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ProjectGutenberg'sLifeintheMedievalUniversity,byRobertS.Rait ThiseBookisfortheuseofanyoneanywhereatnocostandwith almostnorestrictionswhatsoever.Youmaycopyit,giveitawayor reuseitunderthetermsoftheProjectGutenbergLicenseincluded withthiseBookoronlineatwww.gutenberg.org Title:LifeintheMedievalUniversity Author:RobertS.Rait ReleaseDate:April2,2007[EBook#20958] Language:English Charactersetencoding:ISO88591 ***STARTOFTHISPROJECTGUTENBERGEBOOKLIFEINTHEMEDIEVALUNIVERSITY***

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TheCambridgeManualsofScienceandLiterature

LIFEINTHEMEDIEVALUNIVERSITY

CAMBRIDGEUNIVERSITYPRESS London:FETTERLANE,E.C.4 C.F.CLAY,Manager [Illustration:Arms] NewYork:G.P.PUTNAM'SSONS Bombay,Calcutta,andMadras:MACMILLANANDCO.,Ltd. Toronto:J.M.DENT&SONS,Ltd. Tokyo:THEMARUZENKABUSHIKIKAISHA _Allrightsreserved_

[Illustration:TheStudent'sProgress(FromGregorReisch's_Margarita philosophica_,Editionof1504,Strassburg)]

LIFEINTHEMEDIEVALUNIVERSITY BY ROBERTS.RAIT,M.A. FELLOWANDTUTOROFNEWCOLLEGE,OXFORD Cambridge: attheUniversityPress

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1918

_FirstEdition,1912_ _Reprinted1918_ _Withtheexceptionofthecoatofarmsatthefoot,thedesign onthetitlepageisareproductionofoneusedbytheearliest knownCambridgeprinter,JohnSiberch,1521._

NOTEONTHEFRONTISPIECE Inthispicturetheschoolboyisseenarrivingwithhissatcheland beingpresentedwithahornbookbyNicostrata,theLatinmuse Carmentis,whochangedtheGreekalphabetintotheLatin.Sheadmits himbythekeyof_congruitas_totheHouseofWisdom("Wisdomhath buildedherhouse,shehathhewnouthersevenpillars,"_Proverbs_ ix.1).IntheloweststoryhebeginshiscourseinDonatusundera BachelorofArtsarmedwiththebirch;inthenextheispromotedto Priscian.Thenfollowtheothersubjectsofthe_Trivium_andthe _Quadrivium_eachsubjectbeingrepresentedbyitschief exponentlogicbyAristotle,arithmeticbyBoethius,geometryby Euclid,etc.Ptolemy,thephilosopher,whorepresentsastronomy,is confusedwiththekingsofthesamename.PlinyandSenecarepresent themoreadvancedstudyofphysicalandofmoralsciencerespectively, andtheedificeiscrownedbyTheology,thelongandarduouscourse forwhichfollowedthatoftheArts.Itsrepresentativeinamedieval treatiseisnaturallyPeterLombard.

NOTE IwishtoexpressmyobligationstomanyrecentwritersonUniversity history,andtotheeditorsofUniversityStatutesandotherrecords, fromwhichmyillustrationsofmedievalstudentlifehavebeen derived.IowespecialgratitudetoDrHastingsRashdall,Fellowof NewCollegeandCanonofHereford,myindebtednesstowhosegreat work,_TheUniversitiesofEuropeintheMiddleAges_,isapparent throughoutthefollowingpages.DrRashdallhasbeengoodenoughto readmyproofsheets,andtomakevaluablecriticismsandsuggestions, andtheMasterofEmmanuelhasrenderedmeasimilarservice. R.S.R. _23rdJanuary1912._

CONTENTS ChapterIINTRODUCTORY ChaucerandtheMedievalStudentTheGreatPeriodof UniversityFoundingThewords"Universitas,""Collegium," "StudiumGenerale"BolognaGrowthofStudiaGeneralia Paris,Oxford,CambridgeDefinitionof"Universitas".....1 ChapterIILIFEINTHESTUDENTUNIVERSITIES StudentGuildsatBologna"Nations"TheCollegeof DoctorsRelationswiththeCityPositionofanEnglish LawStudentatBologna,andhisrelationstohisNationand hisUniversitasTheOfficeofRectorPowersofthe UniversityoverCitizensTheDegradationoftheBologna MastersExaminationsTheDoctorateRegulations PaduaLimitationsoftheRector'sPowersatFlorence SpanishUniversitiesMarriedDons..........................13 ChapterIIITHEUNIVERSITIESOFMASTERS

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EarlyHistoryoftheUniversityofParisFaculties "Nations"StrugglewiththeChancellorPositionofthe RectorOxford"Nations"TheProctorsUniversity JurisdictionGermanyScotland...........................41 ChapterIVCOLLEGEDISCIPLINE OriginoftheCollegeSystemMertonImitationsoftheMerton RuleNewCollegeIncreaseinNumberofRegulations LatinSpeakingConversationinHallMealsCollegeRooms AmusementsPenaltiesIntroductionofCorporalPunishmentThe TonsureAttendanceatChapelVacationsHospitalityThe CareerofanEnglishStudentMeaningof"PoorandIndigent Scholars"TheCollegeSystematParisSconcingOtherFrench UniversitiesAVisitationofaMedievalCollege............49 ChapterVUNIVERSITYDISCIPLINE GrowthofDisciplinaryRegulationsatParisandOxfordRecordsof theChancellor'sCourtDisciplineinUnendowedHallsAcademic DressrestrictedtoGraduatesLouvainLeipsicLeniencyof PunishmentsTheScottishUniversitiesTableMannersatAberdeen LifeatHeidelberg.........................................94 ChapterVITHE"JOCUNDADVENT" AdmissionoftheBajanatParisTheUniversitiesof SouthernFranceTheAbbasBejanorumThe"Jocund Advent"inGermanythe"Depositio"OxfordScotland..109 ChapterVIITOWNANDGOWN ViennaStScholastica'sDayatOxfordAssaultsby MembersoftheUniversityRecordsofthe"ActaRectorum" atLeipsicParisianScholarsandtheMonksofStGermain..124 ChapterVIIISUBJECTSOFSTUDY,LECTURES,EXAMINATIONS InstructiongiveninLatinPreparationfortheUniversity GrammarMastersFrenchtaughtatOxfordThe"Act"in GrammarTheSevenLiberalArtsandtheThreePhilosophies TextbooksOrdinaryandCursoryLecturesMethodsof LecturingRepetitionsandDisputationsUniversityand CollegeTeachingExaminationsatParis,Louvain,and OxfordTheDeterminingFeastWalterPastonatOxford...133 APPENDIX.....................................................157 BIBLIOGRAPHY.................................................159 INDEX........................................................163

LIFEINTHEMEDIEVALUNIVERSITY(p.001)

CHAPTERI INTRODUCTORY "AClerktherwasofOxenfordalso, Thatuntologikhaddelongeygo Aslenewashishorsasisarake, Andhewasnotrightfat,Iundertake; Butlokedholwe,andthertosoberly, Fulthredbarwashisoverestcourtepy, Forhehadgetenhimyetnobenefyce,

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Newassoworldlyfortohaveoffyce. Forhimwasleverhaveathisbeddesheed Twentybokes,cladinblakorreed, OfAristotleandhisphilosophye, Thanrobesriche,orfithele,orgaysautrye. Butalbethathewasaphilosophre, Yethaddehebutlitelgoldincofre; Butalthathemightofhisfreendeshente, Onbokesandonlerningeheitspente, Andbisilyganforthesoulespreye Ofhemthatyafhimwherwithtoscoleye, Ofstudietookhemostcureandmosthede, Noghtowordspakhemorethanwasnede, Andthatwasseydinformeandreverence Andshortandquik,andfulofhysentence. Souningeinmoralvertuwashisspeche. Andgladlywoldehelerne,andgladlyteche." AnaccountoflifeinthemedievalUniversitymightwelltakethe(p.002) formofacommentaryupontheclassicaldescriptionofamedieval Englishstudent.Hisdress,thecharacterofhisstudiesandthe natureofhismaterials,thehardshipsandthenaturalambitionsof hisscholar'slife,hisobligationstofoundersandbenefactors, suggestlearnedexpositionswhichmight injudicioushands ExtendfromheretoMesopotamy, andwillserveforamodestattempttopicturetheenvironmentofone oftheCanterburypilgrims. Chaucer'sfamouslinesdomorethanaffordopportunitiesof explanationandcomment;theygiveusanindicationoftheplace assignedtouniversitiesandtheirstudentsbyEnglishpublicopinion inthelaterMiddleAges.Themonkofthe"Prologue"issimplya countrygentleman.Noaccusationofimmoralityisbroughtagainsthim, butheisajovialhuntsmanwholikesthesoundofthebridlejingling inthewindbetterthanthecallofthechurchbells,aloverofdogs andhorses,ofrichclothesandgreatfeasts.Theportraitofthe friarisstilllesssympathetic;heisafrequenteroftaverns,a devourerofwidows'houses,amanofgross,perhapsofevil,life.The monkabandonshiscloisteranditsrules,thefriardespisesthepoor andtheleper.Thepoetismakingnosocialisticattackuponthe(p.003) foundationsofsociety,andnohereticalonslaughtupontheChurch;he drawsaportraitoftwotypesoftheEnglishregularclergy.His descriptionoftwotypesoftheEnglishsecularclergyformsan illuminatingcontrast.Thenobleverses,inwhichhetellsofthe virtuesoftheparishpriest,certainlyimplythatthesecularsalso hadtheirtemptationsandthattheydidnotalwaysresistthem;but thefactremainsthatChaucerchoseastherepresentativeofthe parochialclergyonewho "waytedafternopompeandreverence, Nemakedhimaspycedconscience, ButCristeslore,andhisapostlestwelve, Hetaughte,butfirsthefolwedithimselve." Thehistoryofpiousandcharitablefoundationsisavindicationof thetruthoftheportraitureofthe"Prologue."Thefoundationofa newmonasteryandtheendowmentofthefriarshadalikeceasedto attractthebenevolentdonor,whowasturninghisattentiontothe universities,wheresecularclergywerenumerous.TheclerksofOxford andCambridgehadsucceededtotheplaceheldbythemonks,and,after them,bythefriars,intheaffectionandtherespectofthenation. OutsidethekingdomofEnglandthefourteenthcenturywasalsoagreat periodinthegrowthofuniversitiesandcolleges,towhich,all(p.004) overEurope,privilegesandendowmentsweregrantedbypopes,emperors, kings,princes,bishopsandmunicipalities.Toattempttoindicatethe variouscausesandconditionswhich,indifferentcountries,ledto thegrowth,innumbersandinwealth,ofinstitutionsforthepursuit oflearningwouldbetowanderfromourspecialtopic;butwemaytake theperiodfromthemiddleofthefourteenthtothemiddleofthe fifteenthcenturyasthatinwhichthemedievalUniversitymadeits greatestappealtotheimaginationofthepeoplesofEurope.Its institutionalformshadbecomedefinite,itsterminologyfixed,and thematerialsforastudyofthelifeofthefourteenthcentury studentareabundant.Theconditionsofstudentlifevaried,of course,withcountryandclimate,andwiththedifferencesinthe constitutionsofindividualuniversitiesandintheirrelationsto ChurchandState.Nosinglepictureofthemedievalstudentcanbe

