Text 1 Cells

Cells are the structural and functional units of all living organisms. Some organisms, such as bacteria, are unicellular, consisting of a single cell. Other organisms, such as humans, are multicellular, or have many cellsan estimated 100,000,000,000,000 cells! Each cell is an amazing world unto itself: it can take in nutrients, convert these nutrients into energy, carry out specialized functions, and reproduce as necessary. Even more amazing is that each cell stores its own set of instructions for carrying out each of these activities. . The simplest of cells, and the first types of cells to evolve, were prokaryotic cells organisms that lack a nuclear membrane, the membrane that surrounds the nucleus of a cell. Bacteria are the best known and most studied form of prokaryotic organisms, although the recent discovery of a second group of prokaryotes, called archaea, has provided evidence of a third cellular domain of life and new insights into the origin of life itself.Prokaryotes are unicellular organisms that do not develop or differentiate into multicellular forms. Some bacteria grow in filaments, or masses of cells, but each cell in the colony is identical and capable of independent existence. The cells may be adjacent to one another because they did not separate after cell division or because they remained enclosed in a common sheath or slime secreted by the cells. Typically though, there is no continuity or communication between the cells. Prokaryotes are capable of inhabiting almost every place on the earth, from the deep ocean, to the edges of hot springs, to just about every surface of our bodies.Eukaryotes include fungi, animals, and plants as well as some unicellular organisms. Eukaryotic cells are about 10 times the size of a prokaryote and can be as much as 1000 times greater in volume. The major and extremely significant difference between prokaryotes and eukaryotes is that eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound compartments in which specific metabolic activities take place. Most important among these is the presence of a nucleus, a membranedelineated compartment that houses the eukaryotic cells DNA. It is this nucleus that gives the eukaryoteliterally, true nucleusits name.Eukaryotic organisms also have other specialized structures, called organelles, which are small structures within cells that perform dedicated functions. As the name implies, you can think of organelles as small organs. There are a dozen different types of organelles commonly found in eukaryotic cells. In this primer, we will focus our attention on only a handful of organelles and will examine these organelles with an eye to their role at a molecular level in the cell. Exercise 1 Put the words into the gaps in the following text: Mitochondria have two functionally distinct membrane systems separated by a 1---------: the outer membrane, which 2--------- the whole organelle; and the inner

membrane, which is thrown into folds or shelves that3 ---------- inward. These inward folds are called cristae. The number and shape of cristae in mitochondria 4---------, depending on the tissue and organism in which they are found, and serve to5 --------- the surface area of the membrane. Mitochondria play a critical role in 6---------energy in the eukaryotic cell, and this process involves a number of complex 7---------. Let's 8------------ each of these steps so that you can better understand how food and nutrients are turned into energy packets and water. Some of the best energy-supplying foods that we eat contain complex sugars. These complex sugars can be broken down into a less chemically complex sugar molecule called glucose. Glucose can then 9--------- the cell through special molecules found in the membrane, called glucose transporters. 10---------inside the cell, glucose is broken down to make adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a form of energy, via two different pathways. The first pathway, glycolysis, 11-------- no oxygen and is referred to as anaerobic metabolism. Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm outside the mitochondria. 12---------glycolysis, glucose is broken down into a molecule called pyruvate. Each reaction is 13------------to produce some hydrogen ions that can then be used to make energy packets (ATP). However, only four ATP molecules can be made from one molecule of glucose in this pathway. In prokaryotes, glycolysis is the only method used for converting energy. The second pathway, called the Kreb's cycle, or the citric acid cycle, occurs inside the mitochondria and is capable of generating enough ATP to run all the cell functions. Once again, the cycle begins with a glucose molecule, which during the process of glycolysis is stripped of some of its hydrogen atoms, transforming the glucose into two molecules of pyruvic acid. Next, pyruvic acid is 14--------- by the removal of a carbon and two oxygens, which go on to form carbon dioxide. When the carbon dioxide is removed, energy is 15-------- and a molecule called NAD+ is converted into the higher energy form, NADH. Another molecule, coenzyme A (CoA), then attaches to the remaining acetyl unit, forming acetyl CoA. Chloroplasts are similar to mitochondria 16-------- are found only in plants. 17------organelles are surrounded by a double membrane with an intermembrane space; have their own DNA and are involved in energy metabolism; and both have reticulations, or 18----------- foldings, filling their inner spaces. Chloroplasts convert light energy from the sun into ATP through a process called photosynthesis

www.bionewsonline.com/.../what_is_cell_bi.

