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Course E-4014

AC Waveforms: Basic Quantities for Non-
Electrical Engineers

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Copyright 2009 Peter Basis, PE

ACWaveforms:
BasicQuantities

PeterBasis

Copyright 2009 Peter Basis,PE

2

ACWaveforms:BasicQuantities

AC (Alternating Current) waveforms refer to continually changing timevarying voltages

and currents. The magnitude and direction of these voltages and currents vary in a set manner
fromaminimumtoamaximumvalue,inaspecifictimeinterval.ThisisincontrasttoDC(Direct
Current), where currents or voltages do not change in magnitude or direction. They are uni
directional. ACwaveformscan besinusoidal(sinewave), square ortriangular asshowninfigure
1.1.
Sinusoidalwaveformsaretheonesgeneratedbytheutilitycompaniesandareavailablein
ourhomesandplaceofwork.Thesquareandthetriangularwaveformsaremadefromsinusoidal
waveforms with the help of electronic circuitry. The only waveform available in nature is the
sinusoidal. All other waveforms are composed of many superimposed sinusoids. The sinusoidal
waveformistheonlyACwaveformnotaffectedbytheresponseofResistance(R),Inductance(L),
andCapacitance(C).ThismeansthatwhenasinusoidalwaveformexcitesR,L,andC,theoutputis
alsoasinusoidalwaveform.
ThebasicDClawsKirchhoffsVoltageLaw,KirchhoffsCurrentLaw,andOhm'sLawgovern
ACcircuits.AsinDCquantities,theselawswillsolveanyACnetwork.ACquantities,however,are
morecomplicatedthanDCquantities.TosolveforACquantitiesoneneedstousetheconceptof
thephasorandcomplexalgebra,aswillbeshownlaterinthistext.

Copyright 2009 Peter Basis,PE

3

1.1 BasicDefinitions

Before proceeding with the analysis of AC networks, it is important to become familiar

some basic definitions. Using the sinusoidal voltage shown in figure 1.2, quantities are defined
below,whicharetrueforanyACvoltageorcurrent,andsinusoidal,squareortriangularwaves:

PeriodicWaveform awaveformthatcontinuouslyrepeatsitself.

Period(T) thetimeintervalrequiredbetweensuccessiverepetitionsof
the periodic waveform. T designates the period of any
periodic waveform. The best approach in measuring the
periodTistousesuccessivecrossingsofthezeroaxiswitha
positiveslope,asshowninfigure1.2.

Cycle theperiodoftheperiodicwaveform.

Frequency(f) thenumberofcyclesofthewaveforminonesecond.Aunit
of the frequency is 1 cycle per second. This unit is also
known as Hertz [Hz], and it is named after its inventor
HeinrichR.Hertz.

PeakValue themaximumvalueofthewaveformusingthezerolevelas
Copyright 2009 Peter Basis,PE
4

reference.Infigure1.2,thepeakvalueisindicatedasV
p
.

PeaktoPeakValue thedistancebetweenthepositivepeak(maximum)andthe
negativepeak(minimum).ThisvalueisdesignatedasV
pp
in
figure1.2.

InstantaneousValue thevalueofthewaveformatanyinstantoftime.Lowercase
lettersareusedfortheinstantaneousvalue.

It is most important to define a set of polarities for a sinusoidal AC voltage source and a
directionforasinusoidalACcurrentsource.Thisisdonebychoosinganinstantoftimeduringthe
positivehalfcycleofthesinusoidalwaveforms.Allsinusoidalsourcesareconsideredinthepositive
half cycle, so distinct polarities can be assigned for the voltages and distinct directions for the
currentsasinDCquantities.
The frequency and the period are related with the following equation where f is in Hertz
[Hz]andTisinseconds[s].

f=
1
T
(11)

Thefrequencyofaperiodicwaveformthathasaperiodof20msis:

f=
1
T
=
1
20 x 10
-3
=50Hz

Whenthefrequencyofaperiodicwaveformis250Hz,theperiodis:

T=
1
I
=
1
250
=4x1u
-3
s=4ms

Theequationthatdescribesthesinusoidalwaveformoffigure1.2is:

V=V
p
sint (12)

where:

V
p
isthepeakvalue

sin indicatesasinewave,and

is the angular velocity of a radius vector that rotates about a center. This
vector has magnitude V
p
, see figure 1.3, and the sinusoidal waveform can
beconstructedtakingthelengthoftheverticalprojection,ateveryinstant
ofrotationofthisvector,overonecompleterotation.Theangularvelocity
is calculated as the ratio of distance over time, where the distance is
Copyright 2009 Peter Basis,PE
5

measuredinradiansordegreesandthetimeinseconds.Observethatthe
unit of t is [(rad/s)(s)] = [rad], thus concluding that the argument of the
sinewaveisanangle(=t)inradians.

ThetimetheradiusvectorrequirestomakeacompleterotationisequaltotheperiodT(in
seconds)andthedistancethathastraveledisequalto2radians(thereare2radiansinacircle).
Theangularvelocitycanbecalculatedwiththefollowingformula:

=
2
T
[
rad
s
](13)

Sincef=1/T,then:
= 2f [
rad
s
](14)

Theangularvelocityofasinewavethathasafrequencyof60Hzis:

=2f=2(3.14rad)(60Hz)=377rad/s

1.2 PhaseRelations

Infigure1.4thesinusoidalwaveformV=V
p
sintisrepresentedusingtheradianasthe
unit of measurement for the abscissa. The maximum is at /2, the minimum at 3/2, and zero
valueat0,and2.