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drawn,butitwillbeconvenienttochoosethesecondhalfofthe fourteenthcentury,orthefirsthalfofthefifteenth,asthecentral pointofourinvestigation. Wehavealreadyusedtechnicalterms,"University,""College," "Student,"whichrequireelucidation,andotherswillariseinthe courseofourinquiry.WhatisaUniversity?Atthepresentdaya Universityis,inEngland,acorporationwhosepowerofgranting(p.005) certaindegreesisrecognisedbytheState;butnothingofthisis impliedintheword"University."Itsliteralmeaningissimplyan association.RecentwritersonUniversityhistoryhavepointedout that_Universitasvestra_,inaletteraddressedtoabodyofpersons, meansmerely"thewholeofyou"andthatthetermwasbynomeans restrictedtolearnedbodies.Itwasfrequentlyappliedtomunicipal corporations;DrRashdall,inhislearnedwork,tellsusthatitis usedbymedievalwritersinaddressing"allfaithfulChristian people,"andhequotesaninstanceinwhichPisancaptivesatGenoain theendofthethirteenthcenturyformedthemselvesintoa "Universitascarceratorum."Theword"College"affordsusnofurther enlightenment.It,too,meansliterallyacommunityorassociation, and,unlikethesistertermUniversity,ithasneverbecomerestricted toascholasticassociation.TheSenatorsofthe"CollegeofJustice" arethejudgesoftheSupremeCourtinScotland. Wemustcallinathirdtermtohelpus.Inwhatweshoulddescribeas theearlydaysofEuropeanuniversities,therecameintouseaphrase sometimeswrittenas_StudiumUniversale_or_StudiumCommune_,but moreusually_StudiumGenerale_.Itwasusedinmuchthesamesensein whichwespeakofaUniversitytoday,andashortsketchofits(p.006) historyisnecessaryforthesolutionofourproblem. ThetwelfthcenturyproducedinEuropearenewalofinterestanda revivaloflearning,broughtaboutpartlybytheinfluenceofgreat thinkerslikeStAnselmandAbelard,andpartlybythediscoveryof lostworksofAristotle.Theimpulsethusgiventostudyresultedin anincreaseinthenumbersofstudents,andstudentswerenaturally attractedtoschoolswheremastersandteacherspossessed,orhadleft behindthem,greatnames.AtBolognatherewasagreatteacherofthe CivilLawinthefirstquarterofthetwelfthcentury,andagreat writeronCanonLawlivedthereinthemiddleofthesamecentury.To Bologna,therefore,thereflockedstudentsoflaw,thoughnotoflaw alone.IntheschoolsofParisthereweregreatmastersofphilosophy andtheologytowhomstudentscrowdedfromallpartsofEurope.Many oftheforeignstudentsatPariswereEnglishmen,andwhen,atthe timeofBecket'squarrelwithHenryII.,thedisputesbetweenthe sovereignsofEnglandandFranceledtotherecallofEnglishstudents fromthedomainoftheirKing'senemy,theregrewupatOxfordagreat schoolorStudium,whichacquiredsomethingofthefameofParisand Bologna.AstrugglebetweentheclerkswhostudiedatOxfordandthe peopleofthetownbrokeoutatthetimeofJohn'sdefianceofthe(p.007) Papacy,whentheKingoutlawedtheclergyofEngland,andthis struggleledtotheriseofaschoolatCambridge.InItalythe institutionsoftheStudiumatBolognawerecopiedatModena,at Reggio,atVicenza,atArezzo,atPadua,andelsewhere,andin1244or 1245PopeInnocentIV.foundedaStudiumofadifferentconstitution, independenceuponthePapalCourt.InSpaingreatschoolsgrewupat Palencia,Salamanca,andValladolid;inFranceatMontpellier, Orleans,Angers,andToulouse,andatLyonsandReims.Theimpulse givenbyBolognaandPariswasthusleadingtothefoundationofnew Studiaorthedevelopmentofoldones,fortherewereschoolsof reputeatmanyoftheplaceswehavementionedbeforetheperiodwith whichwearenowdealing(_c._11701250).Itwasinevitablethat thereshouldbearivalryamongthesenumerousschools,arivalry whichwasaccentuatedassmallandinsignificantStudiacametoclaim forthemselvesequalityofstatuswiththeirolderandgreater contemporaries.Thus,inthelatterhalfofthethirteenthcentury, therearoseanecessityforadefinitionandarestrictionoftheterm StudiumGenerale.Thedesirabilityofadefinitionwasenhancedbythe practiceofgrantingtoecclesiasticsdispensationsfromresidencein theirbeneficesforpurposesofstudy;topreventabusesitwas essentialthatsuchpermissionshouldbelimitedtoanumberof(p.008) recognisedStudiaGeneralia. Thedifficultyofenforcingsuchadefinitionthroughoutalmostthe wholeofEuropemightseemlikelytobegreat,butinpointoffactit wasinconsiderable.Inthefirsthalfofthethirteenthcentury,the termStudiumGeneralewasassumingrecognisedsignificance;aschool whichaspiredtothenamemustnotberestrictedtonativesofa particulartownorcountry,itmusthaveanumberofmasters,andit mustteachnotonlytheSevenLiberalArts(ofwhichweshallhaveto speaklater),butalsooneormoreofthehigherstudiesofTheology,

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LawandMedicine(_cf._Rashdall,vol.i.p.9).Butthetitlemight stillbeadoptedatwillbyambitiousschools,andtheinterventionof thegreatpotentatesofEuropewasrequiredtoprovideamechanismfor thedifferentiationofGeneralfromParticularStudia.Already,inthe twelfthcentury,anEmperorandaPopehadgivenspecialprivilegesto studentsatBolognaandotherLombardtowns,andaKingofFrancehad conferredprivilegesuponthescholarsofParis.In1224theStudium GeneraleofNapleswasfoundedbytheEmperorFrederickII.,andin 1231hegaveagreatprivilegetotheSchoolofMedicineatSalerno,a StudiumwhichwasmuchmoreancientthanBologna,butwhichexisted solelyforthestudyofMedicineandexertednoinfluenceuponthe(p.009) growthoftheEuropeanuniversities.PopeGregoryIX.foundedthe StudiumatToulousesomefifteenyearsbeforeInnocentIV.established theStudiumoftheRomanCourt.In1254AlfonsotheWiseofCastile foundedtheStudiumGeneraleofSalamanca.Thusitbecameusualfora schoolwhichclaimedthestatusofaStudiumGeneraletopossessthe authorityofPopeorEmperororKing. AdistinctiongraduallyarosebetweenaStudiumGeneraleunderthe authorityofaPopeoranEmperorandonewhichwasfoundedbyaKing oraCityRepublic,andwhichwasknownasa_StudiumGenerale respecturegni_.Thedistinctionwasfoundeduponthepowerofthe EmperororthePopetograntthe_jusubiquedocendi_.Thisprivilege, whichcouldbeconferredbynolesserpotentate,gaveamasterinone StudiumGeneraletherightofteachinginanyother;itwasmore valuableintheorythaninpractice,butitwasheldinsuchesteem thatin1292BolognaandParisacceptedtheprivilegefromPope NicholasIV.SomeoftheStudiawhichwehavementionedasexistingin thefirsthalfofthethirteenthcenturyModenainItaly,andLyons andReimsinFranceneverobtainedthisprivilege,andastheir organisationandtheirimportancedidnotjustifytheirinclusion amongStudiaGeneralia,theynevertookrankamongtheuniversities ofEurope.ThestatusofBolognaandofPariswas,ofcourse,(p.010) universallyrecognisedbeforeandapartfromtheBullsofNicholas IV.;PaduadidnotacceptaPapalgrantuntil1346andthenmerelyas aconfirmation,notacreation,ofitsprivilegesasaStudium Generale;Oxfordneverreceived,thoughittwiceaskedfor,a declaratoryorconfirmatoryBull,andbaseditsclaimuponimmemorial customanditsowngreatposition.Cambridge,whichinthethirteenth centurywasamuchlessimportantseatoflearningthanOxford,was formallyrecognisedasaStudiumGeneralebyPopeJohnXXII.in1318; butitsclaimtothetitlehadlongbeenadmitted,atallevents withintherealmofEngland.After1318Cambridgecouldgrantthe _licentiaubiquedocendi_,whichOxforddidnotformallyconfer, althoughOxfordmen,asthegraduatesofaStudiumGenerale,certainly possessedtheprivilege. LongbeforethedefinitionofaStudiumGeneraleasaschool possessing,bythegiftofPopeorEmperor,the_jusubiquedocendi_, wasgenerallyacceptedthroughoutEurope,wefindtheoccurrenceof themorefamiliarterm,"Universitas,"whichwearenowinaposition tounderstand. AUniversitaswasanassociationintheworldoflearningwhich correspondedtoaGuildintheworldofcommerce,aunionamongmen livinginaStudiumandpossessingsomecommonintereststoprotect andadvance.Originally,aUniversitascouldexistinaless(p.011) importantschoolthanaStudiumGenerale,butwithexceptional instancesofthiskindwearenotconcerned.Bythetimewhichwehave chosenforthecentralpointofoursurvey,theimportanceofthese guildsorUniversitateshadsogreatlyincreasedthattheword "Universitas"wascomingtobeequivalentto"StudiumGenerale."In thefifteenthcentury,DrRashdalltellsus,thetwotermswere synonymous.TheUniversitasStudii,theguildoftheSchool,became, technicallyandofficially,theStudiumGeneraleitself,andStudia GeneraliaweredistinguishedbythekindofUniversitatesorguilds whichtheypossessed.ItisusualtospeakofBolognaandParisasthe twogreatarchetypaluniversities,andthisdescriptiondoesnot dependuponmerepriorityofdateorupontheimpetusgiventothought andinterestinEuropebytheirteachersortheirmethods.Bolognaand ParisweretwoStudiaGeneraliawithtwodifferentandirreconcilable typesofUniversitas.TheUniversitatesoftheStudiumofBolognawere guildsofstudents;theUniversitasoftheStudiumofPariswasa guildofmasters.ThegreatseatsoflearninginMedievalEuropewere eitheruniversitiesofstudentsoruniversitiesofmasters,imitations ofBolognaorofParis,ormodificationsofoneortheotherorof both.Itwouldbeimpossibletodrawupalistanddividemedieval(p.012) universitiesintocompartments.Nothingismoredifficulttoclassify thantheconstitutionsoflivingsocieties;aconstitutionwhichone manmightregardasamodificationoftheconstitutionofBologna wouldbeintheopinionofanothermorecorrectlydescribedasa

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modificationoftheconstitutionofParis,andadevelopmentinthe constitutionofaUniversitymightbeheldtohavealteredits fundamentalpositionandtotransferitfromoneclasstoanother. Wherestudentslegislatedforthemselves,theirruleswereneither numerousnordetailed.Ourinformationaboutlifeinthe studentuniversitiesis,therefore,comparativelysmall,anditis withtheuniversitiesofmastersthatweshallbechieflyconcerned. Itis,however,essentialtounderstandthepowersacquiredbythe studentguildsatBologna,theinstitutionsofwhichwerereproduced bymostoftheItalianuniversities,bythoseofSpainandPortugal, and,muchlessaccurately,bythesmalleruniversitiesofFrance.