1A

blank space, B

outer space, C

infinite,D

space

2 A surrounds

B environs

C rings, D borders

3 A project

B throw

C see

design

4A

4differ B

dissent

take

D be

5A

increase B increment

C gain,

,D step-up

6A 7A

generating B getting pathways B tracts

C returning C pathway

D giving D footpath

8A

break down B function

give off

D perish

9A

enter B move into

C figure

,D pull in

10 A Once at one time B at one time

formerly

D one time

11 A

requires B

expects C

demands

involves

12 A During B while

C piece

,D spell

13 A designed B projected,

, C , planned

,D contrived

14 A altered B converted

,C

switched

,D transferred

15 A

given off B broke down

let out

D run out,

1 6A

but B only

C entirely

,D just

171 A

both B as well

, C not only

,D equally

18 A

many B hardly a

C a couple of(a)

,D a few

Grammar Guide Numerals The Cardinal Numeral 1 one2 two3 three4 four5 five6 six7 seven8 eight9 nine10 ten11 eleven12 twelve13 thirteen14 fourteen 15 fifteen16 sixteen etc 20 twenty30 thirty40 forty50 fifty etc. : 115 = a/one hundred and fifteen; 3,005 = three thousand and five. .The Ordinal Numeral 1 the first the 1st 2 the second 3 the third 4 the fourth 5 the fifth the 5th 6 the sixth the 6th 7 the seventh the 7th the 2nd the3rd the 4th 15 the fifteenth the 15th 16 the sixteenth 17 the seventeenth 18 the eighteenth the 16th the 17th the 18th

19 the nineteenth the 19th 20 the twentieth the 20th 21 the twenty-first the 21st

8 the eighth the 8th 9 the ninth the 9th 10 the tenth the 10th 11 the eleventh the 11th 12 the twelfth the 12th 13 the thirteenth the 13th 14 the fourteenth the 14th 1000 the one thousandth the 1000th The Fractional Numeral 1/2 = a/one half ; 1/3/ = a/one third 1: 2/3= two-thirds; =three quarters/three-fourts. 1/2 hour = half an hour; 3/4 ton = three quarters ton.

30 the thirtieth the 30th 31 the thirty-first the 31st 32 the thirty-second the 32nd 40 the fortieth the 40th 100 the hundreth the 100th 101 the hundred and first the 101st

1 3/4 miles - one mile and three quarters or one and three quarter miles. 4 1/2 tons = four and one half tons or four and a half tons. 3.25 = three point two five. 18.75 = eighteen point seven five. The Multiplicative Numeral: once - odata; twice de doua ori; thrice - de trei ori. (Forma thrice este nvechita). : four times, five times, six times etc.

Grammar Guide The Adjective Simple adjectives high,tall,thin Derived adjectives wonderful,foolish Compound adjectives snow-white, long-legged, red-hot, well-known, cold-hearted, good-looking Derived adjectives +suffix Danger noun Care noun Luck noun Trouble noun Fool noun Differ verb Confort verb Talk verb -ous -ful y -some -ish -ent adjective dangerous carefu lucky troublesome foolish different

-able confortable -ive talkative

Degrees of comparison One syllable adjective twosyllable adjective adjective Irregular forms of comparison Loud-louder-loudest Young-younger-youngest Clever-cleverer-cleverest Foggy-foggier-foggiest Careful- more careful -most careful Far -further / farther furthest / farthest good-better-best bad-worse-worst Beautiful-more beautiful-most beautifulThree or more syllable

much/many-more-most old-older/elder-oldest/eldest near-nearer-nearest,next late-later/latter-latest/last

Equality examples As-------..as The sameas He is as tall as me.

inferiority

I have the same hat as he. Less than The least He is tall as me.

Not soas

I have the same hat as he. My story is not interesting like Hamiltons My story is less interesting than Hamiltons My letters are the least interesting of all. Buildings with degrees of comparison Repetitions In autumn the nights are cold. In autumn the nights are colder Winter is a beautiful season. . Winter is more beautiful than autumn.