Copyright 2009 Peter Basis,PE

6

In figure, 1.5 the same sinusoidal waveform is sifted degrees to the left of 0
o
. The
equationthatdescribesthesinusoidalwaveforminfigure1.5is:

V=V
p
sin(t+) (15)

where: tisinradiansand

isindegrees.

The reason for equation (15) is that if degrees are added to the sinusoid of figure 1.5,
thenitwillbecomethesinusoidoffigure1.4,whichisaregularsinusoidthatstartsat0
o
.Equation
(15)isusedforanysinusoidalvoltageorcurrentthatisshifteddegreestotheleftof0
o
.
Consider the sinusoid of figure 1.6, which is shifted degrees to the right of the 0
o
. The
equationthatdescribesthesinusoidalwaveforminfigure1.6is:
Copyright 2009 Peter Basis,PE
7

V=V
p
sin(t) (16)

where:
tisinradiansand

isindegrees.

Thereasonforequation(16)isthatifdegreesaresubtractedfromthesinusoidoffigure
1.6,thenitwillbecomethesinusoidoffigure1.4,whichisaregularsinusoid.Equation(16)isused
foranysinusoidalvoltageorcurrentthatisshifteddegreestotherightof0
o
.
Considerthecosinewaveinfigure1.7(a).Thesinewaveisshiftedtotheleftby90
o
asseen
fromfigure1.7(b),makingthefollowingistrueregardingsinesandcosines:

cost=sin(t+90
o
) (15)

sint=cos(t90
o
) (16)

Since the sinusoids, in figure 1.7, have the same frequency one can say that the cosine leads ( is
ahead of) the sine by 90
o
or the sine lags (is behind) the cosine by 90
o
. As a result, these two
sinusoidsare90
o
outofphase.
Copyright 2009 Peter Basis,PE
8

The phase angle between two waveforms is measured between the points where the
waveforms cross the horizontal axis with a positive going slope. These waveforms are out of
phasebythenumberofdegreesthatseparatedthem.Whentwowaveformscrossthehorizontal
axisatthesamepoint,thesewaveformsareinphase.
Belowisalistofsomeadditionalrelations,whichhelpusfindthephaserelationsbetween
waveforms:

sin(t)=sint=sin(t180
o
) (17)

cos(t)=cost (18)

Copyright 2009 Peter Basis,PE

9

cost=cos(t180
o
) (19)

Observe that relation (17) shows a negative sign in a sinusoidal expression deals with the sine
portionoftheexpressionandnotthepeakvalueofthesinusoid.

Whatisthephaserelationshipbetweenthefollowingsinusoidalwaveforms?Seefigure1.8.

v=100sin(314t30
o
)
i=50sin(314t+15
o
)

ileadsvby45
o
or vlagsiby45
o
.

Although both statements above are correct, in practice, one indicates what the current
doeswithrespecttothevoltageanditispreferabletosaythat:

ileadsvby45
o

1.3 AverageorDCValue

TheaverageorDCvalueofaperiodicwaveformis:

AVERAGE=
AREA UNDER THE CURVE FOR ONE FULL PERIOD
THE PERIOD

From the above definition, it is evident that the average value of a pure sinusoidal
Copyright 2009 Peter Basis,PE
10

waveform over one full cycle is zero, as shown in figure 1.9. This is because the area above the
horizontalaxisisequalandoppositeoftheareabelowthehorizontalaxis.Further,sincethenet
areaunderthecurve,overonefullperiodiszero,thentheaveragevalueofthesinusoidiszero.
ThisistrueforanysinusoidalorotherACwaveformwhosecenterisonthehorizontalaxis.

Calculatetheaveragevalueofthesquarewaveshowninfigure1.10:

Here the area on top of the horizontal axis is equal and opposite of the area below the
horizontalaxismakingtheaveragevalueofthesquarewaveequaltozero.

Calculatetheaveragevalueofthesquarewaveshowninfigure1.11:

The area on top of the horizontal axis is greater than the area below the horizontal axis,
resultinginanaveragevalueforthissquarewave.

Areaoftopportion:A
1
=(10V)(1ms)=10Vms

Areaofbottomportion:A
2
=(2V)(1ms)=2Vms

Average=
A
1
- A
2
PcrIod
=
10 Vms -2 Vms
2 ms
=4V

Copyright 2009 Peter Basis,PE

11

TheaverageorDCvalueofthissquarewaveis4Volts.Thesquarewave,showninfigure
1.11,iscomposedbya4VDClevelanda6Vpeakvaluesquarewaveridingonthat4VDC
level,asseeninfigure1.12.

Copyright 2009 Peter Basis,PE

12

1.4 RMSorEffectiveValue

Consider the resistor R with the DC voltage source circuit in figure 1.13. The power
dissipatedbytheresistoris:

P
DC
=I
2
R

Figure 1.14 shows the same resistor connected to an AC voltage source. The current
suppliedtotheresistoris:

i=I
p
sint

Thepowerdissipatedbytheresistoris:

P
AC
=i
2
R=(I
p
sint)
2
R=I
p
2
sin
2
tR

usingthetrigonometricidentity:

sin
2
t=
1
2
(1cos2t)

inaddition,manipulatingthepowerequationtheresultis:

P
AC
=I
P
2
[
1
2
(1cos2t)]R=
I
P
2
R
2

I
P
2
R
2
cos2t

Copyright 2009 Peter Basis,PE

13

Since the above expression for the power has a cosine term, then the average power
suppliedisonlythefirstterm.Sincetheaveragevalueofasinusoidiszero,thentheabovepower
expressionisasinusoidwithtwicethefrequencythatridesonaDClevel.
EquatetheaveragepowerdeliveredbytheACsourcetothatdeliveredbytheDCsourceto
arrivetothefollowingresult:

