TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF KOSICE

Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Informatics Department of Electronics and Multimedia Communications

Fiber Optic Sensor

Professor Jn Turn

Student Fabio Cavaliere

Sommario
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 4 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES IN FOS ........................................................................ 5 ROLE OF FIBER OPTIC IN FOS ....................................................................................................... 5 A brief introduction to fiber optic .................................................................................................... 8 FOS CLASSIFICATION AND THEIR FIELDS APPLICATION ..................................................... 9 How to perform the detection ........................................................................................................ 10 The detection point......................................................................................................................... 10 The role of fiber optics in the process of detection ........................................................................ 10 FOSs COMPONENTS ..................................................................................................................... 10 Source............................................................................................................................................. 10 Led ............................................................................................................................................. 11 Laser ........................................................................................................................................... 12 Detectors ........................................................................................................................................ 13 AMPLITUDE FOS ............................................................................................................................ 14 Microbend Sensor .......................................................................................................................... 15 Reflective sensors .......................................................................................................................... 16 PHASE (INTERFEROMETRIC) FOS .............................................................................................. 16 Classical fiber interferometers ....................................................................................................... 16 Michelson interferometer ........................................................................................................... 17 Mach-Zehnder interferometer .................................................................................................... 18 Fabry-Perot interferometer ......................................................................................................... 19 Sagnac interferometer ................................................................................................................ 20 POLARIMETRIC FOS ...................................................................................................................... 21 Single-Mode operation ................................................................................................................... 21 Two-Mode operation...................................................................................................................... 22 Polarimetric pressure sensor .......................................................................................................... 23 Polarimetric current sensor ............................................................................................................ 24

DISTRIBUTED SENSORS ............................................................................................................... 25 OTDR ......................................................................................................................................... 26 FOS SYSTEMS ................................................................................................................................. 27 Basic Multiplexing Concepts ......................................................................................................... 28 Examples of discrete sensor multiplexing techniques ................................................................... 29 Space Division Multiplexing ..................................................................................................... 29 Wavelength Division Multiplexing ............................................................................................ 29 Time Division Multiplexing....................................................................................................... 30 Frequency Division Multiplexing .............................................................................................. 31 Coherence Division Multiplexing .............................................................................................. 31 APPLICATIONS OF FOS ................................................................................................................. 32

INTRODUCTION

Sensors are optical devices that exploit the variation of the parameters that characterize an electromagnetic wave such as light intensity or phase. They can be used in various applications and are an essential element for control and diagnostics in areas such as housing, car, medical, industrial automation, telecommunications, environment, agriculture. Moreover, acceleration of the development of sensors is the evolution of data processing, also the development of microprocessors and integrated circuits specifically designed for application development has made the low-cost, accurate and reliable, thus increasing the intelligence system. This new scenario has stimulated research in the area of sensors and therefore the development of related technologies and new devices. New products are born from this effort, with added value in terms of ease of use, energy saving, security and intelligence. Among the different categories of sensors, in recent years has had considerable importnace the research and development of optical and electrooptical sensors. This interest is linked to some of their important characteristics, in particular the ability to take measurements at a distance (without contact), the remarkable versatility in the measurement of physical and chemical properties not detectable with other techniques, flexibility in terms of dynamics and sensitivity. However, there was great difficulty in optical sensors due to interference between multiple effects such as a temperature variation and external disturbance, or more generally any disruption of the initial conditions of use.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES IN FOS

Exploiting the capacity of optical fibers to send and receive signals over long distances, a current trend is to create networks of sensors or arrays of optical sensors. This avoids having to perform conversions between electronics and photonics separately at each detection site, thereby reducing costs and increasing flexibility. A difficulty for all sensors, either optical or not, is the interference from multiple effects. Sensors to measures of tension or pressure may be, for example, very sensitive to temperature. In recent years considerable progress has been made in this area aimed at limiting the effects of disturbance using more accurate technology. In the following list, are reported the main advantages and disadvantages in FOS: Small size and lightweight; High sensitivity; Multifunctional (great variety in the measurable parameters); Insensitive to EM fields; Durability and reliability in demanding environments; No need for electrical power; Long-distance remote monitoring; Insensitive to vibration; Little or no impact to physical structures; Safe (operate around explosive and flammable materials);

In contrast with all these advantages, one of the main disadvantages is the fact that intervention characteristics are strongly linked to the type of surface of the object to be measured.

ROLE OF FIBER OPTIC IN FOS

Since a large percentage of optical sensors involves the use of fiber optics, it is appropriate to discuss in more detail to them. In most applications, designers of sensor glass fibers that are easily commercially available and relatively inexpensive because of their huge use in the telecommunications sector. The interferometer sensors require single-mode fiber glass, while, for example, the intensity sensors use multimode fiber typically required for achieving a more lightgathering. High Fiber numerical aperture plastic are used for some types of sensors in intensity but

the properties of transmission and fluorescence of the plastic complicate the spectral response of the fiber and glass fiber are preferable in applications where it is important the frequency response of fiber. The polarization of light transmission is very important for a large number of sensors, and many fibers are designed to preserve this property of light along the entire length of the fiber and also in the presence of micro and macro bending. For many chemical sensors is important that the light wave interacts with the material surrounding the sensor, so the fibers are constructed so that the core is close to the interface between the coating and the environment outside. In figure is shown the section of the different types of optical fiber currently produced and used. Singl mode fiber: is designed such that all the higher order waveguide modes are cut-off by a proper choice of the waveguide parameters as given below:

an1 2 (n1 n2/n1)

where, is the wavelength and a is the core radius and V is called normalized frequency (V ).
When V < 2,405 single mode condition is ensured. SM fiber is an essential requirement for interferometric sensors. Due to the small core size (~4 m) alignment becomes a critical factor. However, in real case, SM fiber mentioned above is affected by degenerate polarization states that can lead to signal interference and noise in the measurement.

Multimode fiber:

Variation of refraction index n to vary the distance, for step index and graded index respectively

Graded index: The light beams for longer paths (those in the vicinity of the cladding) moving in material with refractive index smaller and then at higher speed, while the beams below shorter paths (those near the center of the nucleus) propagate in the middle with higher refractive index and therefore more slowly. Thus, the components of the pulse coming from different paths to reach the receiver with time lags smaller than in the case of fiber step - index and the signal appears less deformed. Due to the gradual variation of refractive index, the bundles do not describe light straight paths, but their trajectory assumes a helical pattern almost. Step index: the various modes propagate with same speed describing different paths. This lead a time lag of the several beams, with consequent distortion of the light signal being received.

D-fiber

Elliptic core

A brief introduction to fiber optic

We can consider an optical fiber as a waveguide to a cylindrical shape, made with a dielectric material, usually silicon oxide and characterized by the phenomenon of propagation inside the light radiation. This phenomenon is based on the variation of refractive index within the dielectric material. The index of refraction is defined as the ratio between the speed of propagation of the light in a vacuum (c = 3 * 10 8 m / s) and the speed of propagation in a medium different from vacuum: n=

where v depends, of course, from the characteristics and physical properties of the medium itself, if the medium is homogeneous and isotropic, then n indicates a number greater than one and in the dielectric constant. A beam that affects an area of interface between two media of different indices (n1> n2) is partly reflected and partly refracted or transmitted, in accordance with the law of Snell note:

n1*sen1 = n2*sen2 where 1 is the angle of incidence of the normal range compared to the surface at the point of incidence and 2 is the angle that the radius refracted form with the same standard in the second half. Since n2 <n1, the transmitted beam tends to increase as 1 increases until arrive to the condition 2 = / 2 (no radius refracted). In this situation

we are in the phenomenon of total reflection, where the angle of incidence beyond which there is no refraction is c = arcsin (n2/n1), generally referred to as critic angle.In first approximation we can imagine that the rays on a plane comprising the axis of optical fiber, which affect the interface glass / air with an angle greater than c are totally reflected and thus remain confined within the fiber indefinitely. The principle just described is the basis of the functioning of all types of fiber. The result is the basic structure of the realization of a fiberconsisting of a cylinder inside, as the nucleus or core, and an outer shell, indicated as cladding. Both are formed by the glassy material, but the two indexes of refraction are varied and precisely controlled during manufacture of the fiber through the addition of external doping (oxides of germanium, aluminum). The fiber thus produced would be mechanically fragile, and it is then necessary to strengthen by further plastic coating.

FOS CLASSIFICATION AND THEIR FIELDS APPLICATION

At this stage of the development of optical sensing technology, it can measure almost all the physical and chemical properties, some are listed below: Stress; Displacements; Force; Temperature; Chemical comcentration; Acceleration; Rotation; Currents, electric fields, ecc;

The main techniques by which the measurements are being taken can be grouped into three categories.

How to perform the detection

According to this classification sensors measure a change in the intensity or phase of one or more beams of light as a result of the interaction or interference with the wave of reference, is referred to as sensors or sensors intensity interferometer. The techniques used in the case of intensity sensors include light scattering (both Rayleigh and Raman), changes in the transmission spectrum (i.e. simple attenuation of the transmitted light due to absorption), or microbending losses of radiation change in reflectance and modal changes in the distribution of the fiber.

The detection point

Sensors can be classified into "point sensors" in which the transduction is done at the end of optical fiber that has the sole purpose of bringing a beam of light to and from the transducer and sensors distribuited "in which the snapshot is taken along entire length of the fiber. Examples of this kind of sensors are Bragg gratings that are used for measurement of voltage and temperature.

The role of fiber optics in the process of detection

A further distinction can be made according to the use of fiber optics: you define sensors estrinsic in which the role of fiber is reduced to that of driving the signal, while talk of intrinsic sensors where the role of fiber is crucial to as the measure for the spectroscopic measures.

FOSs COMPONENTS
A fiber optic sensor in general consist of a light source, a length of sensing (and transmission) fiber, a photodetector, demodulation, processing and display optics and the required electronics. Fiber optics are already treated in the previous chapter, so we will focalize the attention in the next sections on sources and detectors, which will be described more detailed.

Source
Optical sources active devices that emit electromagnetic radiation at optic frequencies.

LED

LASER

LED: Light Emitting Diode very large band optical emission (tens of nm)

LASER: Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation narrow band optical emission

Led This is a diode with an energy gap that generate electromagnetic radiation at destre frequencies. It works thanks to the phenomenon of spontaneous emission. Photons are generated random in all directions and on a broad range of wavelengths. For each carrier flowing into the junction, can be a photon emitted by spontaneous emission with a certain probability. A fraction of the emitted photons are coupled in output with the fiber. In first approximation, the optical power output is proportional to the current injected.

Pout (t) kI(t) In practice, this report is true till a certain frequency. More precisely, we must take into account the effect of electrical filtering. Pout (t) k hLED(t)* I(t) Other LED characteristics: o Typical wavelength: 830 nm(GaAsLED), 1300 nm(InGaAsPLED); o Low output power: from -10dBm to -20dBm; o Low modulation rate;

Laser The operation of a semiconductor laser is based on: Generation of photons in an appropriate directly polarized pn junction (in similar manner to the LEDs); Optical "Feedback": by the equivalent filter partially reflective on both sides of the structure, the emitted photons transit many times within the same structure; while transit, the photons are amplified due to stimulated emission. Here are reported the main characteristics in lasers: Directionality In contrast to traditional sources, laser can emit radiation in one direction. More precisely, the solid angle subtended by a laser beam is extremely small. This feature is exploited in several areas, for example, allows you to treat the surfaces in an extremely accurate manner (lithography, CD, etc.). In spectroscopy it is possible to substantially increase the optical path and thus the sensitivity using a laser source through the sample with a zig-zag path through a system of mirrors. Monocromatic The enlargement of the band emission is due to the natural width and by Doppler effect (which can be eliminated or contained a lot). In spectroscopy this feature is exploited to obtain high resolution spectra. It would be very difficult to obtain Raman spectra without this characteristic of the laser. Brilliance Laser in the amount of energy emitted per unit solid angle is incomparably higher than traditional sources. In particular, the high number of photons per unit of frequency. This feature is a direct consequence of the two previously mentioned. With this feature you have the possibility to observe phenomena, such as for example the many-photon absorption. The high intensity was also found different technological applications, for example in metal cutting. Coherence While in spontaneous emission photons are emitted random one with respect to others, in stimulated emission photons have the same phase of the photon that induced the emission. The phase is maintained over time and space.

 Ultra-short pulses

By various techniques it is possible to build lasers that emit very narrow packets of waves in the time domain, now it has come the development of the order of femtosecond pulses. These lasers have found applications in various fields of research, for example, have allowed the birth of a new discipline, which has been called femtochemistry.

Detectors
Photodiodes are components that allow to convert an optical input power into an electric current. These components are based on semiconductor pn junctions. The main effect in this case is the absorption. Each photon that passes along the p-n junction can be used, with a certain probability, to generate a carrier at conduction level. It then generates a current proportional to optical power.

PIN photodiodes (P-Intrinsic-N) and Avalanche Photodiodes (APDs) are the most suitable detectors in FOS. APD can sense low light levels due to the inherent gain because of avalanche multiplication, but need large supply voltage typically about 100 V. The output current is: Io= d

Where d is the probability that a photon is absorbed and create a carrier (quantum efficiency), and Popt/hf is the number of photons per unit time. In addition to the current generation, the process of photodetecting generates a certain amount of noise. It is possible write:

i(t)= RPopt(r) + inoise(t)

Where R is the photodiode responsivity. inoise(t) is a random process that takes into account the noise produced during photodetecting. For APD (Avalanche PhotoDiode), for each incoming photon can be generated more than one carrier, so the process photodetecting act with a mechanism of "gain". i(t)= R GAPD Popt(r) + iAPDnoise (t) With the same power, APD results in a current output significantly higher than the PIN. However, it result (also) in a larger amount of noise compared to the PIN. It is obtained that is a signal-noise ratio will be worse than the PIN. PIN APD

AMPLITUDE FOS

In this case, the signal to be measured (the measurable), modulates the intensity (amplitude) of the light carried by an optical fiber. For this class of sensors a normalized modulation index m can be defined as: m= where I is the change in optical power as a result of modulation by the measurable; I0 is optical power reaching the detector when there is no modulation; and P is the perturbation (measurable). The sensor response expressed as a differential voltage (S) per unit change in perturbation is given by:
I

S= qI0 Rm where, q is detector responsivity; R is the load resistance. The limiting performance is reached when the signal voltage (power) is equal to the noise voltage (power). There are many noise sources within the detector as also in the processing circuits. For purposes of estimating the sensor performance, usually detection limit (i.e. the fluctuations in the photon field that could be detected is the ultimate limit) is considered. The minimum measurable quantity in the shot noise limit is given by: Pmin=
2

where e is electronic charge and B is the detection bandwidth.

Microbend Sensor
Microbend sensors are based on coupling and leakage of modes that are propagating in a deformed fiber. Usually one achieves this deformation by employing corrugated plates that deforms the fiber into a series of sharp bend with small bending radii. The modulation due to a measurable could be considered as a form of a microbend loss modulation, for example moving the fiber. The microbend sensor is an example of an intensity modulation sensor. It is designed using Multimode fiber of a few meters in length which is placed between two rigid plates having an optimum corrugation profile such that the fiber experiences multiple bends. Due to the microbending induced losses, the lower order guided modes are converted to higher order modes and are eventually lost resulting in a reduction of the optical intensity coming out of the fiber. A displacement of the plates (due to pressure for example) causes a change in the amplitude of the bends and consequently an intensity modulation of light emerges from the fiber core. Microbend sensors have been used in some smart structure applications.

Reflective sensors
Reflective sensors incorporate an infrared emitter and photo detector adjacent one to the other as shown in the figure behind. When an object is in the sensing area, the emitted light is reflected back towards the photo detector, the amount of light energy reaching the detector increases. This change in light energy or photo current is similarly used an input signal in the application. The reading area is a radius of tens mm.

PHASE (INTERFEROMETRIC) FOS

Phase sensors compare the phase of light in a sensing fiber to a reference fiber in a device called interferometer. This type of sensor is more complex in design, but present better sensitivity and better resolution. Fiber-optic interferometer sensors are usually designed following classical configuration of optical interferometer. In these devices, a range of physical measurands can induce modulation of phase in a sensing signal light beam, while the reference light beam remain unchanged. This phase change then has to be electronically processed, to produce a useful intensity-type output signal from the interferometer proportional to the measurand. Alhtough this technique offers very high sensitivity, it is extremely difficult to use outside, due to the unavoidable interference caused by environmental perturbation. One notable exception is low-coherence (or white light) interferometry.

Classical fiber interferometers

The three best-known configurations of two-beam FOS interferometers: The reflective all-fiber Michelson interferometer; The all-fiber Mach-Zehnder interferometer; The remote Fabry-Perot interferometer;

Michelson interferometer The all-fiber Michelson interferometer is based on a bidirectional single-mode fiber coupler that divides the input light beam from the laser source into two components one propagated by the sensing arm, the other by the reference arm of the interferometer- and then combines the two reflected beams so that their interference can be registered by the photodetector. Assuming for simplicity that the polarization effect can be ignored, the electric field propagating in the signal arm and in the reference arm can be treated as scalars and described as:

In this equation, ES0 and ER0 denote the amplitudes, is the wavelength of the light, and is its angular frequency. The phase difference will then be proportional to the path difference L and can be expressed as follows:

It may finally be shown that the irradiance at the detector is proportional to the absolute value of the squared sum of the superimposed electrical fields. The resulting formula is given by:

Where V is the visibility and depending on both the reflectivity of the fiber ends and the coherence properties of the light source, but independent of the splitting ratio of the coupler.

1 Michelson interferometer set-up

Mach-Zehnder interferometer The mach-Zehnder interferometer is based on two bidirectional fiber couplers, the first to divide the light beam into two components and the second to recombine the two beams exiting from the sensing arm and from the reference arm of the system. The sensitivity of this interferometer is only half that of the Michelson interferometer, as light propagates in each arm only once, and the phase difference is consequently described by:

The Mach-Zehnder configuration has, however, two significant advantages that more than compensate for the lower sensitivity. Two antiphase output signals from two photodetectors:

can conveniently be used to provide a feedback loop for assuring operation at maximum sensitivity. This configuration is also characterized by much lower backreflection into the laser diode, which assures the higher wavelength and power stability of the system

2 Mach-Zehnder interferometer set-up

Fabry-Perot interferometer FFPI are an example of multiple-beam technique. A resonant cavity of this device may be contained within the fiber, with semireflective spliced, cleaved or mirrored end faces, or Bragg gratings serving as reflective surfaces. This cavity may also be external to the fiber, taking the form of an air gap between two cleaved fiber end faces, or between a fiber end face and a thin moving or deformable diaphragm. The transfer function of an FFPI for the transmitted signal can be expressed by:

Where F is a parameter describing the phase resolution and known as the finesse of the interferometer, and is the phase retardance after the light has passed through the cavity twice. When attenuation is disregarded, F may be described in terms of the mirror reflectance R:

In the case of frequently used low-finesse interferometer, the reflective surfaces may simply be the normally cleaved uncoated fiber ends, for which R=0,04. The FFPI is then operated in a reflective configuration with visibility approaching 1 as the reflectivity is decreased. For R<< 1 signal may be approximated by the signal of the two beam interferometer.

Sagnac interferometer The Sagnac effect manifests itself in a setup called ring interferometry. A beam of light is split and the two beams are made to follow a trajectory in opposite directions. To act as a ring the trajectory must enclose an area. On return to the point of entry the light is allowed to exit the apparatus in such a way that an interference pattern is obtained. The position of the interference fringes is dependent on the angular velocity of the setup. This arrangement is also called a Sagnac interferometer. Usually several mirrors are used, so that the light beams follow a triangular or square trajectory. Fiber optics can also be employed to guide the light. The ring interferometer is located on a platform that can rotate. When the platform is rotating the lines of the interference pattern are displaced as compared to the position of the interference pattern when the platform is not rotating. The amount of displacement is proportional to the angular velocity of the rotating platform. The axis of rotation does not have to be inside the enclosed area. When the platform is rotating, the point of entry/exit moves during the transit time of the light. So one beam has covered less distance than the other beam. This creates the shift in the interference pattern. Therefore, the interference pattern obtained at each angular velocity of the platform features a different phase-shift particular to that angular velocity. In the above discussion, the rotation mentioned is rotation with respect to an inertial reference frame. Since this experiment does not involve a relativistic velocity, the same wording is valid both in the context of classical electrodynamics and special relativity. The Sagnac effect is the electromagnetic counterpart of the mechanics of rotation. A gimbal mounted gyroscope remains pointing in the same direction after spinning up, and thus can be used as the reference for an inertial guidance system. A Sagnac interferometer measures its own angular

velocity with respect to the local inertial frame; hence just as a gyroscope it can provide the reference for an inertial guidance system.

3 Sagnac interferometer

POLARIMETRIC FOS

Polarimetric sensors may function in a single-mode or in a few-mode regime of operation.

Single-Mode operation
If quasimonochromatic light linearly polarized at an angle with respect to the fibers x axis is launched into the fiber and an analyzer turned to an angle is placed at the output of the fiber, then the optical intensity detected will be:

Where 0= 01 L is the phase. When external perturbations are introduced, they cause changes in the phase 0. This will lead to a cosine variation of the observed intensity I measured after the analyzer, a variation that is in fact a polarization interference. The setup is then a polarimetric sensor. With we represent the correlation function between the polarization modes. This is a function of the product of the length L of the fiber, its polarization dispersion , and the spectral half.width of the source. The visibility V of the observed polarimetric response is:

An input polarizer (if the light isnt linearly polarized) acts as a splitter, and the analyzer acts as a recombiner. If we define k1= sin2 ; k2= sin2

as the power coupling coefficients of the splitter and the recombiner, then the expression for visibility becomes:

This expression is analogous to the formula for visibility in classical two beam interferometry. Maximum visibility is obtained for = = 45. In this case the intensity becomes:

Evidently, if a monochromatic source is used, =0 and then the visibility will be =1.

4 Basic configuration of a single-mode or bimodal polarimetric pressure sensor

Two-Mode operation
For a two-mode regime of operation, a bimodal sensing fiber must be used. By letting x= xL and y= yL, the intensity observed at the output of the fiber excited with x- or y- polarized quasimonochromatic light can be obtained as:

In the equation above, 0 and 1 are the relative optical power carried by the spatial modes. Depending on the detection setup, different expression for the visibility can be obtained.

Polarimetric pressure sensor

We will describe in this section the high-hydrostatic-pressure polarimetric pressure sensor. If we consider it with a predesigned sensitivity expressed by the parameter Ti,p, then we have this expression: Ti,pL= Ci Where Ci is a constant. Thus, a longer fiber will exhibit greater sensitivity and vice versa. If the source isnt monochromatic, a longer fiber will produce a lower value of the correlation function . Therefore, proper choice of the laser source is essential. For pressure measurement (considering temperature a disturbing parameter), temperature- and pressure-induced phase shifts s(p,t) will then be transformed into intensity changes Is (p,t) I0 in accordance with the equation:

In the next figure is depicted a topology of a polarimetric pressure sensor (PPS) in both reflection and transmission configurations. The sensing (L2) and compensating (L1) parts of the sensor are assumed to be equal.

5 Temperature-compensated polarimetric FOS sensor in (a) transmission and (b) reflection configuration

The advantage of the reflection configuration is that only one fiber leadthrough is required to connect the sensor to the laser source and to the detection electronics. The advantage of the transmission version lies in the much higher level of optical signal, allowing for longer transmission distances and/or multiplexing of several sensing devices. The polarization axes of the sensing and the compensating fiber elements are rotated by 90, while the input and output fibers are rotated by 45 relative to the sensing and compensating parts, respectively. Ideally, if equal sensing and compensating elements remain at the same temperature, their temperature-induced phase retardation

will cancel out, and if they are placed under different pressure, the pressure-modulated output signal will be immune to temperature changes. In reality, however, if such an arrangement is to satisfy the requirements for an accurate pressure-measuring instrument, several important first- and secondorder coefficients have to be considered to allow for simultaneous pressure and temperature effects on fiber birefringence. In a polarimetric cross-spliced sensor, the resulting unwanted sensitivity to temperature will still be present and can be described by differentiation of the phase retardation with respect to temperature:

Where L = L1 L2, Kt is the first order phase sensitivity to temperature, and Ktp is the temperature-pressure cross-sensitivity coefficient. This simple but informative equation provides important insight into designing a sensor with minimum temperature error. The first term in it can be minimized by choosing a small L. The second term depends on fiber properties but will always be nonzero, and can only be minimized by carefully adjusting the fibers technological and construction parameters.

Polarimetric current sensor

The need for fiber-optic sensing technology for high magnetic field and large current monitoring is well known. Conventional magnetic field and current sensor system suffer from high susceptibility to electromagnetic interference, may lack the necessary bandwidth, are difficult to miniaturize, and cannot accommodate large numbers of measuring points at remote locations. Such monitoring can be especially valuable for protection, control, and fault detection in power plants, high-power transmission lines, distribution lines, where the high intrinsic electrical insulation of optical fibers is a significant advantage. There are several techniques for fiber-optic magnetic field sensing, but only two approaches appear to be really viable. The first is based on detection of a magnetic field by magnetostrictive effects, involving measuring the longitudinal strain produced in the optical fiber to which a magnetostrictive material has been bonded. The performance of such sensors is limited by the coupling efficiency of the magnetostrictive material and the optical fiber. Altough various bonding and coating techniques have been explored, all usually lead to substantial hysteresis, temperature drift, and changes of fiber birefringence. The second approach is based on the Faraday effect, consisting of a nonreciprocal circular birefringence induced in the propagation medium by a magnetic field. The most convenient detection approach in this case is polarimetric sensing.

The Faraday effect may occur directly in standard or specifically doped optical fibers, but as V (Verdet constant) in silica fiber is very small, this type of sensor needs to be very long and as such will be prone to a variety of instabilities. For N turns of fiber around a conductor with a current I, the Faraday rotation is given by:

Where LF is the propagation path and H the magnetic field. The material-dependent Verdet constant V(,T) is dispersive and often varies strongly as a function of temperature. To assure successful operation of a sensor based on the fiber-sensitive element, it is extremely important to avoid intrinsic birefringence induced by core ellipticity or stress in the core-cladding area, and extrinsic birefringence induced by packaging and mounting. This parasitic effect can be alleviated to some extent by annealing the fibers at an elevated temperature.

6 Polarimetric current FOS

DISTRIBUTED SENSORS
Due to unidimensional structure of an optical fiber, fiber-optic sensing technology offers the unique possibility to simultaneously measure not only a given parameter but also its real-time spatial distribution. Distributed fiber sensor are intrinsic FOS that allow sensing of the variation of the measured quantity along the fiber as a continous function of distance. They rely in principle on optical time-domain reflectometry.

OTDR Is the acronymous of Optical Time-Domain Reflectometer. The principle of operation is shown in the next figure.

7 Principle of an OTDR-based distributed sensor

A high-power light pulse is launched into the sensing fiber and propagates with the group velocity vg. The light is reflected at discontinuities and is scattered mainly in the elastic process of Rayleigh scattering, which is caused by the microscopic fluctuations of the refractive index in the fiber. The detector measures the time dependence of the backscattered light signal, and the time of the measurement t determines the distance z = tvg/2 at which the light pulse was backscattered. In the figure below there is a sample of the return signal measured by the OTDR.

8 Sample of the detected signal from a distributed fiber-optic sensor

Since the light is attenuated in accordance with an exponenetial law, the backscattered power P measured by the detector is calculated as:

Where is an attenuation coefficient, P0 the initial pulse power, D the length of the pulse, R the backscattering reflection coefficient per unit length, and the coupling ratio in the directional coupler. The slope of the logarithm of the detected power at constant reflection R is proportional to the attenuation:

Thus those parts of the fiber with higher losses are recognized as regions where the detected characteristic has a larger slope, and those parts with higher backscattering are recognized as regions where there is a higher value of detected power. Any discontinuities (as splices or a fiber end) produce high reflections and jumps in the characteristic of the detected signal. The OTDR sensors detect the changes of the backscattered reflection R or changes of the losses induced by the measured quantity. Measuring the losses in OTDRs with specially prepared fibers makes it possible to detect the temperature, pressure, liquid leakage, displacement, and other mechanical and chemical measurand. Another possibility is measuring the state of polarization of the backscattered light. Such polarization OTDRs measure changes in birefringence of the fiber, which is sensitive to strain, pressure, magnetic field, electric field and temperature. The OTDR allows measurements of changes in the measurand with a spatial resolution approximately equal to 1m. Another technique, optical-frequency domain reflectometry (OFDR), offers better resolution. It is based on a chirped radio-frequency-modulated light source and on determining the position of light backscattering via the measured frequency.

FOS SYSTEMS

In a simple one-sensor, one fiber arrangement of a discrete FOS, the optical fiber is largely underutilized as a transmission medium, mostly because the capacity of one information channel is much greater than the information generated by a typical sensor output. Important gains can therefore be made by multiplexing the fiber link by tapping several sensing devices into one passive fiber highway to increase the maximal number of sensors and to establish data telemetry channels. Such a configuration will obviously decrease the installation costs per sensor and at the same time increase the attractiveness of fiber-optic sensing technology for many potential users. Furthermore, industry has needed to install increasing numbers of sensors in automation systems in factories, chemical plants, spacecraft, etc. Another driving force behind development of multiplexed FOS system is their close relation to fiber-based LANs; the fact that they utilize the same or similar

components will keep their prices low even if the market for industrial FOS systems is only in the early stages.

Basic Multiplexing Concepts

There are two principal multiplexing concepts that can be applied in designing a sensor system: in one class, a given number of sensors, having only one and the same property modulated by the external measurand field, can be incorporated into a single passive highway loop. Then some kind of multiplexing, addressing and decoding is added to the system to allow monitoring, detection and interpretation of a returning output signal from a given sensor at a particular location. A second class involves the so-called orthogonal modulation scheme, where one measurand modulates different optical properties of the sensor. Such a system is capable of simultaneously performing measurements of several different physical parameters. With the variety of optical fiber sensor, it does not seem possible yet to characterize the multiplexed system most likely to emerge as the standard, although its topology and parameters will obviously depend upon the type of sensor used, and in almost any multiplexed system at least four basic functions will have to be performed: powering the system at a level adequate for the predesigned power budget of the network, addressing and interrogating (identifying) a sensing device at a chosen discrete location, detecting the measurand-modulated signal of a given sensor, and eventually evaluating and calibrating the acquired individual sensor signal. The topological arrangement of a network, will largely depend on the scheme chosen for sensor addressing and demodulation.

9 Generalized FOS network

Examples of discrete sensor multiplexing techniques

Although many different multiplexing schemes, often very sophisticated and costly, have been reported, industrial applications are usually looking for simpler, and cheaper ideas. In the next section will be described some multiplexing configuration. Space Division Multiplexing Space Division Multiplexing (SDM), utilizing separate fiber paths and separate detector-source arrangements for individual sensors, is the easiest method to use and has been already implemented. Thanks to the rapidly decreasing of optoelectronic components, this technique has been reevaluated. The power budget is excellent, crosstalk is nonexistent, and the failure of one channel can usually be tolerated. The method can also be combined with a TDM or WDM scheme. Several other possible topologies of the SDM method involve common light source with multiple detector array, multiple sources with common detector, single source and single detector with one-to-N and N-toone switching, and synchronous switching.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) has the advantage that it still permit an excellent power budget for the system, as in the SDM, while affording savings in the form of a smaller number of necessary fiber links and connections. The light signal sent to each sensor is directed through the appropriate WDM coupling components, which are broadly similar to those designed for fiber communication systems. The most important problem related to this method is obtaining sufficient selectivity of the utilized wavelength division filters. To further increase the number of multiplexable devices, the technique may obviously be used not only with single, but also with dual- or multiple- fiber optical links.

Time Division Multiplexing Time Division Multiplexed (TDM) systems usually require fast and costly electronics and because of this are less attractive for many industrial applications where the cost of installed HW becomes a dominating factor. In a TDM system, each individual sensor signal can be identified and decoded at the detection end of the setup by arranging different propagation delays for the light signals returning from sensors at different locations. This method can also be coupled with WDM technique in multiwavelength monitoring system, with one wavelength affected by the measurand and another used for the reference. The method has several important advantages, including the large number of channels, the one-source, one-detector configuration, and equal applicability to both coherent and noncoherent system. However, usually small optical path differences between the sensors require nontrivial processing. To this end, many complex topologies have already been proposed. One possible form is a TDM optical passive sensor highway incorporating a commercially available electromechanical switch. Such a system has practically no crosstalk, but a stringent requirement to contain the time-sharing switching sequence within a very short period must be satisfied.

Frequency Division Multiplexing The general approach to FDM of fiber-optic sensors is to send an amplitude or frequencymodulated output signal from every sensor in a given network through an assigned frequency channel. This method consists of modulating several light sources by signals of different frequency, or modulating one light source with several frequencies and then combining and separating signals at the detection end of the system employing a multichannel phase-sensitive detection scheme. One solution is a so-called matrix array method of FD multiplexing of intensity sensors. It has much simpler and slower electronics than typical TDM systems, and has a good potential for industrial intensity-modulated sensor multiplexing. Coherence Division Multiplexing Light sources can have widely varying coherence lengths depending on their spectrum. By using light sources that have coherence lengths that are short compared to offsets between the reference and signal legs in Mach-Zehnder interferometers and between successive sensors, a coherence multiplexed system may be set up. The signal is extracted by putting a rebalancing interferometer in front of each detector so that the sensor signals may be processed. Coherence multiplexing is not as commonly used as time, frequency and wavelength division multiplexing because of optical power budgets and the additional complexities in setting up the optics properly. It is still a potentially powerful technique and may become more widely used as optical component performance and availability continue to improve, especially in the area of integrated optic chips where control of optical pathlength differences is relatively straightforward.

APPLICATIONS OF FOS

Fiber optic sensors are being developed and used in two major ways. The first is as a direct replacement for existing sensors where the fiber sensor offers significantly improved performance, reliability, safety and/or cost advantages to the end user. The second area is the development and deployment of fiber optic sensors in new market areas. For the case of direct replacement, the inherent value of the fiber sensor, to the customer, has to be sufficiently high to displace older technology. Because this often involves replacing technology the customer is familiar with, the improvements must be substantial. The most obvious example of a fiber optic sensor succeeding in this arena is the fiber optic gyro, which is displacing both mechanical and ring laser gyros for medium accuracy devices. As this technology matures it can be expected that the fiber gyro will dominate large segments of this market. Significant development efforts are underway in the United States in the area of fly-by-light where conventional electronic sensor technology are targeted to be replaced by equivalent fiber optic sensor technology that offers sensors with relative immunity to electromagnetic interference, significant weight savings and safety improvements. In manufacturing, fiber sensors are being developed to support process control. Oftentimes the selling points for these sensors are improvements in environmental ruggedness and safety, especially in areas where electrical discharges could be hazardous. One other area where fiber optic sensors are being mass-produced is the field of medicine, where they are being used to measure blood gas parameters and dosage levels. Because these sensors are completely passive they pose no electrical shock threat to the patient and their inherent safety has lead to a relatively rapid introduction.

The automotive industry, construction industry and other traditional users of sensors remain relatively untouched by fiber sensors, mainly because of cost considerations. This can be expected to change as the improvements in optoelectronics and fiber optic communications continue to expand along with the continuing emergence of new fiber optic sensors. New market areas present opportunities where equivalent sensors do not exist. New sensors, once developed, will most likely have a large impact in these areas. A prime example of this is in the area of fiber optic smart structures. Fiber optic sensors are being embedded into or attached to materials during the manufacturing process to enhance process control systems, to augment nondestructive evaluation once parts have been made, to form health and damage assessment systems once parts have been assembled into structures and to enhance control systems. A basic fiber optic smart structure system is shown in the below figure.

10 Fiber optic smart structure systems

Fiber optic sensors can be embedded in a panel and multiplexed to minimize the number of leads. The signals from the panel are fed back to an optical/electronic processor for decoding. The information is formatted and transmitted to a control system which could be augmenting performance or assessing health. The control system would then act, via a fiber optic link, to modify the structure in response to the environmental effect. In the next figure, is shown how the system might be used in manufacturing. Here fiber sensors are attached to a part to be processed in an autoclave. Sensors could be used to monitor internal temperature, strain, and degree of cure. These measurements could be used to control the autoclaving process, improving yield and the quality of the parts.

11 Smart manufacturing system

Interesting areas for health and damage assessment systems are on large structures such as buildings, bridges, dams, aircraft and spacecraft. In order to support these types of structures it will be necessary to have very large numbers of sensors that are rapidly reconfigurable and redundant. It will also be absolutely necessary to demonstrate the value and cost effectiveness of these systems to the end users. One approach to this problem is to use fiber sensors that have the potential to be manufactured cheaply in very large quantities while offering superior performance characteristics. Two candidates that are under investigation are the fiber gratings and etalons. Both offer the advantages of spectrally based sensors and have the prospect of rapid in line manufacture. In the case of the fiber grating, the early demonstration of fiber being written into it as it is being pulled has been especially impressive. These fiber sensors could be folded into the wavelength and time division multiplexed modular architecture. Here sensors are multiplexed along fiber strings and an optical switch is used to support the many strings. Potentially the fiber strings could have tens or hundreds of sensors and the optical switches could support a like number of strings. To avoid overloading the system, the output from the sensors could be slowly scanned to determine status in a continuously updated manner.

12 A modular architecture for a large smart structure system for a vehicle health management bus. When an event occurred that required a more detailed assessment the appropriate strings and the sensors in them could be monitored in a high performance mode. The information from these sensors would then be formatted and transmitted via a fiber optic link to a subsystem signal processor before introduction onto a health management bus. In the case of avionics the system architecture might look as shown in the above figure. The information from the health management bus could be processed and distributed to the pilot or more likely, could reduce his direct workload leaving more time for the necessary control functions.

13 A typical vehicle health management bus for an avionics system

As fiber to the curb and fiber to the home moves closer to reality there is the prospect of merging fiber optic sensor and communication systems into very large systems capable of monitoring the status of buildings, bridges, highways and factories over widely dispersed areas. Functions such as fire, police, maintenance scheduling and emergency response to earthquakes, hurricanes and

tornadoes could be readily integrated into very wide area networks of sensors as shown in the next figure.

14 Fiber optic sensor networks to monitor the status of widely dispersed assets as buildings and bridges It is also possible to use fiber optic sensors in combination with fiber optic communication links to monitor stress build up in critical fault locations and dome build up of volcanoes. These widely dispersed fiber networks may offer the first real means of gathering information necessary to form prediction models for these natural hazards.