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Chemistry: Final Exam Notes

CHAPTER 3/4 - Chemical Reactions Steps to Balance: 1 write the skeleton equation 2 add coefficients so you have an equal number of atoms of each element on both sides of the equation 3 write coefficients in lowest possible ratio

*Diatomic Molecules: (must always be written with __2) - Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine, Iodine Synthesis: A + B --> AB S + O2 --> SO2 Decomposition: AB --> A + B 2H2O --> 2H2 + O2 Complete Combustion: Hydrocarbon + Oxygen --> Carbon Dioxide + Water CxHy + O2 --> CO2 + H2O Incomplete Combustion: - Hydrocarbon + Oxygen --> Carbon + Carbon Monoxide + Carbon Dioxide + Water CxHy + O2 --> C2 + CO + CO2 + H2O Single Displacement: Metal displacing metal: A + BC --> B + AC Mg + CaCl2 --> Ca + MgCl2 Non-metal displacing non-metal: AB + C --> AC + B Cl2 + 2NaBr --> 2NaCl + Br2 Double Displacement: AB + CD --> CB + AD (sometimes forms a precipitate) AgNO3 + NaCl --> AgCl + NaNO3 Neutralization: Acid + Base --> Salt + Water H2SO4 + Ca(OH)2 --> CaSO4 + 2H2O

______________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 5 - THE MOLE 1 mole of a substance = 6.02 x 1023--AVOGADRO CONSTANT N=# of particles, molecules, atoms, units, etc. I n=# of moles I NA=Avogadro constant I Mass: n=# of moles m=mass of substance M=molar mass(g/mol, periodic table)

Formulas: Formulas: N=n x NA, n=N/NA n=m/M, m=n x M **When solving equations, sometimes it is necessary to use one formula to find moles, then you must find what is asked afterwards** e.g. Find moles then (m), or find moles then (N). ______________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6 - PROPORTIONS IN CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS Law of Definite Proportions: a law sating that a chemical compound always contains the same proportions of elements by mass Mass Percent: mass of X molecule ---------------------------mass of entire molecule x 100 H in H2O: mass of H (2.02) ------------------------ x 100 mass of H2O (18.02) = 11.2% H Empirical Formula: See p. 272, 273 for examples STEPS 1. Assume it is an 100 g sample, and write each percent in g (18.2%=18.2 g) 2. Determine moles of each substance 3. Divide all the mole amounts by the lowest mole amount 4. With these new numbers, you now have a ratio to form e.g. 1:1:1:3 5. Therefore, the empirical formula will be X1X1X1X3 **incomplete formula is when there is a ratio with no whole number (1:1.5). With this, you must multiply it by a coefficient in order to have a whole number ratio x2=(2:3)

Molecular Formula: see p. 274, 275 for examples Hydrates: After heating a 50 g sample of Ba(OH)2 Hydrate has 27.2 g of the salt remaining. Find formula of hydrate=__?H2O 1. Find mass of hydrate: 50-27.2=22.8 g 2. Find moles of salt and hydrate(water) Salt: n=.159 mol Water n=1.27 mol 3. Make ratio using lowest mole amount .159 : 1.27 -------------= 1:8 ratio, therefore Xhydrate=8 .159 .159 *Ba(OH)2 - 8H2O ______________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 7 - CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND STOICHIOMETRY Basic stoichiometry(two steps): see p. 298-300 Stoichiometry: the study of the quantitative relationships among the amounts of reactants used and the amounts of products formed in a chemical reaction - stoichiometry consists of balanced equations, moles, ratios, and finding what is asked *4 Stoichiometry Steps: 1. Balance equation 2. Convert to moles 3. Set up mole ratio 4. Take moles from step 3 and convert to what is asked See p. 302, 303 Limiting Reactant: a reactant that is completely consumed during a chemical reaction, limiting the amount of product that is produced Excess Reactant: a reactant that remains after a reaction is over

*Limiting Reactant Stoichiometry Steps: 1. Balance equation 2. Find moles, then cross coefficients to find which one is the LR 3. Make mole ratio from the FIRST moles used, not the result of crossing the coefficients 4. Take moles from step 3 and convert to what is asked If 113.00 g of aluminum powder is mixed with 279.50 g of iron(III)oxide, what mass of molten iron forms? 2Al + Fe2O3 --> Al2O3 + 2Fe mol Al: 4.188 mol Fe2O3: (2)1.750=3.500 <--LR Ratio: 1 mol Fe2O 1.750 mol Fe2O3 x