P
ACaverage
=P
DC

(I
p
2
R)/2=I
2
R

I
p
2
=2I
2

Thus:

I
P
=2I(110)

Or:

I=
I
P
2
=0.707I
P
(111)

Equation(111)istheRMSoreffectivevalueofthesinusoidalcurrent.Itrevealsthatthe
sinusoidal current has an equivalent DC value equal to 0.707 of its peak value and effectively
suppliesthesamepowertoaresistorasaDCcurrentofvalue0.707I
p
.
The term RMS comes from Root Mean Square and shows the process of calculating the
effectivevalueofasinusoidusingCalculus;firstsquarethewaveform,thenfindthearea(mean)
underthesquaredwaveformusingintegrationandthentakethesquarerootofthatarea,hence,
thetermRootMeanSquare(RMS).
From this point, the subscript eff will be used for the effective value (RMS) of any
sinusoidalwaveformvoltageorcurrent.Therefore:

I
eff
=
I
P
2
=0.707I
P
(112)

inaddition,inthecaseofavoltage:

V
eff
=
V
2
=0.707V
P
(113)

All the above equations deal with the effective values of sinusoidal waveforms. The
effective values are different for square and triangular waveforms. For these two types of
waveforms,thefollowingcanbederived:

FortheSquareWaveform:

Copyright 2009 Peter Basis,PE

14

EffectiveValue=PeakValue(114)

FortheTriangularWaveform:

EffectiveValue=
Pcak VaIuc
3
(115)

InthecasewhereasinusoidisridingonaDClevel,asshowninfigure1.15,theRMSvalue
iscalledthetotalRMSvalueandequation(116)isused:

TotalRMS=v
RMS
2
+ v
DC
2
(116)

V
RMS
istheRMSvalueofthesinusoiditselfandV
DC
istheDClevelofthesinusoid.

CalculatethetotalRMSvalueofthesinusoidshowninfigure1.16:
Copyright 2009 Peter Basis,PE
15

This 1.414 Volt peak sinusoid has a 2 V DC level. Equation (116) is used to calculate the
effectivevalueofthiswaveform.TheRMSofthe1.414Vsinusoidis(0.707)(1.414)=1V

TotalRMS=1
2
+ 2
2
=2.236V

1.5 ComplexNumbers

Imaginary numbers arose from the need to find the -1, since the square root of any
negative number does not exist. By defining j = -1 , a new set of numbers is created, the
imaginary numbers. Electrical engineers use the term j instead of the term i, as used in
mathematics.Inelectricalengineering,iisusedtodefinecurrent.
Acomplexnumberhasarealpartandanimaginarypart.Thisnumberrepresentsapointin
a twodimensional plane called the complex plane. The horizontal axis of the complex plane is
calledtherealaxisandisthecollectionofallpointsfromto+.Theverticalaxisiscalledthe
imaginaryaxisandisthecollectionsofallpointsfromjto+j.Figure1.17showsthecomplex
planewiththereal[Re]andtheimaginary[Im]axes.
Complex numbers are represented using either rectangular form or polar form. The
formatoftherectangularformshowninfigure1.18is:

C=A+jB (117)

Theformatofthepolarformshowninfigure1.19is:
t
v Volt s
3. 414
FI GURE 1. 16
0. 586
2
Copyright 2009 Peter Basis,PE
16

Copyright 2009 Peter Basis,PE

17

C=C
o
(118)

Usingfigure1.18onecanconvertfromrectangulartopolarformwiththefollowingrelations:

C=A
2
+ B
2
(119)

=tan
-1
B
A
(120)

Usingfigure1.20onecanconvertfrompolartorectangularformwiththefollowingrelations:

A=Ccos (121)

B = C sin (122)

1.6 ComplexAlgebra

Complex algebra is simple and does not require memorizing any complicated formulas,
whenthetwosimpleruleslistedbelowarefollowed:

RULE#1: Toaddorsubtractuserectangularcoordinatesonly!

RULE#2: Tomultiplyordivideusepolarcoordinatesonly!

Copyright 2009 Peter Basis,PE

18

ADDITION

Using rectangular coordinates add the real parts and the imaginary parts separately to
form the resulting complex number. While performing the operation, carry the sign of the real
andimaginarypartsofthenumbers.

AddthecomplexnumbersC
1
=5+j3andC
2
=2+j8

C
3
=C
1
+C
2
=(5+j3)+(2+j8)

realpartofC
3
: 5+2=7

imaginarypartofC
3
: 3+8=11

Therefore: C
3
=7+j11

SUBSTRACTION

This operation is similar to addition. Subtract the real parts and the imaginary parts
separatelytoformtheresultingcomplexnumber.

MULTIPLICATION

Using polar coordinates multiply the individual magnitudes together and add the
individual angles together. The resulting magnitude and angle is the product of the complex
numbers.

FindtheproductofC
1
=210
o
,C
2
=525
o
andC
3
=412
o
:

C
4
=C
1
C
2
C
3
=(210
o
)(525
o
)(412
o
)

=(2)(5)(4)(10
o
+25
o
+(12
o
))
=4023
o

DIVISION

Division is similar to multiplication. Divide the magnitude of the numerator by the

magnitude of the denominator and from the angle of the numerator subtract the angle of the
denominator.Theresultantmagnitudeandangleisthecomplexnumber.