Double comparatives In spring the clime gets warmer and warmer His report is more and more interesting. The longer the days, the warmer they become. Exercise Read and write the numbers 1,350 ;45.73 ;3.05 ;26% Exercise Read the mathematical symbols and fractions: 1 / 2 ; 2/3 ;1 / 3 ;5/8 ;1 / 4; 3 / 4;3 + 8 = 11; 8 x 2 ;62; Cititi a) cifre: 195;248;352;2934;6855. b) ani: 1821; 1848; 1453; 1066; 1918 c) ore: 11.5; 12.10; 1.30; 2.45; 3.25. 2 Bones

Bones are complete organs chiefly composed connective tissue called osseous (bony) tissue plus a rich supply of blood vessels and nerves. Osseous tissue is a dense connective tissue that consists of osteocytes (bones cells) surrounding by a hard, intercellular substance filled with calcium salts.The formation of bone is dependent to a great extent on a proper supply of calcium and phosphorus to the bone tissue. These minerals must be taken into the body along with a sufficient amount of vitamin D. Vitamin D helps the passage of calcium through the lining of the small intestine and into the bloodstream. Once calcium and phosphorus are in the bones, osteobalistic activity produces an enzyme that causes the formation of calcium phosphate, a substance giving bone its characteristic hard quality.If the proper amount of calcium is lacking in the blood, nerve fibres are unable to transmit impulses effectively to muscles; heart muscle becomes weak, and muscles attached to bones undergo spasms.The necessary level of calcium in the blood is maintained by the parathyroid gland, which secretes a hormone to relase calcium from bone storage. There are 206 bones of various types in the body. Long bones are found in the thigh, lower leg, and upper and lower arm. These bones are very strong, are broad at the ends where they join with other bones, and have large surface areas for muscle attachment.Short bones are found in the wrist and ankle and have small, irregular shapes. Flat bones are found covering soft body parts.

These are the shoulder bone, ribs, and pelvic bones. Sesamoid bones are small, rounded bones resembling a grain of sesame in shape. They are found near joints; the kneecap is the largest example of this type of bone. The shaft, or middle region, of a long bone is called the diaphysis . Each end of a long bone is called an epiphysis . The epiphyseal line or plate represents an area of cartilage tissue that isconstantly being replaced by new bony tissue as the bone grows.Compact (cortical) bone is a layer of hard, dense tissue that lies under the periosteum in all bones and chiefly around the diaphysis of long bones. Within the compact bone is a system of small canals containing blood vessels that oxygen and nutrients to the bone and remove waste products such as carbon dioxide..Cancellous bone , sometimes called spongy or trabecular bone, is much more porous and less dense than compact bone. The mineral matter in it laid down in a series of separated bony fibres called a spongy latticework or trabeculae. It is found largely in the epiphyses of long bones and in the middle portion of most other bones of the body as well. Spaces in cancellous bone contain red bone marrow. In an adult, the ribs, pelvic bone, sternum (breastbone), and vertebrae, as well as the epiphyses of long bones, contain red bone marrow within cancellous tissue. The red marrow in the long bones is plentiful in young children but decreases through the years and is replaced by yellow marrow. Exercise LANGUAGE MULTIPLE CHOICE Rheumatic fever is a 1 ------------to infection of the throat with beta- haemolytic streptococci ; any serological type can be responsible. In epidemic conditions, such as formerly occurred in institutions and army barracks, the attack rate can rise as high as 3%, but in non-epidemic conditions it is very much lower. Rheumatic fever occurs 2---------------- in those who develop a high antibody 3---------- following the infection; but, for reasons that are unclear, even of such individuals only a minority become affected. In someone who has suffered one attack the risk of 4---------following further streptococcal infection may be as high as 50%: 5--------- the importance of secondary prevention. The risk of subsequent chronic rheumatic heart disease depends on the number of attacks of rheumatic fever, which again underlines the 6------- of effective secondary prevention. Unfortunately, in those countries where rheumatic heart disease is still a major public health problem it is often the exception of rheumatic fever to be brought to medical attention; and even in western countries about a half of all newly-recognized patients with rheumatic heart disease do not recall any history of rheumatic fever. The 7---------and 8-----------of rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart disease are a simple reflection of the personal and environmental factors which promote the spread of streptococcal throat infections, with a concentration of 9--------- in cities,

slums, large families and the winter season. This is a classical disease of poverty, with 10--------overcrowding as the primary factor 1 a sequel continuation 2 a big 3 a titer solution 4 a going back back 5 a so b conclusion, b large b solution b recurrence b hence c subsequence c prominent c concentration c return c away d d largely d concentration of a d coming d if

6 a greatness importance 7 8 9 a incidents a distribution a cases

b grandeur b resultants bdispersion b casing

c immensity c distinct event c diffusion c caseful c domesticity

d d resultant d dispersal d event d

10 a domesticise domesticated Smoking Definition

b domestic

Smoking, is better described 1 as nicotine addiction,

2 as a complex addiction, with both psychological and physical components. How do you comment this joke? Stopping smoking is very difficult, as suggested by the old Mark Twain joke, "Quitting smoking is easy. I've done it a thousand times. "There are also a thousand treatments available to help stop smoking. Whenever we have a multitude of treatments, it means we don't have any surefire[= likely to succeed ] way to treat a problem.