------------------- = -----------------------

2 mol Fe x=3.5 mol Fe m=n x M m=3.5 x 55.85 g Fe m=195.49 g of Fe

Theoretical Yield: the amount of product that is predicted by stoichiometric calculations (the final answer of excess/limiting reactant problems) Actual Yield: the actual amount of product that is recovered after a reaction is complete Competing Reaction: a reaction that occurs along with the principal reaction and that involves the reactants and/or products of the principal reaction - To do a percentage yield question, you must first do the LR stoichiometric steps, and then once you have your answer you plug it into the Percentage Yield formula Percentage Yield: A (actual yield) --------------------------- x 100% T (theoretical yield) ^^LR question above, if 15.8 g of Fe was actually recovered, then what is the percentage yield? (15.8/195.49) x 100% = 8.08% _____________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 8 - SOLUTIONS AND THEIR PROPERTIES

Solution: a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances Solvent: the component of a solution that is present in the greatest amount Solute: a substance that is dissolved in a solvent Aqueous Solution: a solution that contains water Solubility: the maximum amount of solute that will dissolve in a given quantity of solvent at a specific temperature Saturated Solution: a solution that cannot dissolve more solute Unsaturated Solution: a solution that could dissolve more solute Supersaturated Solution: a solution that contains more dissolved solute than a saturate solution at the same temperature - The formation of most solutions depends on the relative strength of three categories of forces: 1. Forces that attract particles of the solute to each other 2. Forces that attract particles of the solute to particles of the solvent 3. Forces that attract particles of that solvent to each other Hydrogen Bonding: the attraction between a hydrogen atom on one molecule and a small, very electronegative atom on another molecule Hydration: the process in which water molecules surround the molecules or ions of a solute. This process causes the ions in a soluble ionic compound to separate and disperse through the water when the compound dissolves - most ionic compounds are soluble in water - most molecular compounds are insoluble in water - most polar compounds are soluble in water - non-polar compounds do not dissolve in water *intermolecular forces increase solubility [Factors affecting solubility of ionic compounds Ion Charge: the greater the charge on an ion, the less soluble the compound will be in water Ion Size: as ion size increases, so does solubility - Like dissolves like, meaning that polar solvents dissolve ionic and polar molecules, and non-polar solvents dissolve non-polar molecules - Solubility increases with temperature - With gases, solubility depends on temperature and pressure. An increase in pressure shows an increase in solubility

- Scuba divers can get a painful, and sometimes fatal condition called the bends if they surface too fast, as the pressure can cause bubbles in the blood [Factors affecting the rate of dissolving - Mixing/shaking: increases the rate of dissolving through collisions of solute and solvent particles - Temperature: increased kinetic energy at higher temperatures, thus increasing the rate of dissolving - Particle size(surface area): the rate of dissolving increases with bigger particles, which increases the collisions between molecules Concentration: the ratio of the quantity of solute to the quantity of solvent or the quantity of solution Concentrated: having a high ratio of solute to solution Dilute: having a low ratio of solute to solution Percent (m/v): see p. 372, 373 Percent (m/v)= mass of solute (in grams) ------------------------------------ x 100% volume of solution (in mL) Percent (m/m): see p. 374, 375 Percent (m/m)= mass of solute ----------------------- x 100% mass of solution Percent (v/v): see p. 375, 376 Percent (v/v)= volume of solute -------------------------- x 100% volume of solution Parts per million (ppm): see p. 377, 378 Ppm= mass of solute --------------------- x 106 mass of solution Parts per billion (ppb): see p. 377, 378 Ppb= mass of solute **1 L = 1000 mL **1 kg = 1000 g

----------------------- x 109 mass of solution Molar Concentration: see p. 378, this formula is used widely in basic and stoichiometric equations* C<--concentration (M - molarity, mol/L) n<--moles (MM-molar mass) V<--volume (Litres) C=n ----V

*C=n/V and n=m/M can be used together to find whatever is asked E.g. Given concentration, find mass. See p. 381 for all formulas^ Dilution: see p. 385 C1V1 = C2V2 Mixing Problems: C1V1 + C2V2 = CfVf n1 + n2 = CfVf nf = CfVf
f=final

solution

- *safest way to dilute a concentrated acid is to add the acid to water

______________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 9 - REACTIONS IN AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS Ionic Equation: a chemical equation in which soluble ionic substances are written in dissociated form Net Ionic Equation: an ionic equation that does not include spectator ions Precipitate: an insoluble product in a reaction Spectator Ion: an ion that is present in a solution but not involved in a chemical reaction Writing Net Ionic Equations: see p. 408, 409 1. Balance equation 2. Write out the compounds as individual ions, cancel out identical ones and leave the singles; balance this equation 3. With the ions that arent crossed out, write the net ionic equation 4. State the spectator ions Na2S + 2AgNO3 --> 2NaNO3 + Ag2S