Copyright 2009 Peter Basis,PE

19

FindthequotientC
3
=C
1
/C
2
whenC
1
=10045
o
and
C
2
=2010
o
:

C
3
=10045
o
/2010
o
=535
o

Always follow the above rules when performing complex operations and always convert
the complex numbers in the appropriate coordinate system before performing complex
operations.

FindC
3
=C
1
C
2
whereC
1
=3+j4andC
2
=432
o
:

Before multiplication, get the number C

1
into polar coordinates as required by the rule
governingmultiplication.

C
1
=S
2
+ 4
2
= S and = tan
-1
4
3
= SS
o

Therefore:C
1
=553
o
and

C
3
=C
1
C
2
=(553
o
)(432
o
)=(5)(2)(53
o
+32
o
=1085
o

1.7 Phasors

Theradiusvectorshowninfigure1.3,repeatedhereinfigure1.21,iscalledaphasor.This
phasorisusedtorepresentasinusoidinthecomplexplane.Phasorssimplifyalgebraicoperations
ofsinusoids,withthesamefrequency,usingcomplexalgebra.

Thisradiusvectorisusedwithtwomodifications.Thefirstmodificationisthatitcannotbe
permittedtorotatewithangularvelocity,butitwillremainstationaryatt=0.Asaresult,the
Copyright 2009 Peter Basis,PE
20

relativepositionthatthephasorshavewitheachotherisrevealed.Thisisaccomplishedthrough
thephasordiagram.Thesecondmodificationisthattheeffectivevalueofthesinusoidisusedfor
the magnitude of the phasor, since the effective value is widely used. The phase angle of the
sinusoid will be the angle of the phasor. If the sinusoid has a phase angle of degrees then the
phasoratt=0islocateddegreesfromthehorizontal(real)axis.
Usingtheabovemodificationsthephasorofthegeneralsinusoidalvoltage
v=V
p
sin(t)is:

V=V
eff
_ (123)

inaddition,thatofthegeneralsinusoidalcurrenti=I
p
sin(t)is:

I=I
eff
(124)

Example1

Writethefollowingsinusoidalwaveformsinthephasordomain:

a)v=28.28sin(754t+35
o
)
b)i=10cos754t

Solution:

a)Theeffectivevalueofthesinusoidis:(0.707)(28.28)=20

Thephasorthereforeis: V=2035
o

b)i=10cos754t=10sin(754t+90
o
)

Theeffectivevalueofthesinusoidis:(0.707)(10)=7.07

Thephasorthereforeis: I=7.0790
o

Example2

Drawthephasordiagramofthephasorsasinexample1andcalculatethephaseangledifference
betweenthephasors.

Solution:

Thephasordiagramisshowninfigure1.23.Thecurrentisaheadofthevoltageby55
o
and
thereforeileadsvby55
o
.
Copyright 2009 Peter Basis,PE
21

1.8 EffectonResistance(R),Inductance(L)andCapacitance(C)

ConsidertheresistorRshowninfigure1.23,wherethesinusoidalvoltagev
R
=V
p
sintis
presentacrossitsterminals.UsingphasorquantitiesthisvoltageisV
R
=V0
o
.Theresistance
value is a real number and its representation in the complex plane will be R 0
o
. Using Ohm's
lawandphasorsthecurrentthroughtheresistoris:

I=
V
R

=
V 0
R 0
=I0

HereVandIrepresenttheeffectivevaluesofthesinusoidalvoltageandcurrent,respectively.In
thetimedomain,thecurrentthroughtheresistorisequaltoi=I
p
sint.Therefore:

Copyright 2009 Peter Basis,PE

22

Forapureresistorthecurrentthroughandthevoltageacrossareinphase(pointingin
thesamedirection).

The phasor diagram for the resistor voltage and current is shown in figure 1.24 and the
time domain quantities are shown in figure 1.25. A final point regarding resistance is that the
valueoftheresistanceisnotaffectedbythefrequency.

Theinductorvoltageandcurrentarerelatedbythefollowingrelationship:

V
L
=L
dI
dt
(125)

WhereL,representstheinductanceandhastheunitofHenry,[H].
Throughtheinductorinfigure1.26thesinusoidalcurrenti
L
=I
p
sintflows.Thevoltageacross
theinductoris:

V
L
=L
dI
dt
=L
d
dt
(I
P
sint)=LI
P
cost=V
P
cost=V
P
sin(t+90
0
)(126)

where:
V
p
=LI
p

Observethatthevoltageoftheinductoris90
o
aheadofthecurrent.Therefore:

For a pure inductor, the current through and the voltage across are 90
o
out of phase.
Thecurrentlagsthevoltageby90
o
.

The phasor diagram for the inductor voltage and current is shown in figure 1.27 and the time
domainquantitiesareshowninfigure1.28.
Copyright 2009 Peter Basis,PE
23


TherelationV
p
=LI
p
showsthatthepeakvalueofthevoltagedependsonthevaluesofandL.
Copyright 2009 Peter Basis,PE
24

Since this relation is Ohm's law and the units of voltage and current are volts and amperes
respectively,thentheunitofthequantityLmustbeOhms.ThequantityLiscalledinductive
reactancefromthewaytheinductorreactstosinusoidalquantities,andistheoppositionofthe
inductor to the flow of current. The inductive reactance has the unit of Ohms [] and is
representedwithX
L
as:

X
L
=L (127)

Equation (127) is a straightline equation, which passes from the origin. Figure 1.29
showsthegraphofX
L
vs..TheslopeofthelineisLandasthevalueoftheinductorincreases,
theslopeofthelinebecomessteeper.When=0(DC),thevalueofthereactanceiszeroOhms
and the inductor is a short circuit. As approaches infinity, the reactance is also approaching
infinity.Atveryhighfrequencies,theinductorisanopencircuit,asseeninfigure1.30.
Thecurrentandvoltageoftheinductorinthephasordomainare:

I
L
=I0
o
and V
L
=V90
o

V and I are the effective values of the sinusoidal voltage and current respectively. Using Ohm's
law:
V
L
=X
L
I
L

andsolvingforX
L
:
X
L
=
V
L
I
L
=
V 90
I 0
=X
L
90=jX
L
(128)

Itisevidentfromequation(128)thattheinductivereactanceisavectorinthecomplex
planewithafixedmagnitudeofX
L
andatanangleof90
o
.Asseeninfigure1.31itisavector(not
a phasor, since it does not represent a sinusoidal function) in the positive imaginary axis of the
complexplane.

