Puter Graphics

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications
Ch 3 Computer Graphics
CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed
Objectives
Convert vector straight lines to raster images to be displayed on a raster terminal utilizing the pixel information Understand the problems associated with displaying vectorial information on a raster terminal Various types of coordinate systems used in displaying CAD information The data requirements of a graphic image and the database storage methods used Different types of geometric transformations used during CAD geometry generation and display and their evaluation Mathematics required to display a 3D image on the 2D screen of the display device Understand the problems associated with the display of graphic images in the display screen such as clipping and hidden line elimination
CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed 2
3.1 Raster Scan Graphics

DDA or Digital Differential Analyser is one of the first algorithms developed for rasterising the vectorial information. The equation of a straight line is given by Y =m X + C
Fig. 3.1 A straight line drawing
y2 y1
x1 x2
X
4
Fig. 3.2 Flow chart for line drawing calculation procedure
Calculate dx = x2 - x1 dy = y2 - y1
If |dx| > |dy| No ST = |dy|
Yes
St = |dx|
dx = dx / ST dy = dy / ST X = xi Y = yi Set pixel at X, Y X = X + dx Y = Y + dy
End of Loop? No Yes STOP
3.1.2 Bresenham's Algorithm

Bresenham's method is an improvement over DDA since it completely eliminates the floating-point arithmetic except for the initial computations. All other computations are fully integer arithmetic thus is more efficient for raster conversion
Fig. 3-3 Line drawing using Bresenham algorithm

Y
i+1 y i i i+1
d2 d1
X
7
Fig. 3.4 Flow chart for line drawing calculation using Bresenham procedure
Calculate dx = x2 - x1 dy = y2 - y1 C1 = 2 dy C2 = 2 (dy - dx) x = x1 y = y1 p1 = 2 dy - dx Put a pixel at (x1, y1)
x=x+1
If Pi < 0
No
P(i+1) = Pi + C2 Y(i+1) = y(i) + 1
Yes P(i+1) = P(i) + C1 y(i+1) = y(i)
No
End of loop? Yes STOP
3.1.3 Antialiasing lines
Fig. 3.5 The staircase effect of pixels when drawing inclined lines
10
Fig. 3.6 The staircase effect of pixels when drawing inclined lines decreases with increased resolution
11
Fig. 3.7 Antialiasing of pixels proportional to the portion of pixel occupied by the line
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
12
Fig. 3.8 Unequal number of lines displayed with the same number of pixels
13
3.2 Co-ordinate systems
14
Fig. 3.9 A typical component to be modelled

50 90
60
120
40
40
20
15 0
30
15
World Co-ordinate System

This refers to the actual co-ordinate system used as master for the component. Some times it may also be called as model co-ordinate system.
16
Fig. 3.10 A typical component with its associated WCS
Z Y
17
User Co-ordinate System

However, sometimes it becomes difficult to define certain geometries if they are to be defined from the WCS. In such cases alternate co-ordinate systems can be defined relative to the WCS. These co-ordinate systems are termed as user co-ordinate systems (UCS) or working co-ordinate systems.
Fig. 3.11 A typical component with its associated UCS
Z' Z Y X' X Y'
19
Display Co-ordinates
This refers to the actual co-ordinates to be used for displaying the image on the screen.
20
Fig. 3.12 A typical component with its various view positions

TOP
Z Y FRONT X
RIGHT SIDE
Fig. 3.13 Various views generated from the model shown in Fig 3.12
60 90 20
Y X
Z
50
TOP
60
120
X Y
30
Z
150
40
Z Y X RIGHT SIDE
FRONT
20
22
3.3 Database Structures for Graphic Modelling
23
3.3 Database Structures for Graphic Modelling

Organisational data Identification number, Drawing number, Design origin and status of changes, Current status, Designer name, Date of design, Scale, Type of projections, Company. Technological data Geometry, Dimensions, Tolerances, Surface finishes, Material specifications or reference, Manufacturing procedures, Inspection procedures.
24
Fig. 3.14 Data structure for geometric models

SOLID EDGE
VERTEX VERTEX SURFACE
SURFACE
25
Fig. 3.15 Complete data structure for geometric models of products

Product Assembly Dimensions Single parts Attributes
Solid body
Faces
Edges Vertices
26
Fig. 3.16 Relational data structure for geometric models

solid body Face list Edges X Vertices Y Z
27
3.4 Transformation of Geometry

Translation Scaling Reflection or Mirror Rotation
28
Fig. 3-17 Some of the possible geometric transformations

Y Y
dX
dY
Translation
Scaling
Y
25
30
X
25
Rotation Reflection
Fig. 3.18 Translation of geometry

Y Y' Z' P P*
X' Z
X
Fig. 3.19 Translation of geometry in 2D

Y Y'
dY
P*
P X'
dX
X
Fig. 3.20 Scaling of geometry in 2D

Y
P*
sY
P
Y
X sX
32
Fig. 3.21 Reflection of geometry in 2D

Y Y
28 25
28
X
25
-X
-X
-Y
33
Fig. 3.22 Example for reflection transformation

Y
P y
X P* -y
34
Fig. 3-23 Example for rotation transformation
Y P* y* P
r y
x*
X x
35
Fig. 3.24 Example
13.66
8.66
10
30
3.66 5 8.66
36
3.4.5 Concatenation of transformations

[P*] = [Tn] [Tn-1] [Tn-2] .. [T3] [T2] [T1]
37
3.4.6 Homogeneous Representation

x * 1 0 dX x y * = 0 1 dY y [P *] = 1 0 0 1 1
38
Rotation about an arbitrary point

Translate the point P to O, the origin of the axes system. Rotate the object by the given angle Translate the point back to its original position.
39
Fig. 3.25 Rotation about an arbitrary point

Y
P* r A dY P
X dX
Reflection about an arbitrary line

Translate the mirror line along the Y-axis such that the line passes through the origin, O Rotate the mirror line such that it coincides with the X-axis. Mirror the object through the X-axis. Rotate the mirror line back to the original angle with X-axis. Translate the mirror line along the Y-axis back to the original position.
Fig. 3.26 Example for reflection transformation about an arbitrary line

Y P* P
O
X
42
3.5 3D Transformations
x * 1 y * 0 = z * 0 1 0 0 0 dX 1 0 dY 0 1 dZ 0 0 1 x y z 1
43
3.6 Mathematics of Projection
44
Fig. 3.27 The principle of projection

Projector Drawing Object
Projecting plane
45
Fig. 3.28 An object enclosed in a cube to obtain various parallel projections
B E
C Y
A D
46
Fig. 3.29 Orthographic projection of an object

B E B C Y D X A D LEFT SIDE VIEW FRONT VIEW Z A X TOP VIEW X Z C E Y
Y RIGHT SIDE VIEW REAR VIEW
BOTTOM VIEW
47
3.7 Clipping
48
Fig. 3.30 Clipping of geometry for display

T
B
Fig. 3.31 The 4-digit coding of the line end points for clipping
1001 0001 0101
1000 0000 0100
1010 0010 0110

50
Fig. 3.32 Identical line clipping of two different geometries
51
Fig. 3.33 Clipping produced for different geometries by polygon clipping
52
Fig. 3.34 Back-face removal using the face normal and projecting ray
Z Y P X
N
53
Summary
In order to display the graphical information, which is vectorial in nature, it is necessary to convert it into raster format. For converting lines into raster format, DDA algorithm is simplest while Bresenhams algorithm reduces the computations into integer format thereby making it a faster alternative. It is necessary to modify the pixel information for display to get more realistic visual experience. Depending upon the type of graphic display used, it is necessary to be familiar with a number of different coordinate systems to facilitate the graphic construction as well as display. In addition to the actual graphic information, a large amount of additional data such as organizational and technological data is stored with the product data.
54
Summary
Geometric transformations can be handled conveniently using matrix algebra. For this purpose it is necessary to use homogenous representation of vertex data. Various transformations that are quite useful are translation, rotation, scale and reflection. The 2D transformation methods can be easily extended into 3D. The 3D geometry data needs to be converted into 2D by adopting a suitable projection system such as orthographic, isometric or perspective projection. Since only part of the geometric model will be displayed most of the time, it is necessary to clip the information outside the display window. Also it is necessary some times to remove the hidden lines to make the display easier to understand. For this purpose back face removal and depth buffer (Z) are used.

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CAD/CAM Principles and Applications

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

3.1 Raster Scan Graphics

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

Fig. 3.1 A straight line drawing

Fig. 3.2 Flow chart for line drawing calculation procedure

If |dx| > |dy| No ST = |dy|

End of Loop? No Yes STOP

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

3.1.2 Bresenham's Algorithm

Fig. 3-3 Line drawing using Bresenham algorithm

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

Calculate dx = x2 - x1 dy = y2 - y1 C1 = 2 dy C2 = 2 (dy - dx) x = x1 y = y1 p1 = 2 dy - dx Put a pixel at (x1, y1)

P(i+1) = Pi + C2 Y(i+1) = y(i) + 1

Yes P(i+1) = P(i) + C1 y(i+1) = y(i)

End of loop? Yes STOP

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

3.1.3 Antialiasing lines

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

3.2 Co-ordinate systems

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

Fig. 3.9 A typical component to be modelled

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

World Co-ordinate System

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

Fig. 3.10 A typical component with its associated WCS

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

User Co-ordinate System

Fig. 3.11 A typical component with its associated UCS

Z' Z Y X' X Y'

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

Fig. 3.12 A typical component with its various view positions

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

3.3 Database Structures for Graphic Modelling

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

3.3 Database Structures for Graphic Modelling

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

Fig. 3.14 Data structure for geometric models

VERTEX VERTEX SURFACE

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

Fig. 3.15 Complete data structure for geometric models of products

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

Fig. 3.16 Relational data structure for geometric models

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

3.4 Transformation of Geometry

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

Fig. 3-17 Some of the possible geometric transformations

Fig. 3.18 Translation of geometry

Fig. 3.19 Translation of geometry in 2D

Fig. 3.20 Scaling of geometry in 2D

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

Fig. 3.21 Reflection of geometry in 2D

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

Fig. 3.22 Example for reflection transformation

Fig. 3-23 Example for rotation transformation

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

Fig. 3.24 Example