2Na+(aq) + S2-(aq) + 2Ag+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq) --> 2Na+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq) + Ag2S(s) ^precipitate 2Na+(aq) + S2-(aq) + 2Ag+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq) --> 2Na+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq) + Ag2S(s) X X X X S2-(aq) + 2Ag+(aq) --> Ag2S(s) Spectators: Na+(aq), NO3-(aq) Qualitative analysis: analysis that identifies elements, ions, or compounds in a sample Quantitative analysis: analysis that determines how much of a substance is in a sample *Steps for Solution Stoichiometry: see p. 415-417 1. Balance equation 2. Find moles using the concentration formula 3. Use coefficients to make mole ratio 4. Solve for what is asked using moles from step 3 (V, C, n) *Limiting Reactant Solution Stoichiometry Steps: see p. 418-420 1. Balance equation 2. Find moles using n=CV, then cross coefficients to find LR 3. Make mole ratio 4. Find what is asked using moles from step 3 Fresh water: water that is not salty Ground water: water that seeps through the ground below the surface Surface water: water on the surface of the land - arsenic can be harmful in drinking water if it contains more than 50 ppb, it can cause cancer and may be linked to diabetes and other medical problems - fluoride ions can benefit healthy teeth if the concentration is less than 1 ppm, but too many fluoride ions can lead to stained teeth, called dental fluorosis Hard water: water that contains relatively large concentrations of dissolved calcium and magnesium ions that form insoluble compounds with soap - sign of hard water is lime scale (calcium carbonate buildup)

Soft water: water that contains relatively small concentrations of ions that form insoluble compounds with soap - pollutants are either classified as point source or non-point source - point sources of pollution have a single source with a specific location, e.g. A wrecked tanker leaking oil into a rive - non-point sources of pollution do not have a single, easily defined location. They may involve substances spread over large areas. It can also be a combination of thousands of small point sources e.g. Car exhaust, or run-off from farms carrying fertilizer and pesticides into waterways - algal blooms are rapid growths of large quantities of algae that appear to help plant growth at first, but then have a negative effect because of the loss of both plant and animal life BLUE BABY SYNDROME(5 marks): the contaminant in the drinking water is the nitrate ions. It affects young infants because bacteria in a babys digestive system converts the nitrate ions into nitrite ions, which once those nitrite ions enter the bloodstream they bond to hemoglobin and leave less hemoglobin available to carry oxygen in the bloodstream. This causes the babys tissues to be starved for oxygen, causing the lips and fingertips to become blue. - polycarbonate drinking water bottles are made with BPA(bisphenol A), and this can leach into the water it contains, causing problems; can be linked to breast cancer, heart disease, and may be a factor in some other serious disorders Maximum allowable concentration (MAC): a drinking water standard for a substance that is known or suspected to affect health when above a certain concentration Temporary Hardness: hardness that can be removed from water by boiling (caused by calcium and magnesium carbonates) Permanent Hardness: hardness that cannot be removed by boiling (caused by calcium and magnesium sulfates) - an ion-exchange water softener exchanges the ions that cause hard water, principally calcium and magnesium, for sodium ions Desalination: the process of obtaining fresh water from salt water Potable water: water that is safe to drink Reverse osmosis: the process of using high pressure to force water from a concentrated solution through a semi-permeable membrane to get a less concentrated solution - municipal water treatment plants process water to meet provincial standards, thus ensuring that the water is safe to drink

- waste-water treatment plants reduce pollutants and micro-organisms to levels that are low enough for water to be safely returned to the environment (1mary, 2ndary, 3tiary) ______________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 10 - ACIDS AND BASES Arrhenius theory: - an acid is a substance that ionizes in water to produce H+ ions - a base is a substance that dissociates in water to produce OH- ions Problems: considered water as only solvent, considered only OH- as a base, considered only H+ forming in acid-base solutions Bronsted-Lowry theory: - an acid is a substance from which H+ protons can be removed (donor) - a base is a substance that can remove H+ protons from another substance (acceptor) Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs: Ammonia gas - NH3(g) + H2O(l) --> NH4+(aq) + OH(a q) base acid conj.acid conj.base Hydrochloric acid - HCl(s) + H2O(l) --> H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq) acid base conj.acid conj.base Conjugate acid --> the cation left over after a base ionizes Conjugate base --> the anion left over after an acid ionizes

pH=-log[H3O+ or H+] <--finds pH of hydronium [H3O+]=10-pH <--finds hydronium concentration pOH=-log[OH-] <-- finds pOH of hydroxide [OH-]=10-pOH <--finds hydroxide concentration *concentration in M (molar)

*acids and bases relate to C=n/V and n=m/M - see p. 455 for properties of acids and bases Ionization: the process of forming ions Dissociation: the process in which ions break apart when dissolved in solution Strong acid: an acid that ionizes completely in water - HCl, HBr, HI, HClO4, HNO3, H2SO4 Weak acid: an acid that ionizes very slightly in a water solution Strong base: a base that dissociates completely in water - LiOH, NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2, Ba(OH)2 Weak base: a base that produces relatively few hydroxide ions in water *only weak acids/bases are reversible Acid-base indicator: a substance that changes colour beyond a threshold pH level Universal indicator: a chemical mixture that changes colour throughout the range of pH values from 0 to 14 Neutralization reaction: a reaction between an acid and a base Salt: a compound composed of a metal cation from a base and an anion from an acid - neutralization reactions form a salt and water* Neutralization Reaction: see p. 465, 466 - use stoichiometric steps OR Titration: recognize titrations by seeing the acid AND base CAVA = CBVB if given enough information
acid base

*you get the same answer using either the stoichiometric steps or CAVA = CBVB Titration: (quantitative) a procedure that is used to determine the concentration of a solution by reacting a known volume of that solution with a measured volume of a solution that has a known concentration Titrant: in a titration, the solution with a known concentration - The point when the indicator changes colour is called the end point of the titration Equivalence point: the point at which the amount of titrant is just enough to react with all of the reactant in the sample - the end point and equivalence point coincide--that is, the indicator should be in the middle of its colour change at the pH of the equivalence point

______________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 11 - PROPERTIES OF GASES See p. 502 table 11.1 for Properties and Particles of the Three States of Matter See p. 503 table 11.2 for Attractive Forces that Influence the State of Matter Properties of Gases: - gases are compressible - gases expand as the temperature is increased, if the pressure remains constant - gases have very low viscosity - gases have much lower densities than solids or liquids - gases are miscible, meaning that they mix completely with each other - Gases have vibrational, rotational, and translational motion - As you heat a substance, its kinetic energy increases and its particles will have enough energy to pull away from each other, therefore showing how a solid can go to a liquid to a gas. - attractive forces between particles that affect the states of mater are attractions between oppositely charged particles, attractions between polar molecules, and attractions between non-polar molecules Ideal gas: a hypothetical gas made up of particles that have mass but no volume and no attractive forces between them (obeys all of the Gas Laws) *no gas is ideal, but most of them obey the laws and behave ideally - the kinetic molecular theory explains gases as if they were ideal - under conditions such as low temperature and high pressure, gases tend to deviate from their ideal behavior; they are then called real gases Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases (see p. 561 for less detailed form of theory) 1. Gases are in a constant, random motion. Gas particles travel in straight lines until they collide with other gas particles or with the walls of their container. Therefore, an ideal gas has high translational kinetic energy 2. Individual gas particles are considered point masses. A point mass is a mass that has no volume. Gas particles are considered to be extremely far apart and most of the container is thought of as empty 3. Gas particles do not exert attractive or repulsive forces on one another

4. The gas particles interact with one another and with the walls of their container only through elastic collisions. In an elastic collision--for example, when billiard balls collide-kinetic energy is conserved. Particles can exchange kinetic energy with none lost 5. The average kinetic energy of gas particles is directly related to temperature. The greater the temperature, the greater the average motion of the particles and the greater their average kinetic energy - Temperature is the average kinetic energy of particles - Pressure is the force that is exerted on an object per unit of surface area Atmospheric pressure: the force exerted on Earths surface by a column of air over a given area - a barometer is the instrument used for measuring atmospheric pressure (designed by Torricelli) see p. 508 figure 11.7 Standard atmospheric pressure (SAP): atmospheric pressure in dry air at a temperature of 0oC at sea level Pressure conversions: 1 atm=760 mmHg= 760 torr= 101.325 kPa= 14.7 psi Convert 732 mmHg to kPa 732 101.325 ------ = ------------ = 760/101.325 x 732 = 97.6 kPa 760 x Absolute Zero: the lowest theoretical temperature, equivalent to -273.15 oC; the temperature at which the volume of a gas approaches zero Kelvin: celsius to kelvin- oC + 273.15 kelvin to celsius- K - 273.15 GAS LAWS Boyles law: a gas law stating that the volume of a fixed amount of gas at a constant temperature is inversely proportional to the applied (external) pressure on the gas (V constant x 1/P or P constant x 1/V) P1V1=P2V2 <-- see p. 512-514 *as the external pressure on a gas increases, the volume of the gas decreases Charles law: the volume of a quantity of gas, held at a constant pressure, varies directly with the kelvin temperatures V1 V2 (V constant x T)
----- = -----<--see

p. 518-522

T1

T2

*lower T results in decrease of volume; molecules move slower, closer together Gay-Lussacs law: states that the pressure of a fixed amount of gas at a constant volume, is directly proportional to its temperature P1 P2 (P constant x T)
*as ----- = ------

<--see p. 523-525

T1

T2

temperature increases, so does the pressure

*For gas equations, always put P in kPa, V in L, and T in K ______________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 12 STP: 273 K or 0oC 101.325 kPa SATP: 298 K or 25oC 100 kPa <--conditions in which we live

Combined gas law: a gas law stating that the pressure and volume of a given amount of gas are inversely proportional to each other and directly proportional to the kelvin temperature of the gas P1V1 P2V2 (V constant x T/P)
--------- = --------<---see

p. 540-542

T1 *used when T and P cannot be held constant

T2

- when you see the words DRY and over water in an equation, you subtract your T1 from the Partial Pressures of Water at Different Temperatures chart (given on exam) from your P1 see p. 558 A volume of 75 mL of Hydrogen gas is collected over water at a temperature of 25oC and an atmospheric pressure of 98 kPa, what is the volume of the DRY hydrogen at STP? T1=298 K P1=98-3.17(from chart)=94.83 kPa V1=.075 L T2=273 K (STP) P2=101.325 kPa (STP)

Plug in the numbers to the combined gas law formula and solve for what is asked Molar Volume: 1 mol of 22.4 mol/L at STP, 1 mol of 24.8 mol/L at SATP v=molar volume (constant K) V=given volume V OR V = nK v = ------

n=moles n How many moles are present in 60 litres of gas measured at STP? v=V/n, rearranged: n=V/v n=60/22.4 n=2.678 mol Avogadros law/hypothesis: see p. 546-549 a gas law stating that equal volumes of all ideal gases at the same temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules n1 n2
----- = ------

V1 V2 How many litres of N2 (at STP) would be needed to react completely with 60 grams of H2? Gas stoichiometry: steps 1. N2 + 3H2 --> 2NH3 2. Moles of H2: n=60/2.02=29.7 mol 3. Ratio: 3 mol H2 29.7 mol H2 ------------- = -----------------x=9.9 mol N2 1 mol N2 x 4. Find what is asked: V2 - use Avogadros law Constant 1/22.4=9.9/V2 V2=224 L of N2 Ideal gas law: see p. 551-556 a gas law that describes the relationship among volume, pressure, temperature, and amount (in moles) of an ideal gas PV = nRT R=universal gas constant--8.314 *always convert T to K, m to n, V to L, P to kPa Stoichiometry using Ideal Gas Law see p. 559, 560

What volume of hydrogen gas is produced when excess sulfuric acid reacts with 40 g of iron at 18oC and 100.3 kPa? 1. Fe(s) + H2SO4(aq) --> H2(g) + FeSO4(aq) 2. Moles of iron: n=60/55.85= 0.716 mol 3. Ratio: 1:1, therefore 0.716 mol of H2 4. PV=nRT (100.3)(V)=(0.716)(8.314)(291.15) Rearrange to solve for V V=17.3 L of H2 - real gases behave similarly to ideal gases under standard conditions of temperature and pressure. However, this behavior deviates under conditions of low temperature and high pressure - see p. 561 for effects of low temperature and high pressure - see p. 562 for summarization of all gas laws - read 12.3 for yourselves because to be honest, I dont know what is on the exam from that section of the text (know the 4 main gases composed in air) ______________________________________________________________________ Hope these notes help, remember to use the textbook to practice calculations. Good luck boys

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