Copyright 2009 Peter Basis,PE

25

Thecapacitorcurrentandvoltagearerelatedbythefollowingrelationship:

I
C
=C
dv
C
dt
(129)

WhereC,representsthecapacitanceandhastheunitofFarad,[F]
Across the capacitor in figure 1.32 the sinusoidal voltage v
C
= V
p
sin t is present. The
currentthroughthecapacitoris:

I
C
=C
dv
C
dt
=C
d
dt
(V
P
sint)=CV
P
cost=I
P
sin(t+90
o
)

where:
I
p
=CV
p

Observethatthecurrentofthecapacitoris90
o
aheadofthevoltage.Therefore:

For a pure capacitor, the current through and the voltage across are 90
o
out of phase.
Thecurrentleadsthevoltageby90
o
.

The phasor diagram for the capacitor current and voltage is shown in figure 1.33, and the time
domainquantitiesareshowninfigure1.34.

RearrangetheexpressionI
p
=CV
p
toget:

Copyright 2009 Peter Basis,PE

26


V
P
I
P
==
1
mC

Copyright 2009 Peter Basis,PE

27

The unit of the quantity 1/C is the Ohm since the above equation is Ohm's law. The quantity
1/C is called the capacitive reactance and is the opposition of the capacitor to the flow of
charge.ThecapacitivereactancehastheunitofOhms[]andisrepresentedwithX
C
:
X
C
=
1
mC
(130)
thus:
V
p
=X
C
I
p
Figure1.35showsthegraphofX
C
vs.(=2f).Whenapproaches0(DC),thevalueof
thereactanceapproachesinfinityandthecapacitorisanopencircuit.Asapproachesinfinity,
the reactance is approaching zero. In addition, at very high frequencies, the capacitor is a short
circuit,asseeninfigure1.36.
Thecurrentandvoltageofthecapacitorinthephasordomainare:
I
C
=I90
o

and
V
C
=V0
o

V and I are the effective values of the sinusoidal voltage and current respectively. Using Ohm's
law:
V
C
=X
C
I
C

solvingforX
C
: X
C
=
V
C
I
C
=
V 0
I 90
=X
C
90
o
(131)

Itisevidentfromequation(131)thatthecapacitivereactanceisavectorinthecomplex
planewithafixedmagnitudeofX
C
andanangleof90
o
.Asseeninfigure1.37,itisavector(nota
phasor, since it does not represent a sinusoidal function) in the negative imaginary axis of the
complexplane.

1.9 AveragePowerandPowerFactor

Considerthegeneralloadshowninfigure1.37wherev=V
p
sintandi=I
p
sin(t+).
Copyright 2009 Peter Basis,PE
28

Thepowertotheloadis:P=vi=V
P
sintI
P
sin(t + ) = v
P
I
P
sin tsin(t+)

Usingthetrigonometricidentity: sin sin =

cos (u-)-cos (u + )
2

then:
P=
V
P
I
P
2
cos
V
P
I
P
2
cos(2t+) (1S2)

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29

Theplotsofv,i,andpareshownusingthesamesetofaxesasinfigure1.39.Observethat
the power curve is a sinusoid with twice the frequency of the current or voltage. Observe also
that part of the power sinusoid is located below the horizontal axis. As shown in the section of
reactive power, the part of the sinusoid located below the horizontal axis represents power
returnedtothesourceanditdependsonthesineofangle.Theportionofthepowercurve,on
topoftheaxis,ispowerthatwillbedissipatedbyresistance.
Inequation(132),thefirsttermisaconstantfactorandrepresentstheaveragevalueof
thepower.

V
P
I
P
2
cos =
V
P
I
P
22
cos = v
eff
I
eff
cos

Therefore,theaveragepoweris:

P=v
eff
I
eff
cos (1SS)

Theangle6isthephaseangledifferencebetweenthevoltageandthecurrentandthetermcos6
isthepowerfactoroftheload.Therefore:

p.f.=cos (134)

Inapurelyresistivecircuit,thevoltageandcurrentareinphase.Therefore,=0
o
andthe
averagepoweris:

P=V
eff
I
eff
cos0
o
=V
eff
I
eff
[W]

Thepowerfactorofapurelyresistivecircuitis1sincecos0
o
=1.

In a purely inductive circuit, the phase angle difference between the voltage and the
currentis90
o
.Therefore,=90
o
andtheaveragepoweris:

P=V
eff
I
eff
cos90
o
=0W

The power factor of a purely inductive circuit is 0, since cos90

o
= 0 and there is no power
dissipation by an ideal inductor. Since in an inductor the current lags, the voltage an inductive
networkwillhavealaggingpowerfactor.

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30

C

In a purely capacitive circuit, the phase angle difference between the voltage and the
currentis90
o
.=90
o
andtheaveragepowerisasfollows:

P=V
eff
I
eff
cos90
o
=0W

The power factor of a purely capacitive circuit is 0 since cos90

o
= 0 and there is no power
dissipationbyanidealcapacitor.Sinceinacapacitorthecurrentleads,thevoltageinacapacitive
networkwillhavealeadingpowerfactor.

Example3

Calculatethepowerfactorofaloadthathasavoltageacrossitsterminalsv=100sin(314t35
o
),
whilethecurrentthroughisi=5x10
3
sin(314t+15
o
).

Solution:

Thecurrentleadsthevoltageby50
o
andthereforethisloadhasaleadingpowerfactor:

p.f.=cos50
o
=0.643leading.

1.10 ReactivePower

Considerequation(132)againandtakeitafewstepsfurther.

P=
V
P
I
P
2
cos
V
P
I
P
2
cos(2t+)

Usingthetrigonometricidentity:

cos(+)=coscossinsin

Aftermanipulations,wehavethefollowing:

P=V
eff
I
eff
cos(1cos2t)+V
eff
I
eff
sin sin 2t (1SS)

Equation(135)willpresentafewinterestingresultsregardingR,LandC.

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31

Thediscussionstartedintheprevioussectionandcontinuesinthissectionbyconsidering
thegeneralcase,showninfigure1.40,ofaloadthathasthefollowingvoltageandcurrent:

v=V
p
sintandi=I
p
sin(t+)

Iftheloadisanidealinductor,thephaseangleofthecurrentis=90
o
whenthecurrent
lags the voltage by 90
o
. Substituting this phase angle in equation (135) gives the following
results:

P=V
eff
I
eff
cos(9u)(1cos2t)+V
eff
I
eff
sin(9u) sin 2t = V
eff
I
eff
sin 2t (1S6)

sincecos(90
o
)=0andsin(90
o
)=1

The sinusoid of equation (136) is shown in figure 1.41. This is a sinusoid, with twice the
frequency of the current or voltage, a peak value equal to V
eff
I
eff
, and has no average value as
seenfrombothequation(136)andfigure1.41.Observethatoveronefullcycle,theareaontop
ofthehorizontalaxisisequaltotheareabelowtheaxis.Theareaontoprepresentsthepower
suppliedby thesourceandthearea belowrepresentsthepowerreturnedby theinductor.This
suggests that the ideal inductor does not dissipate any energy and that there is an exchange of
power between the source and the inductor every quarter cycle of the current or voltage
sinusoid.

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32

Thepowerexchangedbetweenthesourceandtheinductoriscalledreactivepower.The
symbolusedforreactivepowerisQandtheunitofmeasureistheVAR(VoltAmpereReactive).
Reactivepoweriscalculatedasfollows:

Q=V
eff
I
eff
sin [VAR] (137)

isthephaseanglebetweenthevoltageandthecurrent.Fortheinductorthephaseangleis90
o

andthereactivepowerisasfollows:

Q
L
=V
eff
I
eff
[VAR]

In conclusion, an ideal inductor does not consume any average power, but receives
reactive power from the source and returns the same to the source without dissipating any
energy.

Considernowthattheloadisanidealcapacitorasshowninfigure1.42.Thephaseangle
ofthecurrentis=90
o
,sincethecurrentleadsthevoltageby90
o
inacapacitor.Substitutingthis
phaseangleinequation(135)givesthefollowing:

P=V
eff
I
eff
cos(9u)(1cos2t)+V
eff
I
eff
sin(9u) sin 2t = V
eff
I
eff
sin 2t (1S8)

sincecos90
o
=0andsin90
o
=1.
Copyright 2009 Peter Basis,PE
33

The sinusoid of equation (138) is shown in figure 1.43. This is a sinusoid, with twice the
frequency of the current or voltage, a peak value equal to V
eff
I
eff
, and has no average value just
liketheoneoftheinductor.Observethatoveronefullcycletheareaontopofthehorizontalaxis
isequaltotheareabelowtheaxis.Theidealcapacitordoesnotdissipateanyenergy.Thereisan
exchange of power between the source and the capacitor every quarter cycle of the current or
voltage sinusoid. This power is the reactive power of equation (137). For the capacitor, the
phaseangleis90
o
andthereactivepoweris:

Q
C
=V
eff
I
eff
[VAR]

In conclusion, an ideal capacitor does not consume any average power but receives
reactive power from the source and returns the same to the source without dissipating any
energy.

Copyright 2009 Peter Basis,PE

34

R
Considernowthat theloadisaresistoras showninfigure1.44. The phaseangleofthe
currentis=0
o
,sincecurrentandvoltageareinphaseinaresistor.Substitutingthisphaseangle
inequation(135)givesthefollowing:

P=V
eff
I
eff
cos(u)(1cos2t)+V
eff
I
eff
sin(u) sin 2t = V
eff
I
eff
V
eff
I
eff
cos2t(139)
sincecos0
o
=1andsin0
o
=0

Thesinusoidofequation(139)isshowninfigure1.45.Itisaninvertedcosinewave,with
twice the frequency of the current or voltage, a peak value equal to V
eff
I
eff
, and average value
equaltoV
eff
I
eff
.Observethatthepowercurveiscompletelyabovethehorizontalaxis.Thismeans
thatallthepowerdeliveredtotheresistorwillbedissipatedasheat.Asaresult,theresistorsees
onlyaveragepowerandusingequation(137)thereactivepowerforaresistoris:

V
eff
I
eff
sin0
o
=0VAR.

Example4
Copyright 2009 Peter Basis,PE
35

ThesourcevoltageofanetworkisV=200
o
andthecurrentsuppliedtothenetworkisI=10
30
o
.Calculatetheaveragepowerandthereactivepowersuppliedtothenetwork.

Solution:

Thephaseangledifferencebetweenthevoltageandthecurrentis30
o
,andtheeffective
valuesofthesinusoidsarealreadygiveninthephasors.Therefore:

P=V
eff
I
eff
cos=(20)(10)cos30
o
=173.2W

Q=V
eff
I
eff
sin=(20)(10)sin30
o
=100VAR

1.11 ApparentPower

Apparent power is the product of the applied voltage and produced current. It is the
power that is apparently delivered to the load like in DC circuits. However, the power factor
decides how much power is dissipated by a load and then there is the continual exchange of
reactive power between the source and loads that contain reactive elements. Therefore, the
productoftheappliedvoltageandproducedcurrentisnotalwaysthepowerdeliveredtoaload,
unless the power factor is 1 (purely resistive load). This product is useful as a power rating of
electricalcomponentsandsystems.
ApparentpowerisrepresentedbySandhastheunitoftheVoltAmpere(VA),sinceitis
theproductofvoltageandcurrent.

S=V
eff
I
eff
[VA] (140)

Now from the definition of apparent power the average power and the reactive power
canbewrittenas:

P=V
eff
I
eff
cos=Scos [W] (141)

Q=V
eff
I
eff
sin=Ssin [VAR] (142)

Fromequation(141)solveforcos.

Powerfactor=pf=cos=
P
S
(143)

Thepowerfactorofanetworkistheratiooftheaveragepowertotheapparentpower.

Copyright 2009 Peter Basis,PE

36

Example5

Calculatetheapparentpowerdeliveredtothenetworkofexample4.

Solution:

S=V
eff
I
eff
=(20)(10)=200VA

1.12 Impedance

The previous sections discussed the effect on R, L and C caused by the sinusoidal
waveform.Fromthesediscussions,thefollowingareconcluded:

TheResistanceisarealnumberlocatedonthepositiverealaxisofthecomplexplane:

R=R0
o
.

The inductor has an Inductive Reactance, an imaginary number located on the positive
imaginaryaxisofthecomplexplane:

X
L
=X
L
90
o
=jX
L
=jL.

Thecapacitorhasa CapacitiveReactance,animaginary number, located onthenegative

imaginaryaxisofthecomplexplane:

X
C
=X
C
90
o
=jX
C
=j/C

sincej=1/jthenX
C
=1/jC

The plots of resistance, inductive and capacitive reactances, on the complex plane, are shown in
figure1.46.Here[Re]istherealaxisand[Im]istheimaginaryaxis.
AnyelementbyitselforanycombinationsoftheseelementsiscalledtheImpedanceofa
circuit.ThequantityofimpedanceisrepresentedwiththecapitalletterZandthediagraminfigure
1.46 is called the Impedance diagram. The unit of the impedance is the Ohm [], since both
resistanceandreactanceareinOhms.

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37

Impedance is a measure of how much the circuit will impede (oppose) current flow. The
impedanceisnotaphasorbutavectorquantityinthecomplexplaneandcanberepresentedin
eitherrectangularorpolarcoordinates.Iftheimpedancediagramisinthefirstquadrant,thenthe
circuit is inductive with a lagging power factor. The current will then lag the voltage by an angle
equaltotheimpedanceangle.Iftheimpedancediagramisinthefourthquadrant,thenthecircuit
iscapacitivewithaleadingpowerfactor.Thecurrentwillleadthevoltagebyanangleequaltothe
impedance angle. The total impedance of elements connected in series is equal to sum of the
individualimpedances.

Example6

Drawtheimpedancediagramfortheseriesconnectionshowninfigure1.47.

Solution:

Thetotalimpedanceis:

Z
T
=Z
1
+Z
2
+Z
3

=690
o
+490
o
+100
o

=j6j4+10

=10+j2 =10.211.3
o

Copyright 2009 Peter Basis,PE

38

Theimpedancediagramisshowninfigure1.48.

The circuit has both an inductive and a capacitive reactance. However, the inductive
reactance is larger than the capacitive making the impedance inductive. Here, the power
factorislaggingandtheimpedancediagramislocatedinthe1
st
quadrant.
Copyright 2009 Peter Basis,PE
39

1.13 PowerTriangleandComplexPower

In the previous sections, the three components of AC power were defined to be the
averagepowerP,thereactivepowerQ,andtheapparentpowerS,whicharerelatedasfollows:

S=V
eff
I
eff
P=Scosand Q=Ssin

isthephaseanglebetweenthevoltageandthecurrent.

The above relations conclude that the AC power quantities are vectors, which form a
righttriangleandasvectorsarerelatedbythefollowingrelationship:

S=P+Q(144)

ForinductiveloadstheapparentpowerS=P+jQ
L
andthepowertriangleisinthefirstquadrant
asseeninfigure1.49.ForcapacitiveloadstheapparentpowerS=PjQ
C
andthepowertriangle
Copyright 2009 Peter Basis,PE
40

isinthe4
th
quadrant,asseeninfigure1.50.
When both inductive and capacitive loads are present, the total reactive power is
determinedfromthedifferenceofQ
L
Q
C.
Thepowertriangleiseitherinthe1
st
quadrant,fora
positive reactive power (inductive) or in the 4
th
quadrant for a negative reactive power
(capacitive). Thepower trianglecan bedeterminedfromtheimpedance triangleby multiplying
each component of the impedance diagram by the current squared (I
2
). This is shown in the
impedancediagraminfigure1.51.MultiplicationbyI
2
yieldsthepowertriangleoffigure1.52.
Sincethethreepowersformarighttriangle,thePythagoreanTheoremrelatesthem.

S=P
2
+ Q
2
(145)

Example7

Constructthepowertriangleofthenetworkoffigure1.53.

Solution:

Z
T
=6+j8=1053.1
o

I=E/Z
T
=(500
o
)/(1053.1
o
)=553.1
o

P=I
2
R=(5)
2
6=150W

Q
L
=I
2
X
L
=(5)
2
8=200VAR

S=I
2
Z
T
=(5)
2
10=250VAandalternatively,fromequation(145):

S=1Su
2
+ 2uu
2
=250VA

The power triangle is shown in figure 1.54. The angle is the impedance angle but it can
alsobecalculatedas:

Copyright 2009 Peter Basis,PE
41

cos
1
(150/250)=53.1
o

The apparent power of a network can be calculated in vector form using the following
equation:
S=VI
*
(146)
HereVisthevoltageappliedacross thenetworkand I
*
isthecomplexconjugateof thecurrent
supplied to the network. Equation (146) is called the complex power of the network. The
complex conjugate of a complex number is found by simply changing the sign of the imaginary
part in the rectangular coordinate system or by changing the sign of the angle in the polar co
ordinatesystem.

Example8

Calculatethecomplexpowerforthenetworkofexample7.

Solution:
Fromexample7:

E=500
o
andI=553.1
o

Therefore:

I
*
=553.1
o

and

S=(500
o
)(553.1
o
)=25053.1
o
VA

1.14 TotalP,QandS

Tocalculatethetotalaveragepowerofanetwork,addtheindividualaveragepowersof
the branches. This is independent of whether the branches are connected in series or parallel
connections.Inasimilarfashion,tofindthetotalreactivepowerofanetwork,addtheindividual
reactive powers of the branches. Inductive reactive power is positive and capacitive reactive
powerisnegative.Afterboththetotalaveragepowerandthereactivepowerarecalculatedthen
useequation(145)tocalculatethetotalapparentpowerofanetwork.Thisisdemonstratedin
theexamplethatfollows.

Copyright 2009 Peter Basis,PE

42

Copyright 2009 Peter Basis,PE

43

Example9

a) CalculatethetotalP,QandSforthenetworkoffigure1.55.
b) Drawthepowertriangleandcalculatethepowerfactor.

Solution:

a) Thetotalaveragepoweris:
P
T
=400W+200W+500W+100W=1200W
Thetotalreactivepoweris:
Q
T
=100VAR+400VAR1000VAR
=700VAR
=700VARcapacitive
Thetotalapparentpoweris:
S=12uu
2
+ 7uu
2
=1389.24VA

b) The power triangle is shown in figure 1.56. It is a capacitive network and therefore the
powertriangleislocatedinthe4
th
quadrant.

Thepowerfactoris:pf=P/S=1200/1384.24=0.864
and=cos
1
0.864=30.3
o

1.15 PowerFactorCorrection

Most of the real life loads are inductive loads with lagging power factor. Power factor
correction istheprocessofintroducingreactive elements(capacitors)tobringthepower factor
closertounity(resistivenetwork).TheimprovementofthepowerfactortounitymeansthatS=
P and Q = 0. As a result, there are lower levels of S and the current is minimum. Thus, power
factor correction minimizes the current requirements by calculating the capacitor needed to be
placedinparallelwiththesystemthatrequirespowerfactorcorrection.

Example10

A load connected to a 120 V, 60 Hz supply is 2 kW resistive and 1.25 kVAR inductive. Calculate
thecapacitancerequiredforunitypowerfactor.

Solution:

Thepowertriangleisshowninfigure1.57.Theapparentpoweris:
S=2uuu
2
+ 12Su
2
=2358.5VA

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44

thepowerfactoris:
cos=(2000)/(2358.5)=0.848lagging
inaddition,thecurrentsuppliedbythesourceis:

I=S/V=(2358.5VA)/(120V)=19.65A

With the unity power factor the power triangle becomes the straight line in figure 1.58,
andS=P=2000VA.Forunitypowerfactoraddacapacitivereactivepowerequaltothe
inductivereactivepowerseeninfigure1.57.ThereforeQ
C
=1250VARand:

Q
C
=
V
2
X
C
-X
C
=
V
2
Q
C
=
120
2
1250
=11.52

C=
1
mX
C
=
1
2IX
C
==
1
2 X 6.28 X 60 X 11.52
=230.4F

Then, connect a 230.4 F capacitor in parallel and the power factor becomes unity. The
currentsuppliedbythesourceisnow:

I=S/V=(2000VA)/(120V)=16.67A

thisislessthanthecurrentsuppliedwithoutthepowerfactorcorrection.

Copyright 2009 Peter Basis,PE

45

1.16 Summary

Inthiscourse,wediscusssomebasicquantitiesassociatedwithACwaveforms.

Wepresentsinusoids,squareandtriangularwaves.

Wedefinethefollowingterms:periodicwaveform,period,cycle,frequency,peakvalue,peak
topeakvalue,instantaneousvalue,angularvelocity,averagevalue,RMSoreffectivevalue
andtotalRMS.

Westudyphaserelations,phasors,complexnumbersandcomplexalgebraandhowithelps
withphasors.

Thetermslags,leadsandinphaseandoutofphasearepresented.

TheeffectoftheR,LandCelementsisdiscussed.

Averagepower,powerfactor,reactivepower,apparentpower,impedanceandimpedance
triangle,powertriangleandcomplexpower,totalP,QandSandfinallypowerfactor
correctionarepresented.