Despite the absence of one "silver bullet" to treat nicotine addiction, you can stop smoking. The tools available to do so include both treating the physical addiction, such with as nicotine replacement and other medications, and treating the psychological component, as with support groups

Hurting Yourself Smoking is an addiction. Tobacco contains nicotine, a drug that is addictive. The nicotine, therefore, makes it very difficult (although not impossible) to quit. In fact, since the U.S. Surgeon General's 1964 report on the dangers of smoking, millions of Americans have quit. Still, approximately 440,000 deaths occur in the U.S. each year from smoking-related illnesses; this represents almost 1 out of every 5 deaths. The reason for these deaths is that smoking greatly increases the risk of getting lung cancer, heart attack, chronic lung disease, stroke, and many other cancers. Moreover, smoking is perhaps the most preventable cause of breathing (respiratory) diseases within the USA.

Hurting Others Smoking harms not just the smoker, but also family members, coworkers, and others who breathe the smoker's cigarette smoke, called secondhand smoke or passive smoke. Among infants up to 18 months of age, secondhand smoke is associated with as many as 300,000 cases of chronic bronchitis and pneumonia each year. In addition, secondhand smoke from a parent's cigarette increases a child's chances for middle ear problems, causes coughing and wheezing, worsens asthma, and increases an infant's risk of dying from sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). Smoking is also harmful to the unborn fetus. If a pregnant woman smokes, her fetus is at an increased risk of miscarriage, early delivery (prematurity), stillbirth, infant death, and low birth weight. In fact, it has been estimated that if all women quit smoking during pregnancy, about 4,000 new babies would not die each year. Exposure to passive smoke can also cause cancer. Research has shown that nonsmokers who reside with a smoker have a 24% increase in risk for developing lung cancer when compared with other non-smokers. An estimated 3,000 lung cancer deaths occur each year in the U.S. that are attributable to passive smoking. Secondhand smoke also increases the risk of stroke and heart disease. If both parents smoke, a teenager is more than twice as likely to smoke as a teenager whose parents are both nonsmokers. Even in households where only one parent smokes, young people are more likely to start smoking. .

Make use of the phrases from below: I quite agree Im in complete agreement You definitely Exactly/precisely Im sure that I think/I believe that I completely disagree Thats out of the question I dont agree I wouldnt say that I think you are wrong As I see it STATEMENTS 1 Smokers can relax by having a cigarette2 Smoking is a good source of money for the government 3 Smoking should be banned in all public places.4 the peer group has more influence than the family on smoking habit.5 Smoking is a sign of weakness.6 Smoking helps you concentrate.7 Smokers have a right to smoke8 Those who contribute to their own illness e.g. smokers,alcoholics-should have lower priority for their health care than the others9 Smoking is fashionable10The sale price of cigarettes should be increased Writing Why dont you try to give it up ? Write a letter to a friend-a pregnant woman who is a smoker. Explain to her why she should stop smoking. In giving advice, use phrases from below To my mind, you shouldnt I really think you should try and

If I were you Youd better Why dont you You should avoid + gerund Youd better off without= to have more mney than you had in the past Its worth + gerund Grammar Guide 10 Foreign Plurals Singular Suffix -us stimulusbacillus -us corpus -o graffito -a Alga larva -um stratumagendum erratum addendum datum Bacterium -ex agenda errata addenda data bacteria - ices Plural -i stimuli bacili. -ora corpora -i graffiti( usually plural) -ae algae larvae -a strata

codex-is thesis axis hypothesis analysis ellipsis basis crisis paralysis diagnosis parenthesis synthesis -on criterion phenomenon -eau tableau Exceptions singular a man a woman a tooth a foot a goose a mouse m

codices -es thesis axes hypotheses analyses ellipses bases crises paralyses diagnoses parentheses syntheses -a criteria phenomena -eaux tableaux

