A - Comparison with -er/-est

clean - cleaner - (the) cleanest We use -er/-est with the following adjectives:

1) adjectives with one syllable

clean new cheap cleaner cleanest newer newest cheaper cheapest

2) adjectives with two syllables and the following endings:

2 - 1) adjectives with two syllables, ending in -y dirty easy happy pretty dirtier easier happier prettier dirtiest easiest happiest prettiest

2 - 2) adjectives with two syllables, ending in -er clever cleverer cleverest

2 - 3) adjectives with two syllables, ending in -le simple simpler simplest 2 - 4) adjectives with two syllables, ending in -ow narrow narrower narrowest

Spelling of the adjectives using the endings -er/-est

large big sad larger bigger sadder largest biggest saddest leave out the silent -e Double the consonant after short vowel

dirty shy

dirtier shyer

dirtiest shyest

Change -y to -i (consonant before -y) Here -y is not changed to -i. (although consonant before -y)

B - Comparison with more - most

difficult - more difficult - (the) most difficult all adjectives with more than one syllable (except some adjectives with two syllables see 2 - 1 to 2 - 4)

C - Irregular adjectives
good bad much many little little better worse more more less smaller best worst most uncountable nouns most countable nouns least smallest

D - Special adjectives
Some ajdectives have two possible forms of comparison. common likely pleasant polite simple stupid subtle sure commoner / more common likelier / more likely pleasanter / more pleasant politer / more polite simpler / more simple stupider / more stupid subtler / more subtle surer / more sure commonest / most common likeliest / most likely pleasantest / most pleasant politest / most polite simplest / most simple stupidest / most stupid subtlest surest / most sure

Difference in meaning with adjectives:

far

farther further

farthest furthest latest x last oldest eldest nearest next

distance distance or time

late

later latter x old older elder near nearer x

people and things people (family) distance order

Sentences with comparisons

Adjectives - Comparison as ... as - Exercise 1. A=B Our car is as fast as Peter's car. 2. A><B a) John's car isn't as fast as our car. (A<B) b) Our car is faster than John's car. (A>B) Our car is faster than Peter's car. Peter's car is slower than our car. NOTE! John is taller than me. Max is as tall as me. Do not mix up than with then.

The adverbs in English

Adverbs tell us in what way someone does something. Adverbs can modify verbs, adjectives or other adverbs.

Adjectives tell us something about a person or a thing. Adjectives can modify nouns or pronouns. Adjective Adverb Mandy is a careful girl. Mandy drives carefully. Mandy is very careful. Mandy is a careful driver. This sentence is about Mandy, the driver, so use the adjective. Mandy drives carefully. This sentence is about her way of driving, so use the adverb.

Form
Adjective + -ly Adjective Adverb dangerous dangerously careful carefully nice nicely easy easily horrible horribly electronic electronically irregular forms good well fast fast hard hard If the adjective ends in -le, the adverb ends in -ly. Example: terrible - terribly If the adjective ends in -e, then add -ly. Example: safe - safely Tip: Not all words ending in -ly are adverbs. adjectives ending in -ly: friendly, silly, lonely, ugly nouns, ending in -ly: ally, bully, Italy, melancholy verbs, ending in -ly: apply, rely, supply There is no adverb for an andjective ending in -ly.

Types of adverbs
1) Adverbs of manner quickly kindly 2) Adverbs of degree very rather 3) Adverbs of frequency often sometimes 4) Adverbs of time now today 5) Adverbs of place here nowhere

A - Comparison with -er/-est

hard - harder - (the) hardest We use -er/-est with the following adverbs:

1) all adverbs with one syllable

fast high faster fastest higher highest

2) The adverb: early

B - Comparison with more - most

carefully - more carefully - (the) most carefully

adverbs ending on -ly (not: early)

C - Irregular adverbs
well badly much little late far better worse more less later farther further best worst most least last farthest furthest

ATTENTION! In informal English some adverbs are used without -ly (e.g. cheap, loud, quick). There are two forms of comparison possible, depending on the form af the adverb: cheaply - more cheaply - most cheaply cheap - cheaper - cheapest

The position of adverbs in sentences

We can put adverbs in different positions in sentences. There are three main positions but also a lot of exceptions. In English we never put an adverb between the verb and the object. We often play handball. - CORRECT We play often handball. - WRONG

The three main positions of adverbs in English sentences

1) Adverb at the beginning of a sentence Unfortunately, we could not see Mount Snowdon. 2) Adverb in the middle of a sentence The children often ride their bikes. 3) Adverb at the end of a sentence

Andy reads a comic every afternoon.

More than one adverb at the end of a sentence

If there are more adverbs at the end of a sentence, the word order is normally: Manner - Place - Time Peter sang the song happily in the bathroom yesterday evening.

Adverbs of frequency
always, usually, regularly, normally, often, sometimes, occasionally, rarely, seldom, never are adverbs of frequency. The position of these adverbs is: before the main verb Adverb of frequency always usually sometimes Verb get up play got at 6.45. football on Sundays. lots of homework.

I Peter Mandy

can has

after a form of to be am, are, is (was, were) Adverb Verb of frequency is never late.

Susan

The adverbs often, usually, sometimes and occasionally can go at the beginning of a sentence. Sometimes I go swimming. Often we surf the internet. Somtimes these adverbs are put at the end of the sentence. We read books occasionally. The following adjectives and adverbs have the same form:

Adjective Adverb close close daily daily early early fair fair far far fast fast free free hard hard high high late late lively lively long long lovely lovely low low right right wide wide wrong wrong The following adverbs are not derived from adjectives: Adverbs Comment here adverb of place there today now then adverb of time still soon yet often sometimes adverb of frequency never hard hardly These adverbs have two forms: without -ly with -ly

fair free high late most near pretty right wrong

fairly freely highly lately mostly nearly prettily rightly wrongly

The definite article - the

The definite article the is the same for all genders in singular and in plural. the boy, the girl, the cat, the computers If the following word begins with a vowel, we speak [ with a consonant, we speak [ ]. [ ] the following word starts with a spoken consonant the girl the book the school the unit Here a [ ] is pronounced at the beginning of the word. ], if the following word begins

[ ] the following word starts with a spoken vowel the English girl the blue book the old school the uncle Here a [ ] is pronounced at the beginning of the word.

