FAO, Rome. www.fao.org/docrep/007/ v5695e/v5695e00.htm Gunasena, H.P.M. 1994. Conservation and Utilization of Multipurpose Trees for Rural Development and Food Security. Paper presented at International Seminar on Conservation/Utilization of MTS for Rural Development, Taiwan Forest Research Institute, Taipei. Hussain, F., H. Sher & M. Ibrar. 2004. Ethnomedicinal profile of some plants of district Swat, Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Plant Sciences 10(2):85-104. Khan, M.H. 1998. Biodiversity of medicinal and economic plants in Northern Himalayan region, Azad Kashmir. Pp. 6-10 in Proceedings of Wild Plant Resources of Northern Pakistan, Workshop. Pakistan Forest Institute, Peshawar, Northwest Frontier Province, Pakistan. May 11-12, 1998. McDicken, K.G & C.B. Mehl. 1990. Farmer perspectives on improvement objectives of MPTs. Pp. 56-60 in Tree Improvement of Multipurpose Species. Edited by N. Glover & N. Adams. Multipurpose Tree Species Network Technical Series, Volume 2. Winrock International, Washington, D.C. Nasir, E. & S.I. Ali. 1971-1994. Flora of Pakistan. Pakistan Agriculture Research Council, Islamabad. Olsen, C.S. & H.O. Larsen. 2003. Alpine medicinal plant trade and and Himalayan mountain livelihood strategies. The Geographical Journal 169(3):243-254. Sher. H., F. Hussain & H. Sher. 2010. Ex-situ management study of some high value medicinal plant species in Swat, Pakistan. Ethnobotany Research and Applications 8:17-24. Sher, H. Z.D. Khan, A.U. Khan & F. Hussain. 2005. In-situ protection management and conservation study of some medicinal plants. Acta Botanica Yunnanica 27:27-36.

Conclusions and Recommendations

The area has endemic and endangered plant species, some of which are of medicinal and economic importance. Indigenous knowledge behind their uses, collection and management is eroding. One reason for this is the lack of awareness among the local community regarding the economic and medicinal importance of MAPs. Another factor contributing in the decline of availability MAPs in the area and eroding of indigenous knowledge is the inadequacy of the MAPs market and lack of government support for it. This is, therefore, an issue of national policies and must be addressed. The study recorded some valuable information about specific MAP species that merits further inquiry. For instance, Rheum webbianum Royle is widely distributed and quite common in Swat valley. Chinese scientists have developed small-scale enterprises for species like this including preparation of jam and prickles, etc. Rheum webbanium could be developed similarly in our country. The population cover and potential density of MAPs appears to be rapidly decreasing. We call for development of adequate size in-situ conservation plots for better management of MAP species. One important lesson learned from this study is that the establishment of a community based enterprise that depends on local biodiversity can be a strategy to provide more equitable returns to community groups and hence incentives for conserving the resource base. In order to ensure the management and

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Sher et al. - Ethnobotanical and Economic Observations of Some Plant Resources from the Northern Parts of Pakistan
Stewart. R.R. 1972. An Annotated Catalogue of the Vascular Plants of West Pakistan and Kashmir. Farkhri Press Karachi. Williams, J.T. & J. Ahmad. 1999. Priorities for Medicinal plants. Research and Development in Pakistan. Medici-

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nal and Aromatic Plants Program in Asia (MAPPA). International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Canada, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Program in Asia-SARO, New Delhi.

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