plural men women teeth feet geese mice

an ox a deer a sheep a child

oxen deer sheep children

Sugar/milk/happiness;money,fruit,hair,twilight,advice,news=have onlysingular Spectacles,scales,trousers,scissors,clothes=have only plural 3 The Respiratory System The lungs are the paired organs of respiration. Each lies in its pleural sac attached to the mediastinum at the hilus. The lung is spongy and elastic in texture and coneshaped to conform the contours of the thoracic cavity. The right lung weighs about 620 g and the left about 560 g. The lungs have a characteristic mottled appeatance on radiographs. The clear areas are lung tissue and the dense shadows at the hilus and radiating outwards are caused by hilar tussues (lymph nodes) and by blood vessels.Each lung has an apex in the root of the neek and a base resting on the diaphragm. The base in separated by a sharp inferior border from a lateral convex costal surface and a medial concave (mediastinal) surface. In the centre of this latter surface, the structures forming the root of the lung are seen to be surrounded by a collar of pleura. The concavity of the medial surface is accentuated on the left to accommodate the left ventricle of the heart. The anterior border on the left side is deeply indented by the heart to from the cardiac notch. The posterior border is rounded and lies in the paravertebral sulcus. The lungs are divided into lobes by fissures which extend deeply into their substance. An oblique fissure divides the left lung into an upper and a lower lobe; oblique and horizontal fissures divide the right lung into upper, middle and lower lobes. The oblique fissure of both lungs may be marked by a line curving around the chest wall from the spine of the 3rd thoracic vertebra to the 6th costochondral junction. The lower lobes of both lungs lie below and behind the oblique fissure and comprise most of the posterior and inferior borders and parts of the medial and costal surface. The upper lobe of the left lung lies above and in front of the oblique fissure and comprises the apex, substantial portions of the mediastinal and costal surfaces and the whole of the anterior border including the cardiac notch. The equivalent part of the right lung is divided by the horizontal fissure into a large upper lobe and wedge-shaped anteriorly placed smaller middle lobe. A thin anteroinferior part of the left upper lobe, adjacent to the cardiac notch, is known as the lingula and represents the middle lobe. Variation exists in this lobar pattern. Fissures, especially the horizontal, may be incomplete or absent, and occasionally additional lobes are present. The hilus of each lung contains a main bronchus, pulmonary artery, two pulmonary veins, the pulmonary nerve plexus, and lymph

nodes, all surrounded by the collar of pleura whose narrow inferior extension is known as the pulmonary ligament. On both sides the brochus lies behind the pulmonary artery, and the two pulmonary veins lie anterior-inferior to both other structures.We usually think of respiration as the mechanical process of breathing the repetitive and, for the most part, unconscious exchange of air between the lungs and the external environment. This exchange of air at the lungs is also called external respiration. In external respiration, oxygen is inhaled (air inhaled contains ab out 21 per cent oxygen) into the air spaces (sacs) of the lungs and immediately passes into tiny capillary blood vessels surrounding the air spaces. Simultaneously, carbon dioxide, a gas produced when oxygen and food combine in cells, passes from the capillary blood vessels into the air spaces of the lungs to be exhaled (exhaled air contains about 16 per cent oxygen).While external respiration occurs between the outside environment and the capillary bloodstream of the lungs, another from of respiration is occurring simultaneously between the individual body cells and the tiny capillary blood vessels that surround them. This process is called internal (cellular) respiration. Internal respiration is the exchange of gases not at the lungs but at the cells within all the organs of the body. In this process, oxygen passes out of the bloodstream and into the tissue cells. At the same time, carbon dioxide passes from the tissue cells into the bloodstream and is carried by the blood back to the lungs to be exhaled. Air enters the body through the nose and passes through the nasal cavity which is lined with a mucous membrane and fine hairs (cilia) to the help filter out foreign bodies, as well as to warm and moisten the air.After passing through the nasal cavity, the air next reaches the pharynx (throat).The esophagus leads into the stomach and carries food to be digested. The larynx contains the vocal cords and is surrounded by pieces of cartilage for support. The thyroid cartilage is the largest and is commonly referred to as the Adam' s apple. Sounds are produced as air is expelled past the vocal cords, and the cords vibrate. The tension of the vocal cords determines the high or low pitch of the voice. On its way to the lungs, air passes from the larynx to the trachea (windpipe) (12), a vertical tube about 4 inches long and 1 inch in diameter. The trachea is kept open by 16-20 C-shaped rings of cartilage separated by fibrous connective tissue that stiffen the front and sides of the tube.The smallest of the bronchial branches are called bronchioles . At the end of the bronchioles are clusters of air sacs called alveoli (singular: alveolus). Each alveolus is made of a one-cell layer of epithelium. The very thin wall for the exchange of gases between the alveolus and the capillaries that surround and come in close contact with it. The blood that flows through the capillaries accepts the oxygen from the alveolus and deposits carbon dioxide into the alveolus to be exhaled. Oxygen is bound to a protein (hemoglobin) in erythrocytes and carried to all parts of the body. Each lung is enveloped in a double-folded membrane called the pleura. The outer layer of the pleura, nearest the ribs, is the parietal pleura , and the inner layer, closest to the lungs, is the visceral pleura . The pleura is moistened with a serous (thin, watery fluid) secretion that facilitates the movements of the lungs within the chest (thorax). The lungs extend from the collarbone to the diaphragm in the thoracic cavity. The diaphragm

is a muscular partition that separates the thoracic from the abdominal cavity and aids in the process of breathing. The diaphragm contracts and descends with each inhalation (inspiration). When the lungs are full, the diaphragm relaxes and elevates, making the area in the thoracic cavity smaller, and thus increasing the air pressure in the thorax. Air then is expelled out of the lungs to equalize the pressure: this is called exhalation (expiration). 1 Make up sentences with

vials, needles and tampons;proper vein; disinfecting the puncture;esmarch on the arm; piercing the needle ; pushing the vial ; collect blood; piercing point; discarding the used materials 2 Translate

Nasul Infundat n timpul iernii, mucoasa nazal se usuc, copilul avnd des nasul nfundat cnd se trezete dimineaa. Uneori, el are chiar mici hemoragii nazale. Pentru prevenirea lor sunt importante folosirea umidificatorului mai ales n timpul nopii i aplicarea unor picturi saline n nas, dimineaa. Cnd copilul iese afar, mai ales dac este mai frig, este bine s se aplice o loiune sau un strat subire de crem pe fa (produse speciale pentru copii) i balsam pe buz 3 Translate

Outpatient Intervention When the hospital is also connected to an outpatient department, clinicians may have the opportunity to monitor patients after they are discharged for any serious drug, nutrient, herbal, or food interaction (especially grapefruit juice, which seems to decrease the metabolism of some drugs and thus leads to toxic blood levels. They may also have laboratory values available to them via an integrated computer system. In some cases, patients are discharged on an entirely different drug regimen than before they were admitted. This should be discussed with the patient before discharge. Patients should be advised that when they decide to take any type of herbal or nutritional product to please contact the pharmacist or other health care provider. Consumer demand for the integration of complementary medical modalities is at an unprecedented level. Nursing can accept the challenge by questioning and gathering information from reliable sources that could help with the treatment and care of their patients. 4 Blood Vessels There are three types of blood vessels in the body. These are called arteries, veins, and capillaries.

Arteries are the large blood vessels that lead blood away from the heart. Their walls are made of connective tissue, elastic fibers, and an innermost layer of epithelial cells called endothelium. Endothelial cells, which line all blood vessels, secrete substances that affect the size (dilation) of blood vessels, blood clotting, and the growth of blood vessels. Because arteries carry blood away from the heart, they must be strong enough to withstand the high pressure of the pumping action of the heart. Their elastic walls allow them to expand as the heartbeat forces blood into the arterial system throughout the body. Smaller branches of arteries are called arterioles. Arterioles are thinner than arteries and carry the blood to the tiniest of blood vessels, the capillaries.Capillaries have walls that are only one endothelial cell thick. These delicate, microscopic vessels carry nutrient-rich, oxygenated blood from the arteries and arterioles to the body cells. Their walls are thin enough to allow passage of oxygen and nutrients out of the bloodstream and into the tissue fluid surrounding the cells. Once inside the cells, the nutrients are burned in the presence of oxygen (catabolism) to release needed energy within the cell. At the same time, waste products such as carbon dioxide and water pass out of the cells and into the thin-walled capillaries. The waste-filled blood then flows back to the heart in small veins called venules, which branch to from larger vessels called veins. Veins are thinner-walled than arteries. They conduct blood (that has given up most of its oxygen) toward the heart from the tissues. Veins have little elastic tissue and less connective tissue than, and blood pressure in veins is extremely low compared with pressure in arteries. In order to keep blood moving back the heart, veins have valves they prevent the backflow of blood and keep the blood moving in one direction. Muscular action also help Translate Pentru a tri n condiii mai bune, omul a utilizat permanent resurse naturale: animale, plante, arbori, minereuri, crbuni, sare, petrol, gaze naturale, ap. Din utilizrile acestor resurse naturale (primare) au rezultat i produse neutilizabile, cum sunt: gaze, prafuri, produse lichide sau solide ce au fost permanent evacuate n natur. Unele dintre acestea 5produse au putut s se integreze n ciclurile naturale ale unor elemente, altele ns se tot acumuleaz, producnd perturbaii ecologice. Simplu spus, biodiversitatea nseamn diversitatea vieii pe Pmnt, cum ar fi arborii, florile, pasrile, insectele, mamiferele, petii, viermii, algele. Varietatea plantelor si animalelor pare nesfrit, dar nu este, dup cum ne putem astzi da seama. Pn astzi, pe planeta noastr biologii au catalogat 10aproximativ dou milioane de specii. Pentru a avea o cifr clar care s-i ajute n planificarea viitoare, ideal ar fi ca ei s cunoasc exact cte specii sunt, unde triesc, ci membrii si cum se modific aceste cifre.Aceasta este o sarcin uria i nu sunt fonduri suficiente, timp, echipament sau biologi care s o duc la bun sfrit ntr-un viitor apropiat. De aceea, planurile se bazeaz pe estimri care variaz considerabil. Unii 15oameni de tiin afirm c pe pmnt ar fi milioane de specii de plante, animale, ciuperci, bacterii si alte vieuitoare.

5 Digestive System The digestive system, also called the alimentary canal or, begins with the mouth, where food enters the body, and ends the anus, where solid waste material leaves the body. The primary functions of the organs of the digestive system are threefold.First, complex food material taken into the mouth must be digested, or broken down, mechanically and chemically, as it travels through the gastrointestinal tract (passageway). Digestive enzymes speed up chemical reactions and help breakdown (digestion) of complex nutrients. Complex proteins are digested to simpler amino acids; complicated sugars are reduced to simple sugars, such as glucose; and large fat molecules (triglycerides) are broken down to fatty acids and glycerol Second, the digested food must be absorbed into the bloodstream by passing through the walls of the small intestine. In this way, valuable nutrients, such as sugar and amino acids, can travel to all the cells of the body. Cells then catabolize (burn) nutrients in the presence of oxygen to release energy stored within the food. Cells also use amino acid nutrients to anabolize (build) large protein molecules needed for growth and development needs for growth and development. Although the walls of the small intestine also absorb fatty and glycerol, these nutrients enter lymphatic vessels rather than blood vessels. Digested fats eventually enter the bloodstream as lymph vessels join with blood vessels in the upper chest region.The third function of the digestive system is the elimination of the solid waste materials that cannot be absorbed into the bloodstream. The large intestine concentrates these solid wastes, called feces, and the wastes finally pass out of the body through the anus. The pharynx or throat is a muscular tube, about 5 inches long, lined with a mucous membrane. It serves as a common passageway for air traveling from the nose (nasal cavity) to the windpipe (trachea) and food the oral cavity to the esophagus. When swallowing (deglutition) occurs, a flap of tissue, the epiglottis, covers the trachea so that food cannot enter and become lodged there.The esophagus, meaning swallowing (phag/o) inward (eso-), is a 9- to 10-inch muscular extending from the pharynx to the stomach. Rhythmic contractions of muscles in the wall of the esophagus propel food toward the stomach. Peristalsis, meaning constriction (-stalsis) surrounding (peri-), is this involuntary, progressive, rhythm-like contraction of the esophagus and the other gastrointestinal tubes. The process is like squeezing a marble (the bolus, or semisolid mass of food) through a rubber tube. Food passes from the esophagus into the stomach. The stomach is composed of an upper portion called the fundus, a middle section as the body, and a lower portion, the pylorus. Rings of muscles control the opening into and from the stomach. The cardiac sphincter relaxes contracts to move food from the esophagus into the stomach, whereas the pyloric sphincter allows food to leave the stomach when it has been sufficiently digested. Folds in the mucous membrane (mucosa) lining the stomach are called rugae. The rugae contain digestive glands that produce enzymes and hydrochloric acid.The role of the stomach is to prepare the food chemically and mechanically so that it can be received in the small intestine for further digestion and absorption into the bloodstream. Food does not enter the

bloodstream through the walls of the stomach. The stomach controls the passing of foods into the first part of the small intestine so that it proceeds only when it is chemically ready and in small amounts. Food leaves the stomach in 1-4 hours or longer, depending upon the amount and type of food eaten.The small intestine (small bowel) extends from the pyloric sphincter to the large intestine. It has three parts. The duodenum , only 1 food in length, receives food from the stomach as well as bile from the liver and gallbladder and pancreatic juice from the pancreas . Enzymes and bile help to digest food before it passes into the second part of the small intestine, the jejunum. The jejunum connects with the third section, the ileum . The ileum attaches to the first part of the large intestine.Millions of tiny, microscopic projections called villi line the walls of the small intestine. The tiny capillaries (microscopic blood vessels) in the villi absorb the digested nutrients into the bloodstream and lymph vessels. The large intestine extends from the ileum to the anus. It is divided into four parts: cecum, colon, sigmoid colon, and rectum. The cecum is a pouch on the right side that attaches to the ileum by ileocecal valve (sphincter). The appendix hangs from the cecum. The appendix has no clear function, but it causes problems when inflamed and infected. The colon (large intestine) has three divisions. The ascending colon extends from the cecum to the under surface of the liver, where it turns to the left (hepatic flexure or bend) to become the transverse colon . The transverse colon passes horizontally to the left toward the spleen, and turns downward (splenic flexure) into the descending colon . The sigmoid colon , shaped like an S (sigma), lies at the distal end of the descending colon and leads into the rectum . The rectum terminates in the lower opening of the gastrointestinal tract, the anus. .The large intestine receives the fluid waste products of digestion (the material unable to pass into the bloodstream) and stores these wastes until they can be released from the body. Because the large intestine absorbs most of the water within the waste material, the body can expel solid feces (stools). Diarrhea, watery stools, can result from lack of absorption of the water through the water through the walls of the large intestine.Three important additional organs of the digestive system the liver, gallbladder, and pancreas play crucial roles in the proper digestion and absorption of nutrients.The liver , located in the right upper quadrant (RUQ) of the abdomen, manufactures a thick, yellowish-brown, sometimes greenish, fluid called bile. Bile contains cholesterol (a fatty substance), bile acids and several bile pigments. One of these pigments, bilirubin, is produced from the breakdown of hemoglobin in the liver. The liver combines bilirubin with bile, and then excretes both into the duodenum. They leave the body in feces. The liver continuously releases bile, which then travels down the hepatic duct to the cystic duct. The cystic duct leads to the gallbladder , a pearshaped sac under the liver, which stores and concentrates the bile for later use. After meals, in response to the presence of food in the stomach and diodeum, the gallbladder contracts, forcing the bile out the cystic duct into the common bile duct , which joins with the pancreatic duct just before the entrance to the duodenum . The duodenum thus receives a mixture of bile and pancreatic juices. Bile has a detergent-like effect on fats in the duodenum. It breaks apart large fat

globules so that enzymes from the pancreas can digest the fats. This is called emulsification. Without bile, most of the fat taken into the body would remain undigested. The liver, besides producing bile, has several other vital and important functions. Some of these are:keeping the amount of glucoze (sugar) in the blood at a normal level. The liver removes excess glucose from the bloodstream and stores it as glycogen (starch) in liver cells. When the blood sugar level becomes dangerously low the liver can convert stored glycogen back into glucose via a process glycogenolysis. In addition, the liver can also convert proteins and fats into glucose when the body needs sugar by a process called gluconeogenesis. Manufacture of some blood proteins, particularly those necessary for blood clotting. Destruction of old erythrocytes and release of bilirubin. Removal of poisons (detoxification) from the blood. The term hepatic portal system refers to the blood vessels that bring blood to the liver from the intestines. Digested food pass into the portal vein directly after being absorbed into the bloodstream from the small intestine, thus giving the liver first chance at using the nutrients. The pancreas is both an exocrine and an endocrine organ. As an exocrine gland, it produces pancreatic juices filled with enzymes (amylase and lipase) to digest food. These pass into the duodenum through the pancreatic duct. As an endocrine gland (secreting into the bloodstream), the pancreas secretes insulin. This hormone, needed to help release sugar from the blood, acts as carrier to bring glucose into cells of the body to be used for energy. The tongue extends across the floor of the oral cavity, and muscles attach it to the lower jaw bone. It moves food around during mastication (chewing) and deglutition (swallowing). Papillae, small raised areas on the tongue, contain taste buds that are sensitive to the chemical nature of foods moves across the tongue. 1Translate - Whats brought you along today? -Ive got a bad dose of flu - How long have they have been bothering you? -Two or three days -Which part of your head is affected? -Just here -Where it hurt? -Right across here/chest area -Can you describe the pain? -Its a dull sort of ache

Does anything make it better If I stop for a bit, it goes away 2 Match the following synonyms

1. shape 2supporting, 3. soft 4. together 5.contraction

a. b. c. d.

a muscle fiber lengthens or shortens flabby bearing the weight definite distinctive form e. in unison