CHAPTERII(p.013) LIFEINTHESTUDENTUNIVERSITIES TheUniversitatesorguildswhichwereformedintheStudiumGenerale ofBolognawereassociationsofforeignstudents.Thelackof politicalunityintheItalianpeninsulawasoneofthecircumstances thatledtothepeculiarandcharacteristicconstitutionevolvedby theItalianuniversities.AfamousStudiuminanItaliancitystate mustofnecessityattractalargeproportionofforeignstudents. Theseforeignstudentshadneithercivilnorpoliticalrights;they weremen"outoftheirownlaw,"forwhomthegovernmentunderwhich theylivedmadesmallanduncertainprovision.Theirstrengthlayin theirnumbers,andintheeffectwhichtheirpresenceproducedupon theprosperityandthereputationofthetown.Theyearlyrecognised thenecessityofunioniffullusewastobemadeoftheoffensiveand defensiveweaponstheypossessed.Themenwhocametostudylawat Bolognawerenotschoolboys;someofthemwerebeneficedecclesiastics, otherswerelawyers,andmostofthemwerepossessedofadequatemeans ofliving.TheprovisionsofRomanLawfavouredthecreationofsuch protectiveguilds;theprivilegesandimmunitiesoftheclergy(p.014) affordedananalogyfortheclaimofforeignstudentstopossesslaws oftheirown;andthethreatofthesecessionofalargecommunitywas likelytorenderacitystateamenabletoargument.Thegrowthof guildsorcommunitiesheldtogetherbycommoninterestsand safeguardedbysolemnoathsisoneofthefeaturesofEuropeanhistory ofthetwelfthandthirteenthcenturies,andthestudentsofBologna tooknounusualorextraordinarystepwhentheyformedtheir Universitates. Thedistinctionofstudentsinto"Nations,"whichisstillpreserved insomeoftheScottishuniversities,isderivedfromthis guildformingmovementatBolognaattheendofthetwelfthandthe beginningofthethirteenthcentury.NocitizenofBolognawas permittedtobeamemberofaguild,theprotectionofwhichhedid notrequire.Thetendencyatfirstwastowardstheformationofa numberofUniversitates,membershipofwhichwasdecidedby considerationsofnationality.Buttheconditionswhichhadledtothe formationoftheseUniversitateswerealsolikelytoproducesome measureofunification,andthelawstudentsatBolognasoonceasedto havemorethantwogreatguilds,distinguishedongeographical principlesastheUniversitasCitramontanorumandtheUniversitas Ultramontanorum.Eachwassubdividedintonations;thecisAlpine(p.015) UniversityconsistingofLombards,Tuscans,andRomans,andthe transAlpineUniversityofavaryingnumber,includingaSpanish,a Gascon,aProvenal,aNorman,andanEnglishnation.Thethree cisAlpinenationswere,ofcourse,muchmorepopulousatBolognathan thedozenormoretransAlpinenations,andtheyweretherefore subdividedintosectionsknownasConsiliariae.ThestudentsofArts andMedicine,whoatfirstpossessednoorganisationoftheirownand wereunderthecontrolofthegreatlawguilds,succeededinthe fourteenthcenturyinestablishinganewUniversitaswithinthe Studium.TheinfluenceofMedicinepredominated,fortheArtscourse was,atBologna,regardedasmerelyapreparationforthestudyofLaw and,especially,ofMedicine;butthisthirdUniversitasgavea definitestatusanddefiniterightstothestudentsofArts.Inthe samecenturythetwojuristuniversitiescametoacttogetherso constantlythattheywere,forpracticalpurposes,united,sothat,by thebeginningofthefifteenthcentury,theStudiumGeneraleof Bolognacontainedvirtuallytwouniversities,oneofLaw,andthe otherofArtsandMedicine,governedbyfreelyelectedrectors.The peculiarrelationsofTheologytotheStudiumandtotheuniversities isatopicwhichbelongstoconstitutionalhistory,andnottoour(p.016) specialsubject.

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TheuniversitiesofBolognahadtomaintainastrugglewithtwoother organisations,theguildsofmastersandtheauthoritiesofthiscity state.Theykeptthefirstinsubjection;theyultimatelysuccumbedto thesecond.Aguildofmasters,doctors,orprofessorshadexistedin theStudiumbeforetheriseoftheUniversitates,anditsurvivedwith limited,butclearlydefined,powers.Thewords"Doctor,""Professor," and"Magister"or"Dominus"wereatfirstusedindifferently,anda MasterofArtsofaScottishoraGermanUniversityisstilldescribed onhisdiplomaasaDoctorofPhilosophy.Theterm"Master"waslittle usedatBologna,butitisconvenienttoemploy"master"and"student" asthegeneraltermsforteacherandtaught.Themasterswerethe teachersoftheStudium,andtheyprotectedtheirowninterestsby formingaguildthemembersofwhich,andtheyalone,hadtherightto teach.Graduationwasoriginallyadmissionintotheguildofmasters, andthechiefprivilegeattachedtoitwastherighttoteach.This privilegeultimatelybecamemerelyatheoreticalrightatBologna, wheretheteacherstendedtobecomeaclosecorporationofprofessors, liketheSenatusofaScottishUniversity. TheGuildorCollegeofMasterswhotaughtlawintheStudiumof(p.017) Bolognanaturallyresentedtheriseoftheuniversitiesofstudents. Thedoctors,theysaid,shouldelecttherectors,astheydoatParis. Thescholarsfollownotrade,theyaremerelythepupilsofthosewho dopractiseaprofession,andtheyhavenorighttochooserulersfor themselvesanymorethantheapprenticesoftheskinners.Themasters werecitizensofBologna,anditmightbeexpectedthattheState wouldassistthemintheirstrugglewithabodyofforeign apprentices;butthethreatofmigrationturnedthescalesinfavour ofthestudents.Therewerenobuildingsandnoendowmentstorendera migrationdifficult,andmigrationdidfromtimetotimetakeplace. Themastersthemselvesweredependentuponfeesfortheirlivelihood; theywere,atBologna,frequentlylaymenwithnobeneficetofallback upon,andwithwivesandchildrentomaintain.Astimewentonandthe teachingmastersbecamealimitednumberofprofessors,theywere givensalaries,atfirstbythestudentuniversitiesthemselvesand afterwardsbythecity,whichfearedtooffendthestudentuniversities. Theythuspassed,toalargeextent,underthecontrolofthe universities;howfar,weshallseeasourstoryprogresses.Thecity authoritiestriedineffectuallytocurbtheuniversitiesandto preventmigrations,butthestudents,withthesupportofthePapacy, succeededinmaintainingthestrengthoftheirorganisations,and(p.018) when,inthemiddleofthefourteenthcentury,secessionsfromBologna cametoanend,thestudentshadobtainedtherecognitionandmostof theprivilegestheydesired.Incourseoftimetheauthorityofthe StateincreasedatBolognaandelsewhere,bodiesofReformatores StudiicametobeappointedbyrepublicsortyrantsinItalian universitycities,andtheseboardsgraduallyabsorbedthegovernment oftheuniversities.Thefoundationofresidentialcolleges,andthe erectionofbuildingsbytheuniversitiesthemselves,deprivedthe studentsofthepossibilityofrevivingthelongdisusedweaponofa migration,andwhenthepowerofthePapacybecamesupremeinBologna, thefreedomofitsstudentuniversitiescametoanend.This,however, belongstoalaterage.Wemustnowattempttoobtainsomepictureof thelifeofamedievalstudentatBolognaduringthegreatnessofthe Universitates. WewillchooseanEnglishmanwhoarrivesatBolognaearlyinthe fifteenthcenturytostudylaw.Hefindshimselfatonceamemberof theEnglishnationoftheTransmontaneUniversity;hepayshisfee, takestheoathofobediencetotheRector,andhisnameisplacedupon the"matricula"orrollofmembersoftheUniversity.Hedoesnotlook aboutforalodginghouse,likeamodernstudentinaScottish University,butjoinswithsomecompanions(_socii_)probablyof(p.019) hisownnation,totakeahouse.IfournewcomerhadbeenaSpaniard, hemighthavebeenfortunateenoughtofindaplaceinthegreat SpanishCollegewhichhadbeenfoundedinthelatterhalfofthe fourteenthcentury;asitis,heandhisfriendssettledownalmostas citizensofBologna.Thesuccessoftheuniversitiesintheirattempt toformacitizenshipoutsidethestatehadlongagoresultedinthe creationalsoofasemicitizenshipwithinthestate.Thelawsofthe cityofBolognaallowedthestudentstoberegardedascitizensso longastheyweremembersofaUniversity.OuryoungEnglishmanhas, ofcourse,noshareinthegovernmentofthetown,buthepossesses allrightsnecessaryfortheprotectionofhispersonandproperty;he canmakealegalwillandbringanactionagainstacitizen.The existenceoftheseprivileges,unusualandremarkableinamedieval state,mayexcitehiscuriosityaboutthemethodbywhichtheywere acquired,andhewillprobablybetoldstrangeandterribletalesof thebadoldtimeswhenaforeignstudentwasashelplessasanyother foreignerinastrangetown,andmightbetorturedbyunfairand

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tyrannousjudges.Ifheishistoricallyminded,hewilllearnabout theriseofthesmallerguildswhicharenowamalgamatedinhis Universitas;how,likeotherguilds,theywerebenefitsocieties caringforthesickandthepoor,buryingthedead,andproviding(p.020) forcommonreligiousservicesandcommonfeasts.Hewillbetold(in languageunfamiliaratOxford)howtheproctorsorrepresentativesof theguildweresenttocheerupthesickand,ifnecessary,torelieve theirnecessities,andtoreconcilememberswhohadquarrelled.The corporatepaymentforfeastsincludedthecostofreplacingbroken windows,which(atalleventsamongtheGermanstudentsatBologna) seemtohavebeenassociatedwithoccasionsofrejoicing.Theguild wouldpayforthereleaseofoneofitsmemberswhowasinprison,but itwouldalsoinsistuponthepaymentofthedebts,evenofthosewho had"gonedown."Itwasessentialthatthecreditoftheguildwith thecitizensofBolognashouldbemaintained. Manyofthesepurposeswerestillservedbythe"nation"towhichour Bolognafreshmanbelonged:butthereallyimportantorganisationwas thatofhisUniversitas.Oneofhisfirstdutiesmighthappentobe connectedwiththeelectionofanewRector.Thetitleoftheoffice wascommoninItalyandwastheequivalentofthePodesta,orchief magistrate,ofanItaliantown.ThechoiceofanewRectorwould probablybelimited,forthehonourwascostly,andtheshareofthe fineswhichtheRectorreceivedcouldnotnearlymeethisexpenses.As hisjurisdictionincludedclerks,itwasnecessary,bytheCanon(p.021) Law,thatheshouldhavethetonsure,andbe,atallevents technically,aclerk.Hecouldnotbelongtoanyreligiousorder,his obligationstowhichmightconflictwithhisdutytotheUniversitas, andtheexpenseoftheofficemadeitdesirablethatheshouldbea beneficedclergymanwhowasdispensedfromresidenceinhisbenefice; hecouldenteruponhisdutiesattheageoftwentyfour,andhewas notnecessarilyapriestorevenadeacon.Ourfreshmanplayedasmall partintheelection.AsamemberoftheEnglishnation,hewouldhelp tochooseaConsiliarius,whohadavoteintheelection,andwho becameoneoftheRector'spermanentCouncil.Thedignityofthe Rector'spositionwouldbeimpresseduponournovicebyhissenior contemporaries,whocouldboastthat,ifaCardinalcametoBologna, hemustyieldprecedencetotheRector,andthelessonwouldbe emphasisedbyagreatfeastontheoccasionofthesolemninstallation andpossiblybyatournamentandadance,certainlybysomemore magnificentbanquetthanthatgivenbyaRectoroftheUniversityof ArtsandMedicine.Afterourstudent'sdaytheregrewupastrange ceremonyoftearingtherobeofthenewRectorandsellingbackthe piecestohim,andstatuteshadtobepassedprohibitingthe acceptanceofmoneyforthefragments,althoughifanystudent succeededincapturingtherobewithoutinjuringit,hemight(p.022) claimitsredemption.Thestateandhospitalitywhichtheoffice entailedledtoitsbeingmadecompulsorytoaccepttheofferofit, butthisarrangementfailedtomaintaintheancientprestigeofthe Rectorshipwhich,afterthedeclineoftheUniversitatesthemselves, hadoutliveditsusefulness. MagnificentaswasthepositionoftheRectorofaUniversitas,our youngEnglishmanwouldsoondiscoverthathisRectorwasonlya constitutionalsovereign.Hehadtoobservethestatutesandto consulthisCounciluponimportantquestions.Hehadnopowerto dispensewiththepenaltiesimposedbytheregulations,andforany mismanagementofthepecuniaryaffairsoftheUniversitashewas personallyliable,whenattheendofhisperiodofofficehehadto meetaCommitteeandtorenderanaccountofhisstewardship.Hecould sentenceoffendingstudentstomoneyfines,buthemusthavethe consentofhisCouncilbeforeexpellingthemordeclaringthemsubject totheecclesiasticalandsocialpenaltiesoftheperjuredman.He claimedtotrycasesbroughtbystudentsagainsttownsmen,andabout thetimeofourscholar'sarrival,thetownhadadmittedthathemight trystudentsaccusedofcriminaloffencesforbiddenbytheUniversity statutes,andhadagreedtocarryouthissentences.Toofreeauseof theseculararmwouldnaturallyleadtounpopularityandtrouble;(p.023) thespectacleofastudentbeinghandedovertothegaolersofthe PodestaoroftheBishopcanneverhavebeenpleasantintheeyesofa Universitas.ChangesinthestatutesoftheUniversitycouldnotbe madebytheRector;everytwentyyearseight"Statutarii"were appointedtorevisethecode,andalterationsmadeatothertimes requiredtheconsentoftheCongregation,whichconsistedofall studentsexceptcitizensofBolognaandafewpoorscholarswhodid notsubscribetothefundsoftheUniversitas.Bythetimeofwhichwe arespeaking,thetwojuristuniversitiesatBolognamettogetherin oneCongregation,andifaCongregationhappenstobeheldduringour Englishman'sresidenceatBologna,hewillfindhimselfboundunder seriouspenaltiestoattenditssession,wherehewillmixonequal, termswithmembersoftheCismontaneUniversity,listeningto,or

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takingpartin,thedebates(conductedinLatin)andthrowinghis blackorwhitebeanintotheballotboxwhenavoteisnecessary. AlthoughthecityofBolognaneveradmittedthejurisdictionofa Universitasovercitizensofthetown,thereweresomeclassesof citizenswhosetradeorprofessionmadethemvirtuallyitssubjects. Landlords,stationers,andmastersordoctorswereinapeculiar relationtotheuniversities,whichdidnotfailtousetheir advantagetotheuttermost.IfourEnglishstudentandhissocii(p.024) hadanydisputeabouttherentoftheirhouse,therewasacompulsory systemofarbitration;ifhefoundanerrorinaMS.whichhehad hiredorpurchasedfromaBolognabooksellerhewasboundtoreportit toaUniversityBoardwhosedutyitwastoinspectMSS.offeredfor saleorhire,andthebooksellerwouldbeorderedtopayafine;he wasprotectedfromextortionatepricesbyasystemwhichallowedthe booksellerafixedprofitonasecondhandbook.MSS.werefreely reproducedbythebooksellers'clerks,andwereneitherscarcenor undulyexpensive,althoughelaboratelyilluminatedMSS.werenaturally veryvaluable.Thelandlordsandthebooksellerswerekeptinproper submissionbythreatsof_interdictio_or_privatio_.Acitizenwho offendedtheUniversitywasdebarredfromallintercoursewith students,whowerestrictlyforbiddentohirehishouseorhisbooks; ifatownsmanbroughta"calumniousaccusation"againstastudent,and disobeyedarectorialcommandtodesist,heandhischildren,tothe thirdgeneration,andalltheirgoods,weretolieunderaninterdict, "_sinesperestitutionis_." _Interdictio_,ordiscommuning,wasalsothegreatweaponwhichmight beemployedagainstthemastersoftheStudium.Thedegradationofthe masterswasagradualprocess,anditwasnevercomplete.The privilegesgivenbyFrederickBarbarossatoLombardscholarsin(p.025) themiddleofthetwelfthcenturyincludedarightofjurisdiction overtheirpupils,andaPapalBulloftheendofthecenturyspeaks ofmastersandscholarsmeetingtogetherincongregations.The organisationoftheUniversitasultimatelyconfinedmembershipof congregationtostudents,andthepowersoftheRectorrenderedthe magisterialjurisdictionmerelynominal.Thelossoftheirprivileges isattributedbyCanonRashdalltotheattitudetheyadoptedinthe earlystrugglesbetweenthemunicipalityandthestudentguilds.The doctors,whowerecitizensofBologna,alliedthemselves,hesays, "withtheCityagainstthestudentsintheselfishefforttoexclude fromthesubstantialprivilegesoftheDoctorateallbuttheirown fellowcitizens....Itwasthroughidentifyingthemselveswiththe CityratherthanwiththescholarsthattheDoctorsofBolognasank intotheirstrangeandundignifiedservitudetotheirownpupils." Theymadeafurthermistakeinquarrellingwiththetowntheearliest migrationsweremigrationsofprofessorsandwhen,inthemiddleof thethirteenthcentury,apermanent_modusvivendi_wasarrivedat betweenthecityandtheuniversities,therightsofthedoctors receivednoconsideration.OthercitizensofBolognawereforbiddento takeanoathofobediencetotherectors,butthemasters,who,in theory,possessedrightsofjurisdictionovertheirpupils,were,(p.026) infact,compelledbytheuniversitiestotakethisoath.Even thoseofthemwhoreceivedsalariesfromthetownwerenotexempted.A doctorwhorefusedtotakeavowofobediencetotherepresentativeof hispupilshadnomeansofcollectinghislecturefees,whichremained ofsomeimportanceevenaftertheintroductionofsalaries,andhewas liabletofurtherpunishmentatthewilloftheRector.Theultimate penaltywas_deprivatio_,andwhenthissentencewaspronounced,not onlywerethelecturesoftheoffendingdoctorboycotted,butall socialintercoursewithhimwasforbidden;studentsmustavoidhis companyinprivateaswellasdeclinehisministrationsinthe Studium.Hisrestorationcouldonlybeaccomplishedbyavoteofthe wholeUniversitysolemnlyassembledinCongregation. Theoathofobediencewasnotmerelyaconstitutionalweaponkeptin reserveforoccasionalseriousdisputes;itaffectedthedailylifeof theStudium,andthemastersweresubjecttonumerouspetty indignities,whichcouldnotfailtoimpressourEnglishstudentifhe wasfamiliarwithUniversitylifeinhisowncountry.Hewouldsee, withsurprise,adoctor'slectureinterruptedbythearrivalofa UniversityBedel,asthedebatesoftheHouseofCommonsareinterrupted bythearrivalofBlackRod,andhisinstructorwouldmaintainareverent silencewhiletheRector'sofficerdeliveredsomemessagefromthe(p.027) University,orinformedtheprofessorofsomenewregulation.Ifthe learneddoctor"cut"alecture,ourstudentwouldfindhimself compelledtoinformtheauthoritiesoftheUniversity,andhewould hearoffinesinflicteduponthedoctorsforabsence,forlateness, forattractingtoosmallanaudience,foromittingportionsofa subjectoravoidingtheelucidationofitsdifficulties,andfor inattentionwhilethe"precepta"or"mandata"oftheRectorwerebeing

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readintheschools.Heandhisfellowstudentsmightgraciouslygrant theirmasteraholiday,butthepermissionhadtobeconfirmedbythe Rector;ifalecturewasprolongedaminuteaftertheappointedtime, thedoctorfoundhimselfaddressingemptybenches.Thehumiliationof themaster'spositionwasincreasedbythefactthathispupilswere alwaysactingasspiesuponhim,andtheywerethemselvesliableto penaltiesforconnivingatanyinfringementoftheregulationsonhis part.AtBologna,eventheprivilegeofteachingwas,toaslight extent,sharedbythedoctorswiththeirpupils.Lecturesweredivided intotwoclasses,ordinaryandextraordinary;theordinarylectures werethedutyofthedoctors,butseniorstudents(bachelors)were authorisedbytheRectortosharewiththedoctorsthedutyofgiving extraordinarylectures.Thereweresixchairs,endowedbythe(p.028) city,whichwereheldbystudents,andtheoccupantofoneofthese wasentitledtodeliverordinarylectures.DrRashdallfindsthe explanationofthisanomalyinanincidentinthefourteenthcentury historyofBologna,whentheTyrantoftheCityforbadetheprofessors toteach.ThestudentchairswereratherendowmentsfortheRectorship orforpoorscholarsthanseriousrivalstotheordinaryprofessorships, andtheextraordinarylecturesdeliveredbystudentsorbachelorsmay beregardedasakindofapprenticeshipforfuturedoctors. ThereremainedonedepartmentoftheworkoftheStudiuminwhichour Bolognastudentwouldfindhismasterssupreme.Thesacredrightof examiningstillbelongedtotheteachers,eventhoughtheessential purposeoftheexaminationwaschanged.ThedoctorsofBolognahad succeededinpreservingtherighttoteachasaprivilegeofBolognese citizensandevenofrestrictingit,tosomeextent,tocertainfamilies, andtheforeignstudentcouldnothopetobecomeaprofessorofhis ownstudium.ButtheprestigeoftheUniversityrenderedBolognese studentsambitiousofthedoctorate,andthedoctoratehadcometo meanmorethanamerelicencetoteach.Thislicence,whichhad originallybeenconferredbythedoctorsthemselves,required,after theissueofaPapalBullin1219,theconsentoftheArchdeacon(p.029) ofBologna,andthePapalgrantofthe_jusubiquedocendi_in1292 increasedatoncetheimportanceofthemastershipandofthe authorityoftheArchdeacon,whocametobedescribedasthe ChancellorandHeadoftheStudium."Graduation,"inDrRashdall's words,"ceasedtoimplythemereadmissionintoaprivateSocietyof teachers,andbestowedadefinitelegalstatusintheeyesofChurch andStatealike....TheUniversitiespassedfrommerelylocalinto ecumenicalorganisations;theDoctoratebecameanorderof intellectualnobilitywithasdistinctanddefiniteaplaceinthe hierarchicalsystemofmedievalChristendomasthePriesthoodorthe Knighthood."TheArchdeaconofBologna,evenwhenhewasregardedas theChancellor,didnotwrestfromthecollegeofdoctorstherightto decidewhoshouldbedeemedworthyofatitlewhichCardinalswere pleasedtopossess.Thelicencewhichherequiredbeforeadmittinga studenttothedoctoratecontinuedtobeconferredbytheBologna doctorsafterdueexamination. WewillassumethatourEnglishstudenthasnowcompletedhiscourse ofstudy.Hehasdulyattendedtheprescribedlecturesnotlessthan threeaweek.Hehasgoneintheearlymornings,whenthebellatSt Peter'sChurchwasringingformass,tospendsometwohourslistening tothe"ordinary"lecturedeliveredbyadoctorinhisownhouse(p.030) orinahiredroom;hissuccessorsagenerationortwolaterwould findbuildingserectedbytheUniversityforthepurpose.Therestof hismorningandanhourortwointheafternoonhavealso,ifheisan industriousstudent,beendevotedtolectures,andhehasnotbeen neglectfulofprivatestudy.Hehasenjoyedthenumerousholidays affordedbytheFeastsoftheChurch,andseveralvacationsinthe courseoftheyear,includingtendaysatChristmas,afortnightat Easter,andaboutsixweeksintheautumn.Afterfiveyearsofstudy, ifheisacivilian,andfourifheisacanonist,theRectorhas raisedhimtothedignityofaBachelorbypermittinghimtogive "extraordinary"lecturesandaftertwomoreyearsspentinthis capacityheisreadytoproceedtothedoctorate.TheRector,having beensatisfiedbytheEnglishrepresentativeinhisCouncilthatthe "doctorand"hasperformedthewholedutyoftheBolognesestudent, giveshimpermissiontoenterforthefirstorPrivateExamination, andheagaintakestheoathofobediencetothatdignitary.Thedoctor underwhomhehasstudiedvouchesforhiscompetence,andpresentshim firsttotheArchdeaconandsomedaysafterwardstotheCollegeof Doctors,beforewhomhetakesasolemnoathnevertoseekadmittance intotheBologneseCollegeofDoctors,ortoteach,orattemptto performanyofthefunctionsofadoctor,atBologna.Theythen(p.031) givehimapassageforexpositionandsendhimhome.Heisfollowedto hishousebyhisowndoctorwhohearshisexpositioninprivate,and bringshimbacktotheaugustpresenceoftheCollegeofDoctorsand theArchdeacon.Herehetreatshisthesisandisexamineduponitby

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twoormoredoctors,whoareorderedbytheUniversitystatutesnotto treatanyvictimofthisrigorousandtremendousexaminationotherwise thanifheweretheirownson,andarethreatenedwithgravepenalties, includingsuspensionforayear.TheCollegethenvotesuponhiscase, eachdoctorsayingopenlyandclearly,andwithoutanyqualification, "Approbo"or"Reprobo,"andifthedecisionisfavourableheisnowa Licentiateandhastofaceonlytheexpensivebutnototherwise formidableordealofthesecondorPublicExamination.Asanewly appointedScottishjudgeis,tothisday,admittedtohisofficeby tryingcases,sotheBolognadoctorwasadmittedtohisnewdignityby anexerciseinlecturing.Theideaiscommontomanymedieval institutions,anditsurvivedatBologna,eventhoughthelicentiate had,athisprivateexamination,renouncedtherightofteaching.Our EnglishmanandhissociigotogethertotheCathedral,wherehestates athesisanddefendsitagainsttheattacksofotherlicentiates.His owndoctor,knowninBologna(andelsewhere)asthePromoter,(p.032) presentshimtotheChancellor,whoconfersuponhimthe_jusubique docendi_.Heisthenseatedinamaster'schair,andthePromotor giveshimanopenbookandagoldringand(intheterminologyofa modernScottishUniversity)"caps"himwiththebiretta.Heis dismissedwithabenedictionandthekissofpeace,andisconducted throughthetown,intriumphalprocession,byhisfriends,towhomhe givesafeast. Thefeastaddsveryconsiderablytotheexpensesofthedoctorate,for whichfeesare,ofcourse,exactedbytheauthoritiesofthe University,theCollegeofDoctors,andtheArchdeacon.Aconsiderable proportionofthedisciplinaryregulations,madebythe studentuniversities,aimedatrestrictingtheexpenditureonfeasting attheinceptionofanewdoctorandonotheroccasions.Whenour youngEnglishDoctorandreceivedthepermissionofhisRectorto proceedtohisdegree,hewasmadetopromisenottoexceedtheproper expenditureonfeesandfeasts,andhewasexpresslyforbiddento organiseatournament.Thespendingofmoneyonextravagantcostume wasalsoprohibitedbythestatutesoftheUniversity,whichforbadea studenttopurchase,eitherdirectlyorthroughanagent,anycostume otherthantheordinaryblackgarment,oranyoutercoveringother thantheblackcappaorgabard.Otherdisciplinaryrestrictionsat(p.033) Bolognadealtwithquarrellingandgambling.Thedebatesof Congregationwerenottobeliabletointerruptionbyonestudent stabbinghisopponentinItalianfashion,andnoonewasallowedto carryarmstoameetingofCongregation;ifastudenthadreasonto apprehendpersonalviolencefromanother,theRectorcouldgivehima dispensationfromthenecessityofattendance.Gamingandborrowing fromunauthorisedmoneylenderswerestrictlyforbidden;toentera gaminghouse,ortokeepone,ortowatchagameofdicewasstrictly forbidden.TheUniversityofArtsandMedicinegrantedadispensation forthreedaysatChristmas,andaRectormightusehisowndiscretion inthematter.Thepenaltieswerefines,andforcontumacyorgrave offences,suspensionorexpulsion. Thereareindicationsthattheconductofthedoctorsinthese respectswasnotabovesuspicion;theywereexpresslyprohibitedfrom keepinggaminghouses;andtheappointmentoffourmerchantsofthe town,whoalonewereempoweredtolendmoneytostudents,wasa protectionnotonlyagainstordinaryusurers,butalsoagainstdoctors wholentmoneytostudentsinordertoattractthemtotheirlectures. ThattheignominiouspositionoftheBolognadoctorshadanevil effectupontheirmorals,isevidentnotonlyfromthis,butalsofrom theexistenceofbribery,inconnectionwithexaminationsforthe(p.034) doctorate,althoughcorruptionofthiskindwasnotconfinedtothe studentuniversities. Theregulationsofthegreatestoftheresidentialcollegesof Bologna,theCollegeofSpain,naturallyinterferemuchmorewith individuallibertythandothestatutesofthestudentuniversities, eventhoughthegovernmentoftheCollegewasademocracy,basedupon thedemocraticconstitutionoftheUniversity.Weshallhavean opportunityofreferringtothedisciplineoftheSpanishCollegewhen wedealwiththeCollegesysteminthenorthernuniversities,and meanwhilewepasstosomeillustrationsoflifeinstudentuniversities elsewherethanatBologna. AtPaduawefinda"Schoolspeace"likethespecialpeaceofthe highwayorthemarketinmedievalEngland;specialpenaltieswere prescribedforattacksonscholarsintheSchools,orgoingtoor returningfromtheSchoolsattheaccustomedhours.Thepresenceof theRectoralsomadeaslightattackcountasan"atrociousinjury." TheUniversitythreatenedtointerdict,fortenyears,thetenhouses nearesttotheplacewhereascholarwaskilled;ifhewaswoundedthe periodwasfourorsixyears.AtFlorence,wheretheFacultyof

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Medicinewasveryimportant,thereisaninterestingprovisionforthe studyofanatomy.Anagreementwasmadewiththetown,bywhich(p.035) thestudentsofMedicineweretohavetwocorpseseveryyear,onemale andonefemale.Thebodiesweretobethoseofmalefactors,who gained,tosomeextent,bythearrangement,forthewoman'spenalty wastobechangedfromburning,andtheman'sfromdecapitation,to hanging.Apatheticclauseprovidesthatthecriminalsarenottobe nativesofFlorence,butofcaptiverace,withfewfriendsor relations.Ifthenumberofmedicalstudentsincreased,theywereto havetwomalebodies.AtFlorence,asalmosteverywhere,wefind regulationsagainstgambling,butanexceptionwasmadeforthe KalendsofMayandthedaysimmediatelybeforeandafter,andno penaltycouldbeinflictedforgamblinginthehouseoftheRector. Therecords,ofFlorenceaffordanillustrationofthechecksuponthe rectorialpower,towhichwehavereferredinspeakingofthetypical StudentUniversityatBologna.In1433,aseriesofcomplaintswere broughtagainstacertainHieronimuswhohadjustcompletedhisyear ofofficeasRector,andaSyndicate,consistingofaDoctorof Decrees(whowasalsoascholarincivillaw),ascholarinCanonLaw, andascholarinMedicine,wasappointedtoinquireintotheconduct ofthelateRectorandofhistwoCamerarii.Theaccusationswere bothgeneralandpersonal,andtheSyndics,afterdecidingthat(p.036) Hieronimusmustrestoreeightsilver_grossi_ofUniversitymoney whichhehadappropriated,proceededtohearthechargesbroughtby individuals.AlecturerintheUniversitycomplainedthattheRector hadunjustlyandmaliciouslygivenasentenceagainsthimandin favourofaGreekresidingatFlorence,andthathehadunjustly declaredhimperjured;fiftygoldflorinswereawardedasdamagesfor thisandsomeotherinjuries.AdoctorofArtsandMedicineobtaineda judgmentfortwoflorinsforexpensesincurredwhentheRectorwasin hishouse.Astudentcomplainedthathehadbeendenouncedas "infamis"inalltheSchoolsfornotpayinghismatriculationfee,and thathisnamehadbeenenteredinthebookcalledthe"Speculum."The Syndicsorderedtherecordofhispunishmenttobeerased.Themost interestingcaseisthatofstudentofCivilLaw,calledAndreas RomulideLancisca.HeaverredthathehadsoldHieronimussix measuresofgrain,tobepaidforatthecustomaryprice.Afterfour months'delay,theRectorpaidsevenpounds,andwhenaskedto completethepayment,gaveAndreasabookofmedicine,"forwhichI gotfiveflorins."Somedayslaterhedemandedthereturnofthebook, towhichAndreasreplied:"Datemihiresiduumetlibenterrestituam librum."TothisrequesttheRector,"insuperbiamelevatus,"answered, "Tureddeslibrumetnonsolvamtibi."Thequarrelcontinued,and(p.037) onemorning,whenAndreaswasintheSchoolsatalecture,Hieronimus senttheservantofthePodesta,whoseizedhim"ignominioseet vituperose"intheSchoolsandconductedhimtothetownprisonlikea commonthief.ForalltheseinjuriesAndreascravedredressandasum offortyflorins.Thedamages,hethought,shouldbehigh,notmerely forhispersonalwrongs,butalsofortheinsulttothescholar's dresswhichhewore,and,indeed,tothewholeUniversity.Hewas allowedtwentypoundsinadditiontothesumdueforthegrain.The Syndicateof1433musthavebeenanextremecase;matterswere complicatedbythefactthattheRector'sbrotherwas"Executor OrdinamentorumJustitiCivitatisFlorenti,"andhewastherefore suspectedofplayingintothehandsofthecity.Buttheknowledge thatsuchaninvestigationwaspossiblemusthaverestrainedthe arbitrarytendenciesofaRector. AreferencetotheimitationoftheBologneseconstitutioninSpain mustclosethisportionofoursurvey.AtLerida,intheearliestcode ofstatutes(about1300),wefindthedoctorsandmastersworntoobey theRector,whocanfinethem,thoughhemustnotexpelthemwithout theconsentofthewholeUniversity.AnyimpropercriticismsoftheRector ("verbainjuriosavelcontumeliosa")byanyone,ofwhatsoever(p.038) dignity,aretobepunishedbysuspensionuntilsatisfactionismade, andsogreatisthegloryoftheoffice("Rectorisofficiumtanta [excellentia]prfulget")thatanexRectorisnotboundtotakethe oathtohissuccessor.Theregulationsaffectingundergraduatesare moredetailedthanatBologna,andindicateastricterdiscipline. Aftereightdays'attendanceatadoctor'slecture,astudentmustnot forsakeittogotoanotherdoctor;noscholaristogototheSchool onhorsebackunlessforsomeurgentcause;scholarsarenottogive anythingtoactorsorjestersorother"truffatores"(troubadours), nortoinvitethemtomeals,exceptonthefeastsofChristmas, Easter,andPentecost,orattheelectionofaRector,orwhendoctors ormastersarecreated.Evenontheseoccasionsonlyfoodmaybe given,althoughanordinanceofthesecondRectorallowsdoctorsand masterstogivethemmoney.Nostudents,exceptboysunderfourteen, aretobeallowedtoplayatballinthecityonStNicholas'dayor StKatherine'sday,andnonearetoindulgeinunbecomingamusements, ortowalkaboutdressedupasJewsorSaracensarulewhichisalso

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foundinthestatutesoftheUniversityofPerpignan.Ifscholarsare foundbearingarmsbydayinthestudents'quarterofthetown,they aretoforfeittheirarms,andiftheyarefoundatnightwitheither armsormusicalinstrumentsinthestudents'quarter,theyareto(p.039) forfeitarmsorinstruments.Iftheyarefoundoutsidetheirown quarters,bynightorbyday,witharmsormusicalinstruments,the townofficialswilldealwithlaymen,andtheBishoportheRector withclerks.LaymenmightbeeitherstudentsordoctorsinSpainasin Italy;atSalamanca,alecturer'smarriagewasincludedamongthe necessarycauseswhichexcusedatemporaryabsencefromhisduties.In theuniversitiesofSouthernFrance,themarriageofresidentdoctors andstudentswasalsocontemplated,andthestatutesoftheUniversity ofAixcontainatableofchargespayableas"charivari"byarector, adoctor,alicentiate,abachelor,astudent,andabedel.Ineach casetheamountpayableformarryingawidowwasdoubletheordinary fee.Ifthebridegroomdeclinedtopay,the"dominuspromotor," accompaniedby"dominisstudentibus,"was,bypermissionofthe Rector,togotohishousearmedwithfryingpans,bassoons,and horns,andtomakeagreattumult,without,however,doinganyinjury tohisneighbours.Continuedrecusancywastobepunishedbyplacing filthoutsidetheculprit'sdooronfeastdays.IntheUniversityof Dle,therewasamarriedRectorin1485,butthiswasbyaspecial dispensation.Therearetracesoftheexistenceofmarried undergraduatesatOxfordinthefifteenthcentury,and,inthe(p.040) samecentury,marriagewaspermittedintheFacultyofMedicineat Paris,buttheinsistenceuponcelibacyinthenorthernuniversities isoneofthecharacteristicdifferencesbetweenthemandthe universitiesofSouthernEurope.

CHAPTERIII(p.041) THEUNIVERSITIESOFMASTERS TheGuildorUniversitaswhichgrewupintheStudiumGeneraleof PariswasaSocietyofmasters,notofstudents.TheStudiumGenerale was,inorigin,connectedwiththeCathedralSchools,andrecognition asaMasterwasgrantedbytheChancelloroftheCathedral,whoseduty itwastoconferituponeverycompetentscholarwhoaskedforit.The successfulapplicantwasadmittedbytheexistingmastersintotheir Society,andthisadmissionorinceptionwastheoriginofdegreesin theUniversityofParis.ThedateofthegrowthofanorganisedGuild isuncertain;DrRashdall,afterasurveyoftheevidence,concludes that"itisafairlysafeinferencethattheperiod11501170probably thelatteryearsofthatperiodsawthebirthoftheUniversityof Paris."Suchorganisationasexistedinthetwelfthcenturywasslight andcustomary,depending,asthestudentuniversitiesofBolognaand inothermedievalguilds,uponnoexternalauthority.Thesuccessors oftheseearlymasters,writinginthemiddleofthethirteenth century,relatehowtheirpredecessors,menreverendincharacter(p.042) andfamousforlearning,decided,asthenumberoftheirpupils increased,thattheycoulddotheirworkbetteriftheybecamea unitedbody,andthattheythereforeformedthemselvesintoaCollege orUniversity,onwhichChurchandStateconferredmanyprivileges. Thebondofuniontheydescribeasa"jusspeciale"("siquodamessent jurisspecialisvinculosociati"),andthisconceptionexplainsthe appearanceoftheirearliestcodeofstatutesinthefirstdecadeof thethirteenthcentury.TheGuildofmasters,atParis,liketheGuild ofstudentsatBologna,couldusewithadvantagethethreatofa migration,and,afteraviolentquarrelwiththetownintheyear 1200,theyreceivedspecialprivilegesfromPhilipAugustus.Some yearslater,PopeInnocentIII.permittedthe"scholarsofParis"to electaprocuratororproctortorepresenttheirinterestsinlawsuits atRome.LitigationatRomewasconnectedwithdisputeswiththe ChancelloroftheCathedral.AlreadythescholarsofParishad complainedtothePopeaboutthetyrannyoftheChancellor,and Innocenthadsupportedtheircause,remarkingthatwhenhehimself studiedatParishehadneverheardofscholarsbeingtreatedinthis fashion.ItmovedandastonishedthePopenotalittlethatthe Chancellorshouldattempttoexactanoathofobedienceandpayment ofmoneyfromthemasters,and,intheend,thatofficialwas(p.043) compelledtogiveuphisclaimtodemandfeesoroathsoffealtyor obedienceforalicencetoteach,andtorelaxanyoathsthathad alreadybeentaken.Themasters,asDrRashdallpointsout,already possessedtheweaponofboycotting,andorderingtheirstudentsto boycott,ateacheruponwhomtheChancellorconferredalicence againstthewishoftheirguild,buttheycouldnotatfirstcompel himtograntalicencetoanyonewhomtheydesiredtoadmit.Afterthe

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Papalinterventionof1212,theChancellorwasboundtolicencea candidaterecommendedbythemasters. Intheaccountoftheirownhistory,fromwhichwehavealready quoted,theParisianmastersspeakoftheirvenerable"gignasium litterarum"asdividedintofourfaculties,Theology,Law,Medicine, andPhilosophy,andtheycomparethefourstreamsoflearningtothe fourriversofParadise.Thelargestandmostimportantwasthe FacultyofArts,andthemastersofthatFacultyweretheprotagonists inthestrugglewiththeChancellor,astrugglewhichcontinuedlong aftertheinterventionofInnocentIII.Inthecourseofthislongand successfulconflict,theFacultyofArtsdevelopedaninternal organisation,consistingoffournations,distinguishedastheFrench, theNormans,thePicards,andtheEnglish.Eachnationelecteda proctor,andthefourproctorsorotherrepresentativesofthe(p.044) nationselectedaRector,whowastheHeadoftheFacultyofArts. ThedivisionintonationsandthetitleofRectormayhavebeencopied fromBologna,buttheorganisationatPariswasessentiallydifferent. TheParisiannationsweregovernedbymasters,notbystudents,and whereas,atBologna,theartistswereaninsignificantminority,at Paris,theRectorbecame,bytheendofthethirteenthcentury,the mostpowerfulofficialoftheUniversity,and,bythemiddleofthe fourteenth,wasrecognisedasitsHead.ThesuperiorFacultiesof Theology,CanonLaw,andMedicine,thoughtheypossessedindependent constitutionsundertheirownDeans,consistedlargelyofmenwhohad takenaMaster'soraBachelor'sdegreeinArts,and,fromthemiddle ofthethirteenthcentury,theytookanoathtotheRector,whichwas heldtobebindingevenaftertheybecamedoctors.Thenonartist membersoftheseFacultieswerenotlikelytobeabletoresistan authoritywhoseexistencewasgenerallywelcomedasthecentreofthe oppositiontotheChancellor.Ultimately,thewholeUniversitypassed undertheswayoftheRector,andthepoweroftheChancellorwas restrictedtograntingthe_jusubiquedocendi_astherepresentative ofthePope.Eventhiswaslittlemorethanaformality,forthe Chancellor"ceased,"saysDrRashdall,"tohaveanyrealcontrolover thegrantorrefusalofLicences,exceptinsofarasheretained(p.045) thenominationoftheExaminersinArts." AtOxford,theUniversitywasalsoaGuildofmasters,butOxfordwas notacathedralcity,andtherewasnoconflictwiththeBishoporthe Chancellor.Intheendofthetwelfthorthebeginningofthe thirteenthcentury,themastersoftheStudiumprobablyelecteda RectororHeadinimitationoftheParisianChancellor.Afterthe quarrelwiththecitizens,whichledtothemigrationtoCambridge, andwhenKingJohnhadsubmittedtothePope,themasterswereableto obtainanordinancefromthePapallegatedeterminingthepunishment oftheoffenders,andprovidingagainsttherecurrenceofsuch incidents.Thelegateorderedthatifthecitizensshouldseizethe personofaclerk,hissurrendermightbedemandedby"theBishopof Lincoln,ortheArchdeaconoftheplaceorhisOfficial,orthe Chancellor,orwhomsoevertheBishopofLincolnshalldeputetothis office."TheclauselaysstressupontheauthorityoftheBishopof Lincoln,whichmustinnowaybediminishedbyanyactionofthe townsmen.TheecclesiasticalauthorityoftheBishopwaswelcomedby theUniversityasaprotectionagainstthetown,andtheChancellor wastoofarawayfromLincolntopresstheprivilegesoftheDiocese ortheCathedralagainsttheclerkswhowereunderhisspecial(p.046) care.TheOxfordChancellorwasamasteroftheStudium,and,though hewastherepresentativeoftheBishop,hewasalsotheHeadofthe mastersguild,andfromveryearlytimeswaselectedbythemasters. ThushecametoidentifyhimselfwiththeUniversity,andhisoffice increasedinimportanceasprivilegeswereconferreduponthe Universitybykingsandpopes.NoRectorshipgrewupasarivaltothe Chancellorship,thoughsomeofthefunctionsoftheParisianRector wereperformedatOxfordbytheProctors.Therewereonlytwo"Nations" atOxford,fortheOxfordmasterswere,asarule,Englishmen;men fromnorthoftheTrentformedtheNorthernNation,andtherestof EnglandtheSouthernNation.ScotsmenwereclassedasNortherners,and WelshmenandIrishmenasSoutherners.ThedivisionintoNationswas shortlived,andthetwoRectorsorProctors,thoughstill distinguishedasNorthernandSouthern,soonbecamerepresentatives electedbythewholeFacultyofArts.AsatParis,theFacultyofArts wasthemovingspiritintheUniversity,andTheology,Law,and MedicineneverdevelopedatOxfordanyindependentorganisation.The proctors,asDrRashdallhasshown,thusbecametheExecutiveofthe Universityasawhole,andnotmerelyoftheFacultyofArts. AnessentialdifferencebetweenBolognaanditstwogreatnorthern(p.047) sistersliesinthefactthat,atParisandatOxford,mastersand scholarsalikewereallclerks,possessingthetonsureandwearingthe clericalgarb,thoughnotnecessarilyeveninminororders.Theycould

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thusclaimtheprivilegesofecclesiasticaljurisdiction,andat OxfordthisjurisdictionwasexercisedbytheChancellor,whoalso, alongwiththeproctors,wasresponsibleforacademicdisciplineand couldsettledisputesbetweenmembersoftheUniversity.Inthis,the UniversityofOxfordhadapositionofindependencewhichParisnever achieved,forthoughtheParisianRector'scourtdealtwithcasesof disciplineandwithinternaldisputes,criminaljurisdictionremained theprerogativeoftheBishop.Inthemiddleofthefourteenth century,royalgrantsofprivilegestotheUniversityofOxford culminatedinthesubjectionofthecity,andfromthemiddleofthe fifteenth"theburgherslivedintheirowntownalmostasthehelots orsubjectsofaconqueringpeople."(_Cf._Rashdall,vol.ii.chap. 12,sec.3).TheconstitutionofOxfordwascloselyimitatedat Cambridge,wheretheHeadoftheUniversitywasalsotheChancellor, andtheexecutiveconsistedoftworectorsorproctors.Inthe fifteenthcenturytheUniversityfreeditselffromtheecclesiastical jurisdictionoftheBishopofEly. Germanypossessednouniversitiesbeforethefourteenthcentury.(p.048) Praguewasfoundedin13478,andwasfollowedbefore1400byVienna, Erfurt,Heidelberg,andCologne,andinthefirstquarterofthenext centurybyWrzburg,Leipsic,Rostock,andintheLowCountriesby Louvain.ThefirstScottishUniversitydatesfromtheearlyyearsof thefifteenthcentury.WhiletheprovincialuniversitiesofFrance tendedtofollowBolognaratherthanParisastheirmodel,theGerman universitiesapproximatedtotheParisiantype,andalthoughthe foundersoftheScottishuniversitieswereimpressedbysomeofthe conditionsofthestudentuniversities,andprovidedforthema theoreticalplaceintheirconstitutions,yetthethreemedieval ScottishuniversitiesofScotland,intheiractualworking,more nearlyresembledthemastertype.

CHAPTERIV(p.049) COLLEGEDISCIPLINE Wearenowinapositiontoapproachthemainpartofour subjectlifeinamedievalUniversityofmastersandweproposeto proceedatoncetoitsmostcharacteristicfeature,lifeinamedieval College.ThesystemoriginatedinParis.Intheearlydaysofthe University,studentsatParislivedfreelyinprivatehouses,whicha numberof"socii"hiredforthemselves.Arecordofadisputewhich occurredin1336showsthatitwasusualforonememberofsucha communitytoberesponsiblefortherent,"tanquamprincipalisdictae domus,"andthememberwhowasheldtoberesponsibleinthe particularcaseisdescribedasa"magister."Atfirstitwasnot necessarythatheshouldbeamaster,butthissoonbecameusual,and ultimately(thoughnottillthecloseoftheMiddleAges)itwasmade compulsorybytheUniversity.DrRashdallhasdrawnattentiontothe democraticcharacteroftheseHospiciaorHalls,themembersofwhich electedtheirownprincipalandmadetheregulationswhichhe enforced.ThisdemocraticconstitutionisfoundatOxfordaswellas atParis,andwas,indeed,commontoalltheearlyuniversities.(p.050) Whenabenevolentdonorendowedoneofthesehalls,heinvariablygave itnotonlymoney,butregulations,anditwastheexistenceofan endowmentandofstatutesimposedbyanexternalauthoritythat differentiatedtheCollegefromtheHall.TheearliestCollege foundersdidnotnecessarilyerectanybuildingsforthescholarsfor whosewelfaretheyprovided;aCollegeisessentiallyasociety,and notabuilding.Thequadrangularshapewhichisnowassociatedwith thebuildingsofaCollegewasprobablysuggestedaccidentallybythe developmentofWalterdeMerton'sCollegeatOxford;but,longafter thefoundationofMertonCollegein1263or1264,itwasnot considerednecessarybyafoundertobuildahomeforhisscholars, whosecuredasuitablelodginghouse(orhouses)andwerepreparedto migrateshouldsuchastepbecomedesirableintheinterestofthe University. ThestatutesofMertonprovideuswithapictureofanendowedHallat theperiodwhensuchendowmentswerebeginningtochangethecharacter ofUniversitylife.TheconceptionofaCollege,asdistinguishedfrom theolderHalls,developedveryrapidly,andtheFounder'sprovisions fortheorganisationofhissocietywerealteredthreetimeswithinten years.In1264,WalterdeMerton,sometimeChancellorofEngland,(p.051) drewupacodeofstatutesforthefoundationofahouse,tobecalled theHouseoftheScholarsofMerton.HismotivewasthegoodofHoly Churchandthesafetyofthesoulsofhisbenefactorsandrelations,

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andtheseobjectsweretobeservedbyprovidingforthemaintenance oftwentypoorscholarsandtwoorthreepriestsintheschoolsof Oxford,orelsewhere,iflearningshould,inthesedaysofcivilwar, flourishelsewherethanatOxford.Theendowmentwhichheprovidedwas toconsistofhismanorsofMaldonandFarleigh,inSurrey,towhich wasaddedtheMertonestate,attheendofwhatarenowthe"Backs"in Cambridge.Thiswaspurchasedin126970.Thelandsweregiventohis scholars,tobeheldundercertainconditions,intheirownname.His ownkindredweretohavethefirstclaimuponplacesinthenew Society,and,afterthem,nativesofthedioceseofWinchester;they weretohaveallowancesoffortyshillingseachperannum,tolive togetherinaHall,andtowearuniformgarbintokenofunityand mutuallove.Asvacanciesarose,bydeath,byadmissionintoa religiousorder,bytheacceptanceoflivingsintheChurch,orby appointmentsinothercallings,theyweretobefilledup,andifthe fundsofthesocietypermitted,thenumbers,bothofscholarsandof priests,weretobeincreased.Scholarswhoprovedtobeincorrigibly idle,orwholedevillives,weretobedeprived;butthesickand(p.052) infirmweretobetreatedgenerously,andanyoftheFounder'skinwho sufferedfromanincurablemalady,andwereincapableofearningan honestlivingintheStudiumorelsewhere,weretobemaintainedtill theirdeath.Itwasassumedthatthescholarshadalreadyreceivedthe preliminarytraininginLatinwhichwasnecessaryfortheirstudies, butprovisionwasmadefortheelementaryinstructionofpooror orphanboysoftheFounder'skin,untiltheywerereadytoenterthe University.Onceortwiceayearallthemembersofthefoundation weretomeetandsaymassfortheirFounderandhisbenefactors, livinganddead.Themanagementofthepropertywasentrustedtoa Warden,whowastoresidenotatOxfordoranyotherStudiumwherethe Hallmighthappentobe,butatMaldonorFarleigh.TheWardenwasa memberoftheSociety,buthadnoauthorityoverthescholars,except that,incasesofdisputedelections,he,ortheChancellororRector oftheUniversitywheretheHallhappenedtobeatthetime,wasto actontheadviceofsixorsevenoftheseniorscholars,andthe seniorscholars,ratherthantheWarden,werelookeduponbythe founderasthenaturalleadersofhisSociety.Everyyear,eightor tenoftheseniorsweretogotoSurreytostayforeightdaysto inquireintothemanagementoftheirproperty,and,ifatany(p.053) othertime,evilrumoursabouttheconductoftheWardenreachedthe Hall,twoorthreeofthemweretogotoinvestigate.Thescholars could,withtheconsentofthePatron,theBishopofWinchester,bring aboutthedepositionoftheWarden,andelectionstotheWardenship wereentrustedtothetwelveseniors.Theyweretoconsultthe "brothers"whoassistedtheWardenatMerton,andwerealsotoobtain thesanctionoftheBishopofWinchester. ThesefirstMertonstatutesclearlycontemplateanendowedHall, differingfromotherHallsonlyintheexistenceoftheendowment. Someregulationsarenecessaryinorderthatthetenureofthe propertyoftheSocietymaybesecureandthatitsfundsmaynotbe misapplied,andthebriefcodeofstatutesisdirectedtotheseends. WalterdeMerton'searliestrulesmaketheminimumofchangein existingconditions.Butthepreparationofthiscodeofstatutesmust havesuggestedtotheFounderthathisgenerositygavehimthepower ofmakingmoreelaborateprovisions.TheMendicantOrdershadalready establishedatOxfordandatParishousesfortheirownmembers,and theMonasticOrdersinFrancewerefollowingtheexampleofthe Friars.Thesehouseswere,ofcourse,governedbyminuteanddetailed regulations,anditmayhaveseemeddesirabletointroducesome stricterdisciplineintothesecularhalls.Atallevents,in(p.054) 1270,WalterdeMertontooktheopportunityofanincreaseinhis endowmentstoissueacodeofstatutesmorethantwiceaslongasthat of1264.ThesenewstatutesmarkadistinctadvanceintheFounder's idealofCollegelife.TheWardenbecomesamuchmoreimportantfactor intheconductoftheHallaswellasinthemanagementofthe property;intheelectionandintheexpulsionofscholarsheisgiven agreaterplace;hisallowancesareincreased,andhispresenceat Oxfordseemstobeimplied.ThescholarsaretoproceedfromArtsto Theology;fourorfiveofthemmaybepermittedtostudytheCanon Law,andtheWardenmayallowsomeofthemtodevotesometimetothe CivilLaw.TwoSubWardensaretobeappointed,oneatMaldonandone inOxford;Deansaretowatchoverthemoralsofthescholars,and seniorstudentsaretopresideoverthestudiesofthefreshmen.The scholarsaretobesilentatmealsandtolistentoareader;there mustbenonoiseintheirchambers,andasenioristobeinauthority ineachchamber,andtoreportbreachesofregulations.Conversation istobeconductedinLatin. WehaveherethebeginningsofanewsystemofUniversitylife,andwe cantracethetendencytowardscollegiatedisciplinestillmore clearlyintheFounder'sstatutesof1274,whicharemuchlongerand

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moreelaboratethanin1270.ThescholarsorFellowsarenowto(p.055) obeytheWarden,astheirSuperior;theDeansandtheseniorsin chambersaretobearruleunderhimand,inthefirstinstance,to reporttohim;theSubWardenistotakehisplaceinhisabsenceand toassisthimatothertimes;threeBursarsaretohelphiminthe management,oftheproperty.ThePatronorVisitor,mayinquireinto theconductoftheWardenorintoanyaccusationsbroughtagainsthim, andhasthepowerofdeprivinghimofhisoffice.TheWardenisnotan absolutesovereign;thethirteenseniorsareassociatedwithhimin thegovernmentoftheCollege,andtheSubWardenandfiveseniorsare toinspecthisaccountsonceayear.Attheperiodicalscrutinies, whentheconductofallthemembersoftheCollegeistobeexamined, accusationscanbebroughtagainsthimanddulyinvestigated.This custom,andothersofWalterdeMerton'sregulations,wereclearly borrowedfromtherulesofmonastichouses,andacompanyofsecular clerksseemstohavehaddifficultyinrealisingthattheywerebound bythem,forasearlyas1284theArchbishopofCanterbury,whohad becometheVisitoroftheCollege,hadtoissueaseriesofordersfor theobservancesofthestatutes.TheWardenandFellowsofMertonhad permittedthestudyofmedicine:theyhadinterpretedtooliberallythe permissiontostudylaw;theyhadincreasedtheirownallowances(p.056) andthesalariesoftheirbrewerandtheircook;theFellowshad resistedtheauthorityoftheWarden;theyhadneglectedthe attendancesatdivineserviceenjoinedbytheFounder,andtheyhad beenlaxaboutexpulsions.ThechangewhichWalterdeMertonhadmade inascholar'slifewassofarreachingthatasecularwouldprobably nothavesharedtheastonishmentofArchbishopPeckham(himselfa friar)attheunwillingnessoftheMertonscholarstorecognisethe lossoftheirtraditionalfreedom. ThesysteminauguratedbyWalterdeMertonwasdestinedtohavea greatdevelopment.Inthedocumentof1284,PeckhamspeaksofMerton asa"College,"anditsFounderwasthefounderoftheOxfordCollege system.Althoughherepeatedinhislaststatuteshispermissionto movehisSocietyfromOxford,heregardedOxfordasitspermanent home.NowthatthecivilwarwasoverandEnglandatpeace,hehad,he says,purchasedaplaceofhabitationandahouseatOxford,"wherea Universityofstudentsisflourishing."Notonlyhadheprovideda dwellingplace,hehadalsomagnificentlyrebuiltaparishchurchto serveasaCollegeChapel.Theexamplehesetwasfollowedbothat OxfordandatCambridge,andtheruleofMertonbecamethemodelon whichCollegefoundersbasedelaboratecodesofstatutes.English foundersgenerallyfollowedWalterdeMertoninmakingtheir(p.057) societiesselfgoverningcommunities,withanexternalVisitorasthe ultimatecourtofappeal.Therewereinmanycolleges"poorboys"who weretaughtgrammar,performedmenialoffices,andwerenotmembers, noralwayseligibleforelectionasmembers,oftheSociety;butasa generalruletheFellowsorSociiallhadashareinthemanagementof theaffairsoftheHouse.Routinebusinesswasfrequentlymanagedby theHead,theofficers,andalimitednumberoftheSeniorFellows, butthewholebodyofFellowstookpartintheelectionofanewHead. Aperiodofprobation,varyingfromoneyeartothree,wasgenerally prescribedbeforeanentrantwasadmitteda"fullandperpetual" Fellow,andduringthisperiodofprobationhehadnorightofvoting. Thisrestrictionwassometimesdispensedwithinthecaseof "Founder'skin,"whobecamefullFellowsatonce,andthelateSir EdwardWingfieldusedtoboastthatinhisFreshmanterm(1850)hehad twicevotedinoppositiontotheWardenofNewCollegeinaCollege meeting.Asinamonastichouse,thisfreedomwascombinedwitha strictruleofobedience,andthoughtheHeadofamedievalCollege mightbeirritatedbyincidentsofthiskind,hepossessedgreat dignityandhighauthoritywithinhisdomain.Asfoundersdidmorefor theirstudents,theyexpectedalargerobediencefromthem,and(p.058) attemptedtosecureitbyminuteregulations;andtheauthorityofthe HeadoftheCollegeincreasedwiththenumberofruleswhichhewasto enforce.ThefoundationofNewCollegeatOxfordin1379marksthe completionofthecollegiateidealwhichhadadvancedsorapidlyunder thesuccessiveconstitutionsofMertonCollegeahundredyearsbefore. WilliamofWykeham,inprovidingfortheneedsofhisscholars, availedhimselfoftheexperienceofthepastandcreatedanewmodel forthefuture.TheFellowsofNewCollegeweretobeefficiently equippedatWinchesterforthestudiesoftheUniversity,and,aswe shallsee,theyweretoreceiveinCollegespecialinstructionin additiontotheteachingoftheUniversity.Theirmagnificenthome included,besidestheirlivingrooms,anoblechapelandhall,a library,agarden,andabeautifulcloisterforreligiousprocessions andfortheburialofthedead.KingHenryVI.builtastillmore magnificenthouseforhisCambridgescholars,andhisexamplewas followedbyHenryVIII.ThelaterCollegefounders,aswehavesaid, expectedobedienceinproportiontotheirmunificence,andthesimpler statutesofearliercollegeswerefrequentlyrevisedandassimilated

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tothoseoflaterfoundations.Wereserveforalatersectionwhatwe havetosayabouteducation,anddealherewithhabitsandcustoms. TheMertonrulethatconversationmustbeinLatinisgenerally(p.059) foundinCollegestatutes.AtPeterhouse,Frenchmightoccasionallybe spoken,shouldjustandreasonablecausearise,butEnglishvery rarely.AtNewCollege,Latinwastobespokeneveninthegarden, thoughEnglishmightbeusedinaddressingalayman.AtQueen's College,Oxford,whichwasfoundedbyacourtier,Frenchwasallowed asaregularalternativeforLatin,andatJesusCollege,Oxford, conversationmightbeinGreek,Latin,orHebrew.Inspiteofthe influenceoftheRenaissance,itseemsunlikelythateitherGreekor HebrewwasmuchusedasanalternativetoLatin,buttheLatinspeaking rulehadbecomelessrigidandinsixteenthcenturystatutesmore generousprovisionismadefordispensationsfromit.TheLatinrule wasnotmerelyaneducationalmethod;itwasdeliberatelyintendedto beacheckuponconversation.Collegefoundersacceptedtheapostolic maximthatthetongueworkethgreatevil,andtheywereconvincedthat agoldenruleofsilencewasaprotectionagainstbothribaldryand quarrels.InthelaterstatutesofClare,thelegislatorrecognises thatnotmerelylossoftime,butthecreationofadispositiontobe interestedintriflescanbetracedto"frequentescollocutiones,"and heforbidsanymeetingsinbedrooms(evenmeetingsofMastersofArts) forthepurposeoffeastingoroftalking.Ifanyonewishesto(p.060) receiveafriendatdinnerorsupper,hemustapplytotheMasterfor leave,andsuchleaveistobeveryrarelygiven.ConversationinHall wasprohibitedbytheruleofsilenceandbytheprovisionofa reader,whichwehavealreadyfoundatMerton.Thebookreadwas almostinvariablytheBible.WilliamofWykeham,whowasfollowedin this,asinotherrespects,bylaterCollegefounders,forbadehis scholarstoremaininHallafterdinnerorsupper,onthegroundthat theywerelikelytotalkscandalandquarrel;butongreatFeastdays, whenafirewasallowedintheHall,theymightsitroundandindulge incanticlesandinlisteningtopoemsandchroniclesand"mundihujus mirabilia."Thewords,ofthestatute(whichreappearinthoseof latercolleges)seemtoimplythatevenonwintereveningsafire burnedintheHallonlyonFeastdays,andthemedievalstudentmust havesufferedseverelyfromcold.Therewere,asarule,nofireplaces inprivateroomsuntilthesixteenthcentury,whenwefindreferences tothem,_e.g._inthestatutesofCorpusChristiCollege,Oxford;and thewoodenshutterswhichtooktheplaceofwindowsshutoutthe scantylightofawinterday.WhenaDisputation(_cf._p.146)was heldinHallatnight,afirewaslit,butwearenottoldhow,when therewasnoDisputationorCollegesmeeting,themedievalstudent spentthetimebetweensupperandthe"nightcap"whichaccompanied(p.061) Compline.Dinnerwasatteninthemorningandsupperatsixinthe evening.DrCaius,inthemiddleofthesixteenthcentury,orderedhis studentstobeinbedbyeighto'clockintheevening,and"earlyto bed"musthavebeenthecustomonwinternightsinamedievalCollege. "Earlytorise"wasthesternlaw,eveninthedarkmornings,forthe student'sdaybeganatsixo'clock,andhemustoftenhavelistenedto lectureswhichcommencedinthedark,althoughdawnovertookthe lecturerbeforehefinishedhislongexposition.Inearlytimesthere wasnoprovisionforbreakfast,and,thoughtheexistenceofsucha mealisdistinctlycontemplatedinthestatutesofQueen'sCollege, Oxford,thereisnohintofitinthoseofNewCollege.Probablysome informalmealwasusualeverywhere,andwaseitherpaidforprivately orwinkedatbytheauthorities.Theabsenceofanygeneralprovision forbreakfastledtoitsbeingtakeninprivateroomsandnotinHall, andthisisthehumbleoriginoftheCollegebreakfastparty. Thenumberofoccupantsofasingleroomvariedindifferentcolleges. SpecialprovisionwasmadeinlaterCollegestatutesfortheHeadof theCollege;atNewCollegehewasgiven(forthefirsttime)aseparate establishmentandanallowanceofplateandkitchenutensils;he(p.062) wastodineinHallonlyonsometwentygreatFeastsoftheChurch, andtositataseparatetableontheseoccasions.HenryVI.followed thisprecedentatKing's,andelsewherewefindthattheHeadofa Collegeistohave"principalemmansionem"withgardenandstabling forthehorses,withoutwhichitwasnotbecomingthatheshould travelonCollegebusiness.ItwasgenerallythedutyoftheHeadto apportiontheroomsamongothermembersoftheCollege,andtosee thatthejuniorswereunderpropersupervision.AtPeterhouse,andin manyothercolleges,thereweretobetwoineachchamber.When WilliamofWykehambuiltonalargescale,heorderedthatthere shouldbefouroccupantsinthegroundfloorroomsandthreeinthe firstfloorrooms.AtKing's,thenumberswerethreeingroundfloor roomsandtwoinfirstfloorrooms.AtMagdalen,thenumberswerethe sameasatNewCollege,buttwoofthebedsintheupperroomsandone inthelowerweretobe"lectulirotales,_Trookyllbeddys_vulgariter appellati."Separatebedswereusuallyprovided,thoughsometimesboys

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underfourteenorfifteenyearsofageweredeniedthisluxury.The bedroomswerealsostudies;atOxfordtherewasnogeneralsittingroom, exceptinmonasticcolleges,thoughCambridgeCollegestatutesspeak ofa"parlura,"correspondingtothemodernparlourorcombination room.EachoftheoccupantsofaroominNewCollegewasthe(p.063) proprietorofasmallwindow,atwhichheworked,probablyatsome "study"ordeskliketheoldWinchester"toys."Theroomshadfour windowsandfour"studiorumloca,"andthegeneraltypeofaCollege chamber,afterthefoundationofNewCollege,wasaroomwithone largewindow,andtwo,three,orfoursmallwindowsfor"studies." Alargeproportionofthecareofstatutemakerswasdevotedtothe prohibitionofamusements.ThestatutesofPeterhouseforbadedogsor falcons,"forifonecanhavethemintheHouse,allwillwantthem, andsotherewillariseaconstanthowling"todisturbthestudious. Diceandchess,beingforbiddengamestoclerks,werealsoprohibited, andthescholarsofPeterhousewereforbiddentofrequenttaverns,to engageintrade,tomixwithactors,ortoattendtheatrical performances.TheseenactmentsarerepeatedinlaterCollegestatutes, withsuchadditionsasthelegislator'sknowledgeofhumannature dictatedandwithoccasionalexplanationsofsomeinterestin themselves.Thekeepingofdogsisoftendescribedas"takingthe children'sbreadandgivingittodogs,"andtheFounderofQueen's College,Oxford,orderedthatnoanimalsweretobekeptunderthe Fellows'rooms,sincepurityofairisessentialforstudy.William ofWykehamexpresslyforbadechess,whichheclassedwithgames(p.064) leadingtothelossofmoneyorestate,butKingHenryVI.,whomade largeuseofthestatutesofNewCollege,omittedthementionofchess fromhisKing'sCollegestatutes,whileheaddedtoWykeham's denunciationofferretsandhawks,an_indexexpurgatorius_ofanimals whichincludedmonkeys,bears,wolves,andstage,andheexpressly forbadenetsforhuntingorfishing.Theprincipleonwhichmodern Deansofcollegeshavesometimesdecidedthat"gramophonesaredogs" andthereforetobeexcludedfromCollege,canbetracedinnumerous regulationsagainstmusicalinstruments,whichdisturbthepeace essentialtolearning.Thatthemedievalstudentfeltthetemptations of"ragging"inmuchthesamewayashismodernsuccessors,appears frommanythreatsdirectedagainstthosewhothrowstonesandother missilestothedangerofthebuildings.Wykehamthoughtitnecessary toforbidthethrowingofstonesinChapel,tothedangerofthe windowsandreredos,andforthesafetyofthereredosheprohibited dancingorjumpingintheHall,whichiscontiguoustotheChapel. GamesintheHallwerealsoforbiddenforthecomfortofthechaplains wholivedintheroomsunderneath.KingHenryVI.forbadedancingor jumping,orotherdangerousandimpropergamesintheChapel, cloister,stalls,andHallofKing'sCollege. Otherdisciplinaryregulationscommontoallcollegesdealwith(p.065) carryingarms,unpunctuality,talkingduringthereadinginHallor disturbingtheChapelservices,bringingstrangersintoCollege, sleepingoutofCollege,absencewithoutleave,negligenceand idleness,scurrilousoroffensivelanguage,spillingwaterinupper roomstothedetrimentoftheinhabitantsofthelowerrooms,and failuretoattendtheregular"scrutinies"orthestatedgeneral meetingsforCollegebusiness.Atthesescrutinies,anyserious chargesagainstmembersoftheSocietywereconsidered,anditisin keepingwithsomeofthejudicialideasofthetimethatsomestatutes forbidtheaccusedpersontohaveacopyoftheindictmentagainst him.Forcontumacy,forgravemoraloffences,forcrimesofviolence, andforheresy,thepenaltywasexpulsion.Lessseriousoffenceswere punishedbysubtractionof"commons,"_i.e._deprivationofallowances foradayoraweek(orlonger),orbypecuniaryfines.WhenCollege foundersprovidedclothesaswellasboardandlodgingfortheir scholars,theforfeitureofarobetookitsplaceamongthepenalties withwhichoffenderswerethreatened.The"poorboys"whosangin ChapelandwaitedontheFellowswerewhippedlikeboyselsewhere,who werebeingtaughtgrammar,butthebirchwasunknownasapunishment forundergraduatestilllateinthemiddleages.Theintroduction(p.066) ofcorporalpunishmentintocollegelifeinEnglandmaybetracedbya comparisonofWilliamofWykeham'sstatuteswiththoseofHenryVI. TheKing'sCollegestatute"Decorrectionibusfaciendiscircadelicta leviora"islargelyatranscriptofaNewCollegestatute,withthe sametitle,andbothcontemplatesubtractionofcommonsastheregular penalty.ButtheKing'sCollegestatutecontainsanadditionalclause, totheeffectthatscholarsandyoungerFellowsmaybepunishedwith stripes.InthestatutesofMagdalen,datedsomeseventeenyears later,WilliamofWaynfletereturnedtotheNewCollegeformofthe statute,butheprovidedthathisdemys(_i.e._scholarswhoreceived halfthecommonsofaFellow)shouldbesubjecttothepenaltyof whippingintheGrammarSchool.ThestatutesofChrist'sCollege prescribeafineofafarthingforunpunctualityonthepartofthe

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scholars,studyingintheFacultyofArts,andheavierfinesfor absence,anditisaddedthatiftheoffenderbenotanadult,a whippingistobesubstitutedforthepecuniarypenalty.AtBrasenose, wheretheFellowswereallofthestandingofatleastaBachelorof Arts,theundergraduatescholarsweresubjectedtoanunusuallystrict discipline,andoffendersweretobepunishedeitherbyfinesorby therod,thePrincipaldecidingtheappropriatepunishmentineach case.Forunpunctuality,fornegligenceandidleness,forplaying,(p.067) laughing,talking,makinganoiseorspeakingEnglishin,a lectureroom,forinsultingfellowstudents,orfordisobedienceto hispastorsandmasters,theBrasenoseundergraduatewastobe promptlyflogged.Amongthecrimesforwhichthebirchisorderedwe find"makingodiouscomparisons,"aphrasewhichthrowssomelighton theconversationalsubjectsofsixteenthcenturyundergraduates.The kindofcomparisonisindicatedinthestatute;remarksaboutthe country,thefamily,themanners,thestudies,andtheability,orthe person,ofafellowstudentmustbeavoided.Similarly,atJesus College,Cambridge,itisforbiddentocomparecountrytocountry, racetorace,orsciencetoscience,andWilliamofWykehamandother foundershadtomakesimilarinjunctions.Themedievalstudentwas distinctlyquarrelsome,andsuchrecordsasthefamousMerton "scrutiny"of1339,andinvestigationsbyCollegeVisitors,showthat theseniorssettheundergraduatesabadexample.Thestatutesof CorpusChristiCollege,Oxford,providefortwonewpenalties.An offendingundergraduatemightbesