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What is 'Darshans' ?
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Contents
1. Origin and meaning of Darshan
2. Content
3. Objectives and importance
4. Doctrines
5. Special features
6. Number
6.1 The main Darshans
6.2 Other Darshans
7. History
8. Types
8.1 Theist and atheist Darshans
8.2 Vedic (theist) Darshans
8.3 Darshans complementary to the Vedas (Agams)
8.4 Non-Vedic (atheist) Darshans
9. Spiritual practice
1. Origin and meaning of Darshan
Drush (T ) meaning to see is the root from which the word darshan ( ) has been derived.
T means that path by means of which the God principle is seen (realised) are the
scriptures known as Darshans (Shabdakalpadrum).
7 U means the Darshans comprise of a science which help a seeker to realise the God
principle (Nyayakosh). Thus the Darshans are referred to by scholars as scriptures which teach about the
principles in this world as well as those in the worlds beyond.
The literal meaning of the word darshan is knowledge acquired through vision or that which is actually seen.
This is evident from a few quotes from the Upanishads. When explaining the comparative strength and
weakness of external organs, the Bruhadaranyak quotes like H c meaning what the eyes see is the
truth and H 9* meaning what the eyes see is factual (5.14.4; 6.1.3). When discussing the first quote
Shri Shankaracharya explains -
1 q | @
T* c 7 c T* 1 c
5H 1 |
Meaning: When one comes across two people making contradictory statements of which one says I have
witnessed it and the other says I have heard that what you have seen is not as you say so one should
believe the former and not the latter.
Thus in comparison with the other organs the eyes are the closest to the truth. The word darshan was used to
refer to the science of Spirituality whose aim is to study the ultimate truth, as it seeks to discriminate
between what is the soul and what is not.
2. Content
The main objective of all the Darshans is describing the soul principle. While describing the soul principle they
discuss various issues such as what is the embodied soul, how it originated, the true nature of the manifest world,
how it was created, the reason for its creation, whether it is gross or endowed with divine consciousness, etc.
Answering such questions with conviction is considered an analogous objective of the Darshans. The world, the
embodied soul, God and the Final Liberation (Moksha) are the four main concepts discussed in all the Darshans.
These questions have been discussed from the point of view of past, present and future lives upto the Final
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Liberation.
From the point of view of present life: This discusses all categories based on the belief that the visible world
itself is the sole reality. Authors of the Darshans like Charvak professed this viewpoint.
From the point of view of past and present life: This is the viewpoint which along with the present birth of an
embodied soul accepts the doctrine of its past births. Authors of all the Darshans describing the soul principle
except Charvak belonged to this school of thought.
From the point of view of past, present and future lives upto the Final Liberation: The concept discussed here
considers the Final Liberation (Moksha) as the ultimate goal of life. Both the viewpoints i.e. that of the present
and past lives are included in this school of thought so as to be able to discuss Spirituality on the plane of
past, present and future lives leading to the Final Liberation.
3. Objectives and importance
There is a very close association between life and the Darshans. In short, life and the Darshans are designed for
each other. To bestow an embodied soul undergoing the three types of suffering, with Serenity (Shanti) and
satisfaction and to liberate one from the world full of conflicts the various Darshans were compiled in India.
All the principles discussed in the Darshans are basically found in the Upanishads. However they are not arranged
systematically; but are found at random. The spiritual experiences that the sages of those days acquired through
penance and contemplation were recorded by Them in the Upanishads. However spiritual experiences being
subjective, they differ from each other. Despite this being so all of them are in the context of The Supreme Principle.
Each one expressed the spiritual experience of The Supreme Principle as He realised it. Hence theoretical
clarification of doubts in the Upanishads is not in a particular order. None of the principles in the Upanishads are
bound by serial order. Although the Principle is one, the viewpoints about its nature are numerous. The Darshans
then undertook the mission of resolving these mutually conflicting concepts and of arranging them sequentially to
create a science.
4. Doctrines
The two doctrines which one comes across while studying the Indian Darshans are -
The Vedanta Darshan which elucidates the doctrine based on the logic of spiritual unity of the universe which
contains various objects named differently.
Actualisation of The Supreme Soul which is the fundamental support of the all pervading unity through
meditation, concentration and the superconscious state (samadhi). This is a practical doctrine and is
elaborated upon in the Yoga Darshan.
The ancient Vedic sages realised this spiritual oneness associated with the basic Great Illusion existing in different
forms and that which undergoes transformation from moment to moment, by direct experience and later compilers of
the Darshans established it by describing it logically and with examples. Just as a changeless Principle exists in the
ever changing universe pervading within and outside it, so also does it exist inside and outside the embodied soul
(pinda). It is the only principle which regulates the embodied soul and the universe. The Upanishads preach that
realisation of this single soul principle existing throughout the embodied soul and universe is the ultimate goal of
human life.
5. Special features
A. A logical basis: The Indian (Bharatiya) scriptures of the Darshans are not based merely on blind faith. Logic has
been used everywhere in their compilation. Different authors of the Darshans have presented important topics such
as God, using the concepts of Brahman with the help of logic and not in their own way. All the Darshans seem to
aim towards Self-realisation. c @ meaning get to know the soul is the basic mantra of the Darshans. To
realise the soul it has to be distinguished from all objects which are not the soul. This itself is known as the faculty
of discrimination between what is the soul and what is not (atmanatmavivek). The Indian Darshans have used this
faculty of discrimination everywhere based on logical thinking. The Darshans are written based on proofs (pramans),
ideas, logic and the spiritual experience of Self-realisation of knowledgeable souls.
B. The Path to attainment of Final Liberation when still embodied (Sadeha mukti): Majority of the Darshans
have primarily emphasised upon the Final Liberation (Moksha). The Final Liberation is the fruit of nectar (amrutphal)
of the wish-fulfilling tree (kalpavruksha) which exists in the form of the Darshans. The sole tool to attain the Final
Liberation is spiritual knowledge. The unanimous proclamation of all the Darshans is 77 4 : meaning
there is no Final Liberation without spiritual knowledge. The general belief is that the Final Liberation is attained only
after death; but this is not so. Most of the Darshans have clearly stated that man can attain it when still embodied. In
short, Liberation during embodiment (jivanmukti) is the ultimate target of most Darshans. This concept is a very
precious gift bestowed by the Upanishads.
6. Number
6.1 The main Darshans
There was a master (acharya) named Haribhadra in the twelfth century A.D. who wrote a holy text called
Shadadarshansamuchchaya which discusses six Darshans comprising of three non-Vedic viz. Charvak, Buddhist
and Jain and three Vedic Darshans viz. Nyaya-Vaisheshik, Sankhya-Yoga and Mimansa-Vedanta.
From the era of the Rugveda two philosophies are noticed in the Indian sphere. The first is based on spiritual intellect
(pradnya) and the second on logic (tarka). The Upanishad philosophy was generated later with the confluence of both
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these philosophies and culminated in the Vedanta which is based on spiritual intellect and which establishes the
oneness of the soul and The Supreme Soul. It is from the pure philosophy based on logic that later Darshans like the
Sankhya and Yoga which believed in the duality of the Great Illusion (Prakruti) and the Absolute Being (Purush) and
the Nyaya-Vaisheshik Darshans which professed multiplicity were written. Some authors of the Darshans segregated
themselves from the Vedas and began to analyse the principles independently with logic. It is from this that the Syad
philosophy of the Jains, the Shunya philosophy of the Buddhists, the philosophy of science (vidnyanvad) and
Charvaks Bhutatmavad philosophy came into existence.
6.2 Other Darshans
The word shadadarshane is used to refer to the six Darshans (shad means six). However there is a difference in
opinion of scholars regarding which Darshans are to be incorporated in these shadadarshans. It is not definite that
the number of the Darshans is six. It is seen that one who felt attracted towards a particular philosophy considered it
to be a Darshan. Madhavacharya in His holy text the Sarvadarshansangraha places the number of Darshan holy
texts at sixteen. A separate text on the Charvak Darshan is not available. It is known by virtue of its reference made
in other holy texts.
7. History
The history of the Indian Darshans can be divided into the following four periods of time.
The Vedic period: This extends from the period of the Sanhitas to that of the Upanishads. During this period
the basic doctrines of the Darshans were highlighted and discussed at length in the Brahmans and Aranyaks
through the Sanhitas of the Rugveda and the Atharvaveda; with the Upanishads enhancing their growth further.
The post-Vedic period: During this period the Darshans opposing the Vedas such as the Charvak, Jain and
Buddhist Darshans came to be written.
The period of the Sutras: The period from 450 to 250 B.C. is called the period of the Sutras during which the
sages who wrote the Darshans expressed Their own different opinions incorporating the principles advocated
by the Upanishads. The basic Sutras of the Nyaya, Vaisheshik, Sankhya, Yoga, Mimansa and Vedanta
Darshans were compiled during this very period. These Sutras are considered to be the basic holy texts of the
respective Darshans. Along with the establishment of personal opinions the opinions of others are also
countered. (It is during this period that some Smrutis too were written.)
The period of commentaries (bhashya): This period is vast extending from 200 A.D. to 1450 A.D. During this
period the Sutras proved difficult to comprehend as they were brief and in the form of a summary. After
creation of such a state of affairs, commentaries, varttiks and commentaries (tika) on the Sutras of those
Darshans were compiled. Shabar, Kumaril, Vatsyayan, Prashastapad, Shankar, Ramanuj, Vachaspati and
Udayan are prominent commentators on the Darshans of this period. Not only did these exponents unravel
the secrets of previous masters but also established their own concepts. The characteristic of the texts of this
period is establishing ones own philosophy by countering the opinions of the opposite school, based on
reasoning. (It is during this very period that the other Smrutis were written.)
8. Types
8.1 Theist and atheist Darshans
The Indian Darshans can be grossly classified into theist and atheist Darshans. The theist Darshans believe in the
Vedas as the axiom while the atheist Darshans do not. From this point of view the Nyaya, Vaisheshik, Sankhya,
Yoga, Mimansa and Vedanta are theist Darshans and Charvak, Jain and Buddhist are atheist Darshans.
In common language, believers of God are called theists and non-believers are called atheists. However this
classification of Darshans is not based on this conventional meaning because though the Mimansa is a theist
Darshan it refutes the existence of God. The Sankhya Darshan too does not consider the necessity of God and
believes that the universe is created, sustained and destroyed by the interaction of the Great Illusion (Prakruti) and
the Absolute Being (Purush).
Panini has defined a theist and an atheist respectively as a believer and a non-believer in the existence of life beyond
the earth (Ashtadhyayi 4.4.60). However according to this definition the Jain and Buddhist Darshans too would have
to be incorporated in the theist Darshans because though they do not believe in the Vedas and God they certainly
believe in life beyond, in the other regions.
Some Darshans have been created on the basis of the Agam holy texts. One wonders whether to call them theist or
atheist because though they lie outside the purview of the Vedas they accept certain concepts such as the doctrine
of the Law of Karma, rebirth, the Final Liberation, etc. from the theist Darshans. There is an odd admixture of various
Vedic and non-Vedic doctrines in the Panchratrasanhita, Shaivasanhita and Shaktasanhita holy texts. In the verse
(shloka) Trayi sankhyam yogaha pashupatimatam vaishnavmiti ( E : * ) from the
Shivamahimnastotra there is a mention of a Vaishnav Darshan. Though this Darshan too is non-Vedic it believes in
concepts such as rebirth advocated by the theist Darshans. This will make it clear that it is very difficult to classify a
Darshan created from the Agam texts as purely theist or atheist.
Indian culture is based on the Nigam and Agam texts; that is one base is the Nigams (Vedas) and the other is the
Agams (Tantras). Thus it would be wise and beneficial to explain the Darshans based on both these schools of
thought.
(1)
8.2 Vedic (theist) Darshans
The table below gives the names of the six Darshans and their authors. The noteworthy point here is that these
theist Darshans were present several centuries before they were compiled as Sutras. So in reality the authors of the
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Sutras were not their prime exponents. Information in this regard is given here only in brief and is elaborated upon in
Science of Spirituality: Vol. 14 - Path of Knowledge (Dnyanyoga).
Darshan Author Darshan Author
1. Nyaya Sage Gautam 4. Yoga Maharshi Patanjali
2. Vaisheshik Sage Kanad
5. Purva
(mimansa)
Sage Jaimini
3. Sankhya Sage Kapil 6. Vedanta
(Uttarmimansa)
Maharshi Vyas
A. The Nyaya Darshan: This is the main from among the six Darshans. Substantiating the precepts of nyaya was
the topic of the Nyaya Darshan. 9 |H 7 : defines nyaya as examining the Absolute principle using
various proofs (pramans) [Vatsyayan Nyayabhashya 1.1.1]. This has acquired the name of Nyaya Darshan because it
contains the description of the form of proofs and the general nature of examination of the proofs.
(2)
B. The Vaisheshik Darshan: It is also known as the Kanad or Aulukya Darshan. Both the names are derived from
its pioneer author Kanad, the son of Sage Uluk. Since a substance called vishesh is conceptualised in this
Darshan it is called the Vaisheshik Darshan.
(3)
C. The Sankhya Darshan: This is one out of the six Indian Darshans. This Darshan originated during the period of
the Atharvaveda. Its concepts have left a deep imprint upon the ancient Kath, Shvetashvatar, Prashna and Maitrayani
Upanishads. This Darshan came to occupy a firm position in Indian philosophy in the post-Upanishad period. Indian
Vedic scholars created the Darshan philosophy merging the Sankhya and the Vedanta. The philosophy in holy texts
such as the Mahabharat, Gita, Purans and Manusanhita is based on the confluence between the Sankhya and the
Vedanta. The Buddhist and Jain schools of thought also emerged in the atmosphere of the Sankhya Darshan.
Perhaps the Sankhya philosophy came into existence approximately around 800 B.C. and is based on pure
rationalism.
The name Sankhya can be defined in different ways. This Darshan first and foremost enumerated the principles. The
enumeration is also called sankhya (number). This Darshan was so named because it attributed importance to the
number. Another definition of sankhya is the power of discrimination (vivek).
(4)
1 + 1
meaning the Great Illusion (Prakruti) is the state of equilibrium (unmanifest state) of the three components - sattva,
raja and tama. The Great Illusion is also known as the unmanifest (avyakta) and primordial principle (pradhan).
According to the Sankhyas (followers of the Sankhya philosophy) the Great Illusion is the cause for all that is gross
or subtle. It being very subtle can be realised through some external medium. However since it incorporates the
above three components they also manifest in all objects in the universe. The Great Illusion is eternal, all pervading,
gross and independent. It is manifest and has a form and assumes new forms from moment to moment.
(5)
Man
gets trapped in the cycles of birth and death because of his ignorance about the Great Illusion and the Absolute
Being (Purush). But when he realises that the Absolute Being (embodied soul) is distinct and independent of the
Great Illusion he attains the Final Liberation (Moksha). Because of the importance attributed to this knowledge of
discrimination, this Darshan was named the Sankhya. Since this Darshan believes in the two basic concepts of the
Great Illusion (Prakruti) and the Absolute Being (Purush) it belongs to the dualistic philosophy. Sage Kapil the
exponent of this Darshan is called the foremost author of the Darshans and is glorified as the foremost scholar
because during the ancient times this Darshan influenced the thinking of the people to a great extent.
(6)
D. The Yoga Darshan: This is one of the six Darshans. Since its doctrines resemble those of the Sankhya Darshan
a great deal, it is always associated with the latter. The Sankhya Darshan believes in twenty-five principles which are
also accepted by the Yoga Darshan. Only the twenty-sixth principle, that of God which is rejected by the Sankhya
Darshan is accorded great importance in the Yoga Darshan. The science of Yoga is closely associated with the
science of vital energies (pran). The vital energies are directly connected to the science of Yoga through pranayam.
All the Upanishads have advocated victory over the mind and the vital energies as the means to attain the Final
Liberation.
(7)
E. (Purva) Mimansa Darshan: This too is one of the six Darshans. The word mimansa () is derived from the
root word man ( ) meaning worship or opposition when suffixed with the dative case (pratyay) san ( ). It is also
called the Purvamimansa. The Mimansas are defined as the decision of principles after contemplation. Mimansas
are thus those texts which decide the meaning of Vedic mantras by surpassing the contradictions from among
mutually contradictory Vedic mantras. Kumarilbhatt says -
E 4 : 9
Meaning: Discussion of the topic of Righteousness (Dharma) is the very purpose of the Mimansas.
The Shrutis are divided into two categories - the stage of ritualistic worship (karmakand) and the stage of spiritual
knowledge (dnyankand). The stage of ritualistic worship deals with explanation of the rituals and practice of sacrificial
fires. The task of the stage of spiritual knowledge is to describe the forms of the embodied soul (jiva), the universe
and God and their relationships with one another. These Darshans were primarily created to eliminate the apparently
contradictory statements between them. Since ritualistic worship is the first part of the Vedas it is called the Purva
(pre) Mimansa and since the stage of spiritual knowledge is the final stage of the Vedas, the Vedanta it is known as
the Uttar (post) Mimansa.
(8)
F. (Uttar) Mimansa or the Vedanta Darshan: It is also called the Vedanta, Uttarmimansa and the Shankardarshan.
This Darshan is the jewel in the crown of the entire science of Spirituality. This Darshan envisages the ultimate
culmination of the Darshanik school of thought and philosophy prior to Shankaracharya. In the Upanishads the
Vedanta is referred to as the ultimate doctrine of the Shrutis. The Upanishads themselves were called the Vedanta.
The definition of the Vedanta can be given as -
H9 5 07 :
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c H
7 c 7 - 7
Meaning: The concluding part of the Vedas and the holy text in the form of the Upanishads which describes
Brahman is known as the Vedanta. - Nyayakosh
(9)
The Brahmasutras too elucidate the meaning of the Upanishads and hence are included in the Vedanta. The
Upanishads were referred to as the Vedanta because they unravelled the mysterious meaning of the Vedas. Sage
Badarayan compiled the Brahmasutras with the motive of eliminating the contradictions and differences of opinion in
the Upanishads and creating an unanimous opinion.
Worship and spiritual practice have to be founded on some Darshan. Only then do they derive some significance.
Prior to the elucidation of the unmanifest form of The Lord done in the Vedas there was no Darshan about its
manifestation. Sage Vyas wrote the Brahmasutras and accomplished that task. He gathered the spiritual doctrines
in that holy text in the form of aphorisms (sutras). Shankaracharya, Nimbarkacharya, Ramanujacharya,
Vallabhacharya, Madhvacharya and other authors of the Darshans have compiled their own sectarian Darshans
based on the Brahmasutras.
(10)
8.3 Darshans complementary to the Vedas (Agams)
Another name for the Tantra texts are the Agams. They preach the modes of accomplishing the two pursuits of life
(purusharthas) viz. experiencing worldly pleasures and attaining the Final Liberation. The texts describing the forms
of actions (karma), spiritual practice and knowledge are the Nigams and those advocating the paths of spiritual
practice are the Agams. This is their distinguishing feature. The Varahi Tantra states that creation, dissolution,
offering made unto deities, all spiritual practices, purashcharan (recitation of mantras), the spiritual practice of six
actions (shatakarma) and the Path of Meditation (Dhyanyoga) are the seven characteristics of the Agam texts. The
Agams too have two classes - the Vedic and the non-Vedic. The Buddhist Agams are non-Vedic. Although the
Shaiva, Shakta and Pancharatra (Vaishnav) Agams fall outside the purview of the Vedas they are still in
concordance with them.
A. The Shaiva Agam (Shaivagam Darshan): The four sects namely Pashupat, Shaiva, Kalamukh and Kapalik are
known as Maheshvar. Their original religious and theoretical texts of doctrines are called the Shaivagams. All the
three schools of thought - duality (dvait), non-duality (advait) and duality-non-duality (dvaitadvait) are found in the
Shaivagam. Information on these is provided in Science of Spirituality : Vol. 9 A - Shiva.
B. The Shakta Darshan: These Agams state that the embodied soul doing spiritual practice (jivatma) is not distinct
from The Supreme Soul (Paramatma). The Shakta Darshan chiefly advocates spiritual practice according to the
philosophy of non-duality. Excluding kamachar (the kama code of conduct) all the six codes of conduct from the
Shaktas are originally from the Vedas. More information on this is given in Science of Spirituality : Vol. 9 B - Divine
Energy (Shakti).
C. The Pancharatra (Vaishnav) Darshan: The Pancharatra Agam is considered as the representative of all the other
Vaishnav Agams. This Agam appears to have been prevalent during the era of the Upanishads. One has to accept
that it is definitely older than the Mahabharat. All the Vaishnav Agams believe Lord Vishnu to be both the means as
well as the end. This Agam lays emphasis on the principle of surrender. The basic doctrine of the Pancharatra Agam
is described in the Shrutis. Description of the Pancharatra satra (ritual) is given in the Shatpath Brahman 13.6.1. The
Vaishnav Agam gives the meaning of the word ratra as spiritual knowledge. This Agam is named Pancharatra (panch
means five) because it advocates knowledge of five things - the supreme principle, worldly experiences, the Final
Liberation, yoga and the material world. Since this Agam substantiates the oneness of the embodied soul and
Brahman it does not accept the Vivartvad (philosophy of the Great Illusion) of the followers of non-duality (advait). It
advocates the Parinamvad philosophy described by the Sankhya, Yoga and other Darshans.
(11)
Information on this
is given in Science of Spirituality : Vol. 8 - Vishnu and His Forms (including Maruti and Datta).
8.4 Non-Vedic (atheist) Darshans
Though the Buddhist and Jain Darshans do not accept the Vedic doctrines it would be improper to eliminate them
from the hierarchy of the Upanishads. These are independent Darshans which impede the Upanishad hierarchy or
philosophy. Their origin was related to the circumstances of the prevalent times. These Darshans came into
existence to eliminate the great burden of rituals incorporated in the Vedic tradition and the various unrelated things
that were also incorporated in it.
(12)
The Buddhist Agam literature is written in Pali while the Jain literature is in the
Ardhamagadhi language. However the Darshans of both are in Sanskrut since it was the language of the scholars of
those days.
The Buddhist Darshan: Even Buddha accepted the doctrine that the Final Liberation cannot be attained without
spiritual knowledge. All the same mere intellectual knowledge without purity of conduct does not liberate man. This
very realisation led Him to emphasise on the path of conduct.
The Jain Darshan: The Jain Darshan also accords great importance to conduct. To resolve the problem of conduct
the Jains created a separate philosophy of their own. The doctrine of this Darshan is that the truth is relative. The
Jain teachers state that all the Darshans which set out in search of the truth finally found only a part of it, they did
not realise the entire truth. Only this Darshan has been successful in describing the entire form of the ultimate truth
both as theist and atheist philosophies. All other Darshans are incomplete; only this Darshan is complete. Since the
object principle is present in various forms, the Jains called this doctrine of theirs the Anekant (multifold) philosophy.
The path shown by all the Jain teachers is based on this philosophy.
(13)
The Charvak Darshan: This is an Indian philosophy advocating materialism. This text is spoken of in various holy
texts and some holy texts have even criticised it. No separate text specific to this Darshan is available.
9. Spiritual practice
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The verse (shloka) below advocates what one should do to attain Self-realisation.
: 4 7 :
c
:
Meaning: One should hear a discourse about the soul from the Shrutis, should contemplate with the help of logical
concepts and develop intense yearning by performing meditation, etc. according to the Path of Yoga. These are the
three modes of realising the soul.
The Darshans have explained the above three means as follows.
Listening to a discourse (shravan): The first means of attaining Self-realisation is understanding the nature
of the soul through knowledge. The Shrutis elucidate the spiritual experiences of Self-realised knowers of
Brahman which helps in this process.
Contemplation (manan): This is the second means for Self-realisation. The Darshans have discussed their
viewpoints and methods of realisation of the soul. The Praman mimansa being an extremely useful book for
contemplation, it has been endowed tremendous importance in the Darshans.
Intense yearning (nididhyasan): The third means of attaining Self-realisation is intense yearning (through
meditation, concentration, etc.). It has been described in the Yoga Darshan. So long as the soul does not get
experiences through meditation, concentration, etc. till then the first two means prove to be futile.
(14)
Reference:
Righteousness (Dharma), published by Sanatan Sanstha.
Bharatiya Sanskrutikosh. Publisher: Pandit Mahadevshastri Joshi, Secretary, Bharatiya Sanskrutikosh Mandal, 410
Shanivar Peth, Pune 411 030.
First edition: Vol. 3 to 10, Second edition: Vol. 1 and 2
[1]. Vol. 4, Pg. 299-303 [2]. Vol. 5, Pg. 266
[3]. Vol. 9, Pg. 136 [4]. Vol. 9, Pg. 702
[5]. Vol. 5, Pg. 693 [6]. Vol. 9, Pg. 702
[7]. Vol. 7, Pg. 660 [8]. Vol. 7, Pg. 385-386
[9]. Vol. 1, Pg. 130 [10]. Vol. 9, Pg. 158
[11]. Vol. 4, Pg. 302, 303 [12]. Vol. 4, Pg. 302
[13]. Vol. 4, Pg. 302 [14]. Vol. 4, Pg. 301
For more information on this article read Sanatan's publication ' Righteousness (Dharma)'.
Sanatan Sanstha has undertaken mission of awakening righteousness and spreading spirituality in India and abroad. For further
details contact: sanatan@sanatan.org
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