We have listed some examples in the following table. There you can see when we use the definite article and when we don't. without the definite article general words (indefinite) Life is too short. I like flowers. names of persons on the singular, relatives Peter and John live in London. Aunt Mary lives in Los Angeles. public buildings, institutions, means of transport (indefinite) Mandy doesn't like school. with the definite article general words (definite) I've read a book on the life of Bill Clinton. I like the flowers in your garden. family names in the plural The Smiths live in Chicago. public buildings, institutions, means of transport (definite) The school that Mandy goes to is old.

We go to school by bus. Some people go to church on Sundays. names of countries in the singular; summits of mountains; continents; towns Germany, France; Mount Whitney, Mount McKinley; Africa, Europe; Cairo, New York single islands Corfu, Bermuda, Sicily parks; lakes; streets Central Park, Hyde Park; Lake Michigan, Loch Ness; 42nd Street, Oxford Street months, days of the week (indefinite) The weekend is over on Monday morning. July and August are the most popular months for holidays.

The bus to Dresden leaves at 7.40. The round church in Klingenthal is famous. names of countries in the plural; mountain ranges; regions the United States of America, the Netherlands; the Highlands, the Rocky Mountains, the Alps; the Middle East, the west of Australia groups of islands the Bahamas, the British Isles, the Canaries name with of-phrase; oceans; seas; rivers the Statue of Liberty, the Tower (of London), the Isle of Wight; the Atlantic (Ocean); the Mediterranean (Sea); the Nile, the Rhine, the Suez Canal months, days of the week (definite) I always remember the Monday when I had an accident. The August of 2001 was hot and dry.

We use the seasons of the year (spring, summer, autumn, winter) with or without the definite article. in summer or in the summer The American English word for autum >fall< is always used with the definte article.

Sometimes we use the article and sometimes we do not. It often depends on the context. Watch the following example: The student goes to school. The mother goes to the school. In the first sentence we do not use the definite article, in the second we do. The student goes to school for its primary purpose, so we do not use the article. The mother might talk to a teacher, for example. She visits the school for a different reason. That's why we use the definite article in the second sentence.

The indefinite article - a

The indefinte article is the a is the same for all genders. a boy, a girl, a cat The indefinte article has no plural form. a boy - boys We use an if the following word starts with a vowel. the following word starts with a consonant the following word starts with a vowel a boy an aunt a school an old school a girl an American girl Mind the pronunciation of the following word. a unit an uncle This u sounds like a consonant, so we use a. This u sounds like a vowel, so we use an.

Use of the indefinite article a/an

- before phrases of time and measurements (per week/weekly) We have English 4 times a week. I go on holiday twice a year. Our car can do 220 kilometres an hour. Tomatoes are $2 a kilo. - before phrases of jobs My father is a car mechanic. - with a noun complement He is a good boy. - before phrases of nationality Bruce Springsteen is an American. - half/quite

We need half a pound of sugar. This is quite a good story.

Use
It is possible to fulfil a condition which is given in the if-clause.

Form
if clause main clause will-future or infinitive or Modal + infinitive

Simple Present

Examples
If I study, I will pass the exams. If you see John tonight, tell him to e-mail me. If Ben gets up early, he can catch the bus. The if-clause can be at the beginning or at the end of the sentence. If I study, I will pass the exams. I will pass the exams if I study.

Use
It is theoretically possible to fulfil a condition which is given in the if-clause.

Form
if clause main clause would + infinitive or could + infinitive or might + infinitive

Simple Past

Examples
If I studied, If I studied, If I studied, I would pass the exams. I could pass the exams. I might pass the exams.

The if-clause can be at the beginning or at the end of the sentence. If I studied, I would pass the exams. I would pass the exams if I studied.

Use
It is impossible to fulfil a condition which is given in the if-clause.

Form
if clause main clause would + have + past participle or could + have + past participle or might + have + past participle

Past Perfect

Examples
If I had studied, If I had studied, If I had studied, I would have passed the exams. I could have passed the exams. I might have passed the exams.

The if-clause can be at the beginning or at the end of the sentence. If I had studied, I would have passed the exams. I would have passed the exams if I had studied.

The word were in the phrase if I were you is special form. It is known as the subjunctive mood (from the grammatical point of view).

Today you also find the phrase if I was you. Here the Simple Past form of be is used. But there are people who say that this phrase is incorrect and would never use it (mainly Americans). Others say that this phrase can be used. If I were you I would phone him. - subjunctive mood If I was you I would phone him. - Simple Past

Mixed Conditionals
Unreal conditionals (type II + III) sometimes can be mixed, that is, the time of the if clause is different from the one of the main clause. Past --> Present If I had taken an aspirin, I wouldn't have a headache now.

Past --> Future If I had known that you are going to come by tomorrow, I would be in then.

Present --> Past If she had enough money, she could have done this trip to Hawaii.

Present --> Future If I were you, I would be spending my vacation in Seattle.

Future --> Past If I weren't flying to Detroit, I would have planned a trip to Vancouver.

Future --> Present If I were taking this exam next week, I would be high-strung.

Replacing if
If can be replaced by words or expressions with a similar meaning. The most common are:

as long as assuming (that) on condition (that) on the assumption (that) provided (that) supposing (that) unless with the condition (that)

Omitting if
Had I known... (instead of If I had known...) Were you my daughter,... (instead of: If you were my daughter,...) Should you need my advice,... (instead of: If you should need my advice,...)

if vs. when
if and when are interchangeable when the statement of the conditional clause is a fact or a general issue (also known as zero conditonal) If you heat ice, it melts. When you heat ice, it melts. if is used for something that, according to the speaker, might happen. We can spend the afternoon on the beach if the weather is fine. when is used for something that, according to the speaker, will happen. I will clean up the kitchen right away when I'm back from work.

in case vs. if
in case of can be used to shorten an if-clause as shown below:

If there is a fire, leave the room. In case of fire, leave the room. While if expresses a condition (1), in case is used to express a possibility (2). (1) I need painkillers if I'm in severe pain. (2) I need painkillers in case I'm in severe pain. The expression just in case is used pretty much the same way. I got you a pizza just in case you were hungry. (I don't know whether you are hungry.)

Conditional sentences
The conditional sentences are sometimes confusing for learners of English. Watch out: 1) Which type of the conditional sentences is used? 2) Where is the if-clause (e.g. at the beginning or at the end of the conditional sentence)? There are three types of the if-clauses. type condition I condition possible to fulfill II condition in theory possible to fulfill III condition not possible to fulfill (too late)

Form
type I II III if clause main clause Simple Present will-future (or Modal + infinitive) Simple Past would + infinitive * Past Perfect would + have + past participle *

Examples (if-clause at the beginning)

type I II if clause If I study, If I studied, main clause I will pass the exam. I would pass the exam.

III

If I had studied,

I would have passed the exam.

Examples (if-clause at the end)

type I II III main clause if-clause I will pass the exam if I study. I would pass the exam if I studied. I would have passed the exam if I had studied.

Examples (affirmative and negative sentences)

type + I + II + III Examples long forms If I study, I will pass the exam. If I study, I will not fail the exam. If I do not study, I will fail the exam. If I studied, I would pass the exam. If I studied, I would not fail the exam. If I did not study, I would fail the exam. If I had studied, I would have passed the exam. If I had studied, I would not have failed the exam. If I had not studied, I would have failed the exam. short/contracted forms If I study, I'll pass the exam. If I study, I won't fail the exam. If I don't study, I'll fail the exam. If I studied, I'd pass the exam. If I studied, I wouldn't fail the exam. If I didn't study, I'd fail the exam. If I'd studied, I'd have passed the exam. If I'd studied, I wouldn't have failed the exam. If I hadn't studied, I'd have failed the exam.

* We can substitute could or might for would (should, may or must are sometimes possible, too). I would pass the exam. I could pass the exam. I might pass the exam. I may pass the exam. I should pass the exam. I must pass the exam. Thanks to Kai.

when or if

Word when if

Explanation you are sure that something will happen you are not sure that something will happen

Example When I'm in Paris, I'll visit you. (It sure, that I'm going to Paris.) If I'm in Paris, I'll visit you. (It not sure, that I'm going to Paris.)

ATTENTION! You can both use when and if when you talk about things that happen repeatedly (in generalizations). If you freeze water, it expands. When you freeze water, it expands.

will in if-clauses
When the situation or action depicted in the if-clause is a result of the main clause, the will future is used in the if-clause. He'll pay me $10 if I'll help him do the dishes. (Doing the dishes is the result of paying ten dollars.)

would in if-clauses
In polite requests would is possible in if-clauses. It would be nice if you would help me in the kitchen. (Are you ready to help me in the kitchen?)

Use
-ing form used as a noun

Form
infinitive + -ing

Examples
Going to parties is fun. I enjoy reading. Gerund is subject Gerund is object

We use the Gerund after prepositions.

adjective + preposition We use the Gerund after the following phrases: afraid of They are afraid of losing the match. angry about/at Pat is angry about walking in the rain. bad at John is good at working in the garden. good at clever at He is clever at skateboarding. crazy about The girl is crazy about playing tennis. disappointed about/at He is disappointed about seeing such a bad report. excited about We are excited about making our own film. famous for Sandy is famous for singing songs. fed up with I'm fed up with being treated as a child. fond of Hannah is fond of going to parties. glad about She is glad about getting married again. happy about/at The children are not happy about seeing a doctor. interested in Are you interested in writing poems? keen on Joe is keen on drawing. proud of She is proud of riding a snowboard. sick of We're sick of sitting around like this. sorry about/for He's sorry for eating in the lesson. tired of I'm tired of waiting for you. used to She is used to smoking. worried about I'm worried about making mistakes. Thanks to Josef and Ulrike.

We use the Gerund after prepositions.

noun + preposition We use the Gerund after the following nouns: advantage of What is the advantage of farming over hunting? chance of There's a chance of catching a cold these days. choice between There's a choice between flying to London Heathrow or Stansted.

danger of difficulty in doubt about hope of idea of interest in method of opportunity of possibility of problem of reason for risk of trouble for way of

Peggy is in danger of making a mistake. He has difficulty in sending SMS. He is in doubt about buying the correct software for his computer system. There's little hope of catching Schumacher's Ferrari. I like the idea of setting up a new email account. There's no interest in writing letters. This is a simple method of finding solutions. There's some opportunity of bringing her parents together again. These new wheels offer the possibility of riding tubeless. He has the problem of swimming too slow. There's a real reason for winning the contest. There's a risk of digging too deep. He was in trouble for stealing. This is a new way of building a wall.

Ulrike Schroedter contributed to the list. Thanks to Josef.

We use the Gerund after prepositions.

verb + preposition Exception: to Here we use the phrase: looking forward to + Gerund Example: I'm looking forward to seeing you soon. We use the Gerund after the following phrases: accuse of They were accused of breaking into a shop. agree with I agree with playing darts. apologize for They apologize for being late. believe in She doesn't believe in getting lost in the wood. blame for The reporter is blamed for writing bad stories. complain about She complains about bullying. concentrate on Do you concentrate on reading or writing? congratulate sb. on I wanted to congratulate you on making such a good speech.

cope with He is not sure how to cope with getting older. decide against They decided against stealing the car. depend on Success may depend on becoming more patient. dream about/of Sue dreams of being a pop star. feel like They feel like going to bed. get used to You must get used to working long hours. insist on The girls insisted on going out with Mark. look forward to I'm looking forward to seeing you soon. prevent sb. from sth. How can I prevent Kate from working in this shop? rely on sth. He doesn't rely on winning in the casino. succeed in How then can I succeed in learning chemistry? specialize in The firm specialized in designing websites. stop sb. from I stopped Andrew from smoking. talk about/of They often talk about travelling to New Zealand. think of Frank thinks of playing chess. warn sb. against We warned them against using this computer. worry about The patient worries about having the check-up. Ulrike Schroedter contributed to the list.

Gerund after special verbs

We use the Gerund after the following verbs: admit He admitted having driven too fast. avoid They avoid going on holiday on Saturdays. carry on If we carry on sleeping so badly, we may need help. consider Ralph is considering buying a new house. delay I delayed telling Max the news. deny She denies reading the book. dislike We dislike reading poems. can't help He couldn't help falling in love with her. enjoy I enjoy playing chess. finish They finished working in the garden. give up Susan gives up playing ice-hockey. imagine He imagined driving a new car.

include Your responsibility includes taking reservations on the phone. involve The project will involve growing plants. justify I cannot justify paying $100 for this ticket. keep (on) They keep on running. mention Did Alex ever mention playing baseball? mind I don't mind sleeping on the couch. miss They miss playing with their friends. practise She practised playing hockey. regret* Do you regret having mentioned it? risk You risk catching a cold. suggest She suggested flying to Cairo. * After regret the to-infinitive is used when announcing bad news: We regret to inform you that the flight to Munich has been cancelled. Ulrike Schroedter contributed to the list.
We use the Gerund after the following phrases: to be busy He is busy reading the paper. couldn't help She couldn't help eating another apple. don't mind I don't mind telling them my opinion. feel like We feel like having a cup of tea. how about How about walking home instead of taking the car? it's (no) good It's no good talking to this girl. it's no use It's no use talking to the headmaster. spend one's time They spend their time reading. there's no There's no cheating anymore. there's no point There's no point in complaining further. what about What about going to the zoo? worth The book is worth reading.

after

We use the Gerund after the following prepositions: After having a shower, I waited for Steven.

before The tablet must not be taken before getting up in the morning. by I manage it by working much longer than 40-hour weeks. in spite of In spite of studying a lot he didn't pass the exams. on She insisted on calling her sister. without He told the joke without laughing. Ulrike Schroedter contributed to the list.

Both forms end in -ing. Nevertheless it is easy to find out whether it is a Gerund or a Progressive form. Progressive tenses These tenses are formed with von to be and the infinitive + - ing. sentences He is reading a book. He was reading a book. He has been reading a book for three hours. He had been reading a book before Mary came in. He will be reading a book when I get home. He will have been reading a book. He would be reading a book if he had time. He would have been reading a book if he had had time. A book is being read. A book was being read. Gerund The Gerund is formed only with infinitive + - ing. sentence Reading books is great fun. He likes reading books. He is looking forward to reading books at the weekend. He is keen on reading books. He is used to reading books. What about reading books? tense Present Progressive Past Progressive Present Perfect Progressive Past Perfect Progressive will-future Progressive Future Perfect Progressive Conditional Progressive Conditional Perfect Progressive Present Progressive - Passive Past Progressive - Passive

He likes the idea of reading books. After reading the book, he went to bed. I remember having read this book. - Passiv

Gerund/Infinitive - Exercises We use the Gerund or the Infinitive after the following verbs: He began talking. begin He began to talk. They continue smoking. continue They continue to smoke. Do you hate working on Saturdays? hate Do you hate to work on Saturdays? I like swimming. like I like to swim. She loves painting. love She loves to paint. Pat prefers walking home. prefer Pat prefers to walk home. They start singing. start They start to sing. We use the Gerund or the Infinitive after the following verbs. There are two possible structures after these verbs. Gerund: verb + -ing Infinitive: verb + person + to-infinitive They advise walking to town. advise They advise us to walk to town. They do not allow smoking here. allow They do not allow us to smoke here. They encourage doing the test. encourage They encourage us to do the test. They do not permit smoking here. permit They do not permit us to smoke here. We use the following structures with the word recommend: recommend They recommend walking to town. They recommend that we walk to town.

Thanks to Bryan. Some verbs have different meaning. (when used with Gerund or Infinitive) GERUND He'll never forget spending so much money on his first computer. INFINITIVE Don't forget to spend money on the tickets.

forget

go on

GERUND INFINITIVE Go on reading the text. Go on to read the text. GERUND You have forgotten your homework again. That means phoning your mother. INFINITIVE I meant to phone your mother, but my mobile didn't work.

mean

remember

GERUND INFINITIVE I remember switching off the Remember to switch off the lights lights when I went on holiday. when you go on holiday.

stop

GERUND INFINITIVE Stop reading the text. Stop to read the text. GERUND INFINITIVE Why don't you try running after I tried to run after the dog, but I the dog? was too slow.

try

Ulrike Schroedter contributed to the list.

can - to be able to, to be allowed to

Modals - Explanation may must Exercise: can, to be able to We often use to be able to or to be allowed to instead of "can". We can only form the Past of "can" (could). To put "can" into other tenses we need the phrases to be able to or to be allowed to.

Affirmative sentences

Tense

Simple Present

Simple Past

will-future

Form I am able to play football. I'm able to play football. I can play football. I am allowed to play football. I'm allowed to play football. I was able to play football. I could play football. I was allowed to play football. I will be able to play football. Do not use can in the will- I'll be able to play football. future. I will be allowed to play football. I'll be allowed to play football. Modal

Other possible tenses: e.g. Present Perfect: I have been able to play football.

Negations
Tense Form I am not able to play football. I'm not able to play football. I cannot play football. I can't play football. I am not allowed to play football. I'm not allowed to play football. I was not able to play football. I could not play football. I wasn't able to play football. I couldn't play football. I was not allowed to play football. I wasn't allowed to play football. I will not be able to play football. Do not use cannot in the I won't be able to play football. will-future. I will not be allowed to play football. I won't be allowed to play football. Modal

Simple Present

Simple Past

will-future

Questions
Form Is he able to play football? Simple Present Can he play football? Is he allowed to play football? Was he able to play football? Simple Past Could he play football? Was he allowed to play football? Will he be able to play football? Do not use can in the will-future will-future. Will he be allowed to play football? Tense Modal

We substitute "may" with "to be allowed to".

Affirmative sentences
Tense Simple Present Simple Past will-future Modal I may play football. Do not use may in the Simple Past. Do not use may in the willfuture. Form I am allowed to play football. I'm allowed to play football. I was allowed to play football. I will be allowed to play football. I'll be allowed to play football.

There are also other tenses possible: e.g. Present Perfect: I have been allowed to play football.

Negations
Tense Modal Simple Present I may not play football. Simple Past will-future Do not use may not in the Simple Past. Do not use may not in the willfuture. Form I am not allowed to play football. I'm not allowed to play football. I was not allowed to play football. I wasn't allowed to play football. I will not be allowed to play football. I won't be allowed to play football.

Questions
Tense Modal Form Simple Present May he play football. Is he allowed to play football? Simple Past Do not use may in the Simple Past. Was he allowed to play football? will-future Do not use may in the will-future. Will he be allowed to play football?

We substitute "must" with "to have to". Be careful: The negation of must means not allowed to.

Affirmative sentences

Tense Simple Present Simple Past will-future

Modal Form I must play football. I have to play football. Do not use must in the Simple Past. I had to play football. Do not use must in the will-future. I will have to play football.

Negations
Tense 1 Simple Present 2 3 1 Simple Past 2 3 1 will-future 2 3 Modal I must not play football. I mustn't play football. I need not play football. I needn't play football. I do not need to play football. I don't need to play football. Do not use must not in the Simple Past. Do not use need not in the Simple Past. I did not need to play football. I didn't need to play football. Do not use must not in the will-future. Do not use need not in the will-future. I will not need to play football. I won't need to play football. Form I am not allowed to play football. I'm not allowed to play football. I do not have to play football. I don't have to play football. I was not allowed to play football. I wasn't allowed to play football. I did not have to play football. I didn't have to play football. I will not be allowed to play football. I won't be allowed to play football. I will not have to play football. I won't have to play football.

Questions
Tense Simple Present Simple Past will-future 4 5 4 5 4 5 Modal Form Must he play football? Does he have to play football? Does he need to play football? Do not use must in the Simple Past. Did he have to play football? Did he need to play football? Do not use must in the will-future. Will he have to play football? Will he need to play football?

Simple Present - Questions - Exericse 1 Exericse 2

1) Questions without question words in the Simple Present

Auxiliary Subject Verb Do Does you Peter Yes/No Subject Auxiliary (+ n't) Yes, I do. read books? No, I don't. play football? Yes, he does. Rest

2) Questions with question words in the Simple Present

Question word What When Where Auxiliary Subject Verb do does do you your mother you play go Rest on your computer? to work? Answer I play games on my computer. She goes to work at 6 o'clock. I meet them at the bus stop.

meet your friends?

Yes/No questions - be (am, are, is)

Subject and verb change their position in statement and question. statement question You are from Germany. Are you from Germany?

We always use the short answer, not only "Yes" or "No". NOTE: If the answer is "Yes", we always use the long form. Example: Yes, I am. If the answer is "No", we either use the long or the contrated form (short form). Example: No, I am not - No, I'm not. Are you from Germany? Yes, I am.

am not. 'm not. Is he your friend? Yes, he is. Are Peter and John from England? Yes, they are. No, I

Questions with question words - be (am, are, is)

Question word Verb Where are What is How are Rest you from? your name? Pat and Sue? Answer I'm from Stuttgart. My name is Peter. They're fine.

Use the same form of the auxiliary can every time regardless the subject. Questions without question words Short answer Can you speak English? Yes, I can. can't. Can you climb a tree? No, I cannot. Can he play rugby? Yes, he can. Can Mandy read poems? Yes, she can. can't. Can they sing nice songs? No, they cannot. Questions with question words Answer What can Emily ride? Emily can ride a skateboard. Where can Frank play the trumpet? Frank can play the trumpet in his room. When can she see her friends? She can see her friends after school.

1) Yes/No Questions and short answers - have

Auxiliary Have Have Has Do Do Subject Verb Rest Yes/No Subject I we he I we Auxiliary (+ n't) have. haven't. has. do. don't.

you got you got your brother got you have you have

a cat? Yes, a new car? No, a bike? Yes, a cat? Yes, a new car? No,

Does

your brother have a bike?

Yes,

he

does.

2) Questions with question words - have

Question word Auxiliary Subject Verb Rest Answer Where have you got your ruler? I've got it in my pencil case. Where do you have your ruler? I have it in my pencil case.

1) Questions without question words in the Simple Present

Auxiliary Subject Verb Do Does you Peter Yes/No Subject Auxiliary (+ n't) Yes, I do. read books? No, I don't. play football? Yes, he does. Rest

2) Questions with question words in the Simple Present

Question word What When Where Auxiliary Subject Verb do does do you your mother you play go Rest on your computer? to work? Answer I play games on my computer. She goes to work at 6 o'clock. I meet them at the bus stop.

meet your friends?

1) Questions without question words in the Simple Past

Auxiliary Subject Verb Did Did Max you Yes/No Subject Auxiliary (+ n't) Yes, he did. play football? No, he didn't. watch the film yesterday? Yes, I did. Rest

No, BUT: to be Subject xxx Were you

didn't.

Yes/No Subject Auxiliary (+ n't) Yes, I was. in Leipzig last week? No, I wasn't. Rest

2) Questions with question words in the Simple Past

Question word Auxiliary Subject Verb Rest Answer What did you do yesterday evening? I did my homework. When did she meet her boyfriend? She met him yesterday. Where did they go after the match? They went to a caf. BUT: Question word to be Subject xxxxx Rest Answer Where were you yesterday? I was at the cinema.

1) Subject question
Question word Verb Rest Subject Verb Object - Place - Time Who runs to the shop? Peter runs to the shop. What happened yesterday? A tragedy happened yesterday.

2) Object question
Question word Auxiliary Subject Verb Rest Answer Who do you like? I like my mum. Who did Mandy phone last Monday? Mandy phoned her uncle. What do you read? I read detective stories. NOTE!

Subject question Object question Who phoned John? Who did John phone?

Question without question words Is Are Can Have Has Do Does Did Are Have Has Is Will Yes, No, Yes, the boys at your school? No, Yes, you play ice-hockey? No, Yes, we got ketchup? No, Yes, she got a mobile phone? No, Yes, they live in a flat? No, Yes, he work in an office? No, Yes, it rain yesterday? No, Yes, they writing a test now? No, Yes, you been to Scotland? No, Yes, she been waiting for long? No, Yes, he going to see his sister? No, Yes, we arrive on time? No, he from London?

Short answer he is. he isn't. they are. they aren't. I can. I can't. we have. we haven't. she has. she hasn't. they do. they don't. he does. he doesn't. it did. it didn't. they are. they aren't. I have. I haven't. she has. she hasn't. he is. he isn't. we will. we won't.

Use
1) repeated actions
My friend often draws nice posters.

2) things in general
The sun rises in the East.

3) fixed arrangements, scheduled events

The plane flies to London every Monday.

4) actions in the present - one follows after the other

First I get up, then I have breakfast.

5) instructions
Open your books at page 34.

6) with special verbs

I understand English.

Signal words
every day, often, always, sometimes, never

Form
infinitive (3rd person singular he, she, it: infinitive + -s)

Examples
Affirmative sentences:
I read books. We sing pop songs. I play handball. My brother reads books. She sings pop songs. John plays handball.

Negative sentences:
You must not negate a full verb in English. Always use the auxiliary do for negations. I I like computers. like computers at all. likes like computers. computers at all.

don't

My friend My mum doesn't

Questions:
Use the auxiliary do. Do you play football? Does he play football?

Affirmative sentences
long form contracted form I have got a brother. I've got a brother. You have got a sister. You've got a sister. He has got a budgie. He's got a budgie. She has got a dog. She's got a dog. It has got Bluetooth. It's got Bluetooth. We have got CDs. We've got CDs. You have got a nice room. You've got a nice room. They have got pets. They've got pets.

Negations
long form I have not got a brother. contracted form I haven't got a brother. oder

I've not got a brother. You haven't got a sister. oder You have not got a sister. You've not got a sister. He hasn't got a budgie. oder He has not got a budgie. He's not got a budgie. She hasn't got a dog. oder She has not got a dog. She's not got a dog. It hasn't got Bluetooth. oder It has not got Bluetooth. It's not got Bluetooth. We haven't got CDs. oder We have not got CDs. We've not got CDs. You haven't got a nice room. oder You have not got a nice room. You've not got a nice room. They haven't got pets. oder They have not got pets. They've not got pets. Spelling: There is not >e< hasn't. correct: She hasn't got a ruler. incorrect: She hasen't got a ruler.

Questions
short answer Yes, I have. Have I got time? No, I haven't. Yes, I have. Have you got lots of friends? No, I haven't. Yes, he has. Has he got a mobile phone? No, he hasn't. Yes, she has. Has she got a pink car? No, she hasn't. Yes, it has. Has it got mudguards? No, it hasn't. Yes, we have. Have we got milk? No, we haven't. Yes, we have. Have you got a brown bag? No, we haven't. Yes, they have. Have they got nice books? No, they haven't. question

Do not use >got< in the short answer. Have they got lots of friends? correct: Yes, they have. incorrect: Yes, they have got.

Affirmative sentences
>have< I have a brother. You have a sister. He has a cat. She has a dog. It has Bluetooth. We have books. You have a nice room. They have pets. >have got< I have got a brother. I've got a brother. You have got a sister. You've got a sister. He has got a cat. He's got a cat. She has got a dog. She's got a dog. It has got Bluetooth. It's got Bluetooth. We have got books. We've got books. You have got a nice room. You've got a nice room. They have got pets. They've got pets.

have got is often used in its contracted form even in written language.

Negative sentences
>have< I do not have a brother. I don't have a brother. You do not have a sister. You don't have a sister. He does not have a cat. He doesn't have a cat. She does not have a dog. She doesn't have a dog. >have got< I have not got a brother. or I haven't got a brother. or I've not got a brother. You have not got a sister. or You haven't got a sister. or You've not got a sister. He has not got a cat. or He hasn't got a cat. or He's not got a cat. She has not got a dog. or She hasn't got a dog. or

It does not have Bluetooth. It doesn't have Bluetooth. We do not have books. We don't have books. You do not have a nice room. You don't have a nice room. They do not have pets. They don't have pets.

She's not got a dog. It has not got Bluetooth. or It hasn't got Bluetooth. or It's not got Bluetooth. We have not got books. or We haven't got books. or We've not got books. You have not got a nice room. or You haven't got a nice room. or You've not got a nice room. They have not got pets. or They haven't got pets. or They've not got pets.

Questions
>have< >have got< Do I have time? Have I got time? Do you have pets? Have you got pets? Does he have a computer? Has he got a computer? Does she have a mobile phone? Has she got a mobile phone? Does it have mudguards? Has it got mudguards? Do we have ketchup? Have we got ketchup? Do you have a yellow car? Have you got a yellow car? Do they have nice teachers? Have they got nice teachers? Negations in questions: Don't you have a brother? Haven't you got a brother?

Be careful!
1) The contracted forms 've or 's are only used with have got - not with have. correct I've got a new mobile phone. He's got a new car. incorrect I've a new mobile phone. He's a new car.

2) Do not use an auxiliary with have got - only with have. Be careful when using negations. correct Have you got garden? Do you have a pet? They haven't got a house. incorrect Do you have got a garden? Have you a pet? They haven't a house.

3) >have< cannot always be substituted with >have got<. You can only substitute >have< with >have got< when you talk about possession and relationships. have got I've got a brother. incorrect: I had got an accident. incorrect: We had got lunch. I have a brother. I had an accident. We had lunch. have

Note: In American English >have< is dropped in informal speech like in the following example. We've got a problem. -> We got a problem.

have to, had to

have to, has to - Exercise don't have to, doesn't have to - Exercise

have to in affirmative sentences (Simple Present)

Example:
I/we/you/they have to get up early. He/she/it has to get up early.

have to in negative sentences (Simple Present)

Example:

I/we/you/they do not have to get up early. He/she/it does not have to get up early. contracted forms: I/we/you/they don't have to get up early. He/she/it doesn't have to get up early.

have to in questions (Simple Present)

Example:
Do I/we/you/they have to get up early? Does he/she/it have to get up early

had to in affirmative sentences (Simple Past)

Example:
I/you/he/she/it/we/you/they had to get up early.

had to in negative sentences (Simple Past)

Example:
I/you/he/she/it/we/you/they did not have to get up early contracted forms: I/you/he/she/it/we/you/they didn't have to get up early.

had to in questions (Simple Past)

Example:
Did I/you/he/she/it/we/you/they have to get up early?

We substitute "may" with "to be allowed to".

Affirmative sentences
Tense Simple Present Simple Past will-future Modal I may play football. Do not use may in the Simple Past. Do not use may in the willfuture. Form I am allowed to play football. I'm allowed to play football. I was allowed to play football. I will be allowed to play football. I'll be allowed to play football.

There are also other tenses possible: e.g. Present Perfect: I have been allowed to play football.

Negations
Tense Modal Simple Present I may not play football. Simple Past will-future Do not use may not in the Simple Past. Do not use may not in the willfuture. Form I am not allowed to play football. I'm not allowed to play football. I was not allowed to play football. I wasn't allowed to play football. I will not be allowed to play football. I won't be allowed to play football.

Questions
Tense Modal Form Simple Present May he play football. Is he allowed to play football? Simple Past Do not use may in the Simple Past. Was he allowed to play football? will-future Do not use may in the will-future. Will he be allowed to play football?

1) can
Use ability to do sth. in the present (substitute form: to be able to) Examples I can speak English.

permission to do sth. in the present (substitute form: to be allowed to) request offer suggestion possibility

Can I go to the cinema? Can you wait a moment, please? I can lend you my car till tomorrow. Can we visit Grandma at the weekend? It can get very hot in Arizona.

2) could
Use ability to do sth. in the past (substitute form: to be able to) permission to do sth. in the past (substitute form: to be allowed to) polite question * polite request * polite offer * polite suggestion * possibility * Examples I could speak English. I could go to the cinema. Could I go to the cinema, please? Could you wait a moment, please? I could lend you my car till tomorrow. Could we visit Grandma at the weekend? It could get very hot in Montana.

3) may
Use possibility permission to do sth. in the present (substitute form: to be allowed to) polite suggestion Examples It may rain today. May I go to the cinema? May I help you?

4) might
Use Examples possibility (less possible than may) * It might rain today. hesitant offer * Might I help you?

5) must
Use force, necessity possibility Examples I must go to the supermarket today. You must be tired.

advice, recommendation

You must see the new film with Brad Pitt.

6) must not/may not

Use prohibition Examples You mustn't work on dad's computer. You may not work on dad's computer.

7) need not
Use not necessary Examples I needn't go to the supermarket, we're going to the restaurant tonight.

8) ought to
Use advice obligation Examples You ought to drive carefully in bad weather. You ought to switch off the light when you leave the room.

9) shall
instead of will in the 1st person Use suggestion Examples Shall I carry your bag?

10) should
Use advice obligation Examples You should drive carefully in bad weather. You should switch off the light when you leave the room.

11) will
Use wish, request, demand, order (less polite Examples Will you please shut the door?

than would) prediction, assumption promise spontaneous decision habits

I think it will rain on Friday. I will stop smoking. Can somebody drive me to the station? - I will. She's strange, she'll sit for hours without talking.

12) would
Use wish, request (more polite than will) habits in the past * no past forms - future forms Examples Would you shut the door, please? Sometimes he would bring me some flowers.

must - to have to
Modals - Explanation can may We substitute "must" with "to have to". Be careful: The negation of must means not allowed to.

Affirmative sentences
Tense Simple Present Simple Past will-future Modal Form I must play football. I have to play football. Do not use must in the Simple Past. I had to play football. Do not use must in the will-future. I will have to play football.

Negations
Tense Simple Present 1 Modal I must not play football. I mustn't play football. Form I am not allowed to play football. I'm not allowed to play football.

2 3 1 Simple Past 2 3 1 will-future 2 3

I need not play football. I needn't play football. I do not need to play football. I don't need to play football. Do not use must not in the Simple Past. Do not use need not in the Simple Past. I did not need to play football. I didn't need to play football. Do not use must not in the will-future. Do not use need not in the will-future. I will not need to play football. I won't need to play football.

I do not have to play football. I don't have to play football. I was not allowed to play football. I wasn't allowed to play football. I did not have to play football. I didn't have to play football. I will not be allowed to play football. I won't be allowed to play football. I will not have to play football. I won't have to play football.

Questions
Tense Simple Present Simple Past will-future 4 5 4 5 4 5 Modal Must he play football? Does he need to play football? Do not use must in the Simple Past. Did he need to play football? Do not use must in the will-future. Will he need to play football? Form Does he have to play football? Did he have to play football? Will he have to play football?

Sentences and questions with can and must

Modals - Explanations can may must

1) can
affirmative sentences with can

I can play football. You can sing. My sister can read. We can speak English. They can write the words. negative sentences with can I cannot play football. or I can't play football. You cannot sing. or You can't sing. My sister cannot read. or My sister can't read. We cannot speak English. or We can't speak English. They cannot write the words. or They can't write the words. Questions with can Can I go to the cinema? Can your budgie talk? Can he play the trumpet? Can they spell their names?

2) must
affirmative sentences with must I must do my homework. My sister must wash the dishes. We must ask Frank. They must make their beds. negative sentences with must I must not go outside. or I mustn't play outside. You must not sing. or You mustn't sing. He must not watch TV. or He mustn't watch TV.

Tim and Alex must not open the window. or Tim and Alex mustn't open the window Questions with must Must I help in the garden? Must you go? Must she sing in the bathroom? Must we watch this film?

The verb do - auxiliary and main verb

Forms of do - Exercise 1 Exercise 2 Exercise 3 do or does - Exercise 1 Exercise 2 The verb do can be an auxiliary verb or a main verb in English.

do as a main verb in the Simple Present (do, does, don't, doesn't)

affirmative I, we, you, they: I do my homework in the evenings. he, she, it: He does his homework in the evenings. negative I don't do my homework in the evenings.* He doesn't do his homework in the evenings.*

*Note: Here we use do in the negative sentence as an auxiliary and as a main verb.

do as a main verb in the Simple Past (did, didn't)

affirmative I did my homework in the evenings. negative I didn't do my homework in the evenings.**

**Note: Here we use did in the negative sentence as an auxiliary and do as a main verb.

do as a main verb - past participle (done)

affirmative I have done my homework. negative I haven't done my homework.

do as a main verb (Present Progressive, Gerund, present participle) - (doing)

affirmative negative I am doing my homework. I am not doing my homework. Doing my homework is not always fun. Not doing my homework is not clever. I saw Jane doing her homework. I didn't see Jane doing her homework.

do as an auxiliary verb in negative sentences in the Simple Present:

I don't do my homework in the evenings.

do as an auxiliary verb in negative sentences in the Simple Past:

I didn't do my homework yesterday evening.

do as an auxiliary verb in questions in the Simple Present:

Do you like rugby? - Does he like rugby?

do as an auxiliary verb in questions in the Simple Past:

Did you see Peggy yesterday? When did you get up this morning?

do with negative imperatives:

Don't sing under the shower.

The verb have - auxiliary and main verb

have got or has got - Explanation have or have got - Explanation have, has, had - Exercise 1 Exercise 2 The verb have can be an auxiliary verb or a main verb in English.

have as a main verb in the Simple Present (have, has, don't have, doesn't have)
affirmative I, we, you, they: I have a new guitar. I have got a new guitar.* he, she, it: He has a new guitar. He has got a new guitar.* negative I don't have a new guitar. I haven't got a new guitar.* He doesn't have a new guitar. He hasn't got a new guitar.*

have as a main verb in the Simple Past (had, didn't have)

affirmative I had a new guitar. I had got a new guitar.* * have or have got negative I didn't have a new guitar. I hadn't got a new guitar.*

have as an auxiliary verb and a main verb - Present Perfect (had)

affirmative I, we, you, they: They have had a nice time. he, she, it: He has had a nice time. negative They haven't had a nice time. He hasn't had a nice time.

have as an auxiliary verb and a main verb - Past Perfect (had)

affirmative They had had a nice time. negative They hadn't had a nice time.

have as an auxiliary verb in the Present Perfect (past participle):

affirmative I, we, you, they: I have seen Peter. he, she, it: She has seen Peter. negative I haven't seen Peter. She hasn't seen Peter.

have als auxiliary verb in the Past Perfect (past participle):

affirmative I had seen Peter. negative I hadn't seen Peter.

have als auxiliary verb in the Future Perfect (past participle):

affirmative negative They will have spoken to Peter. They won't have spoken to Peter.

The verb be - auxiliary and main verb

The verb be - long forms and contracted forms The verb be - auxiliary and main verb Forms of be - am, are, is - Exercise 1 Exercise 2 Exercise 3 was or were - Exercise was not or were not - Exercise The verb be can be an auxiliary verb or a main verb in English.

be as a main verb in the Simple Present (am, are, is)

affirmative I: I am from England. he, she, it: He is from England. we, you, they: We are from England. negative I am not from England. He is not from England. We are not from England.

be as a main verb in the Simple Past (was, were)

affirmative I, he, she, it: I was here. we, you, they: We were here. negative I was not here. We were not here.

be as an auxiliary verb in the Present Progressive (am, are, is)

affirmative I: I am reading a book. he, she, it: He is reading a book. we, you, they: We are reading a book. negative I am not reading a book. He is not reading a book. We are not reading a book.

be as an auxiliary verb in the passive:

Simple Present: A house is built. Simple Past: A house was built. will future: A house will be built. going-to future: A house is going to be built.

Modals, Auxiliaries
be, have and do can be auxiliaries und full verbs. Modals are: can, could, may, might, must, ought to, shall, should, will, would and need (need can be a full verb, too). We can play football. We could play football. We may play football. We might play football. We must play football. We mustn't play football. We needn't play football. We ought to play football. We shall play football. We should play football. We will play football. We would play football.

Note:
1) Do not use modals for things which happen definitely. 2) They do not have an -s in the 3rd person singular. 3) Questions are formed without do/does/did. The sun rises in the East. He can play football. Can he speak Spanish? They must read the 4) It follows a full verb in the infinitive. book. He was allowed to watch 5) There are no past forms (except could and would). the film. When you use the past particple, you tell about things which You should have told 6) did not happen in the past. me.

Form
positive negative long form contracted form long form contracted form can -cannot can't could -could not couldn't may -may not -might -might not -ought to -ought not to oughtn't to --need not needn't shall 'll shall not shan't should 'd -shouldn't will 'll will not won't would 'd would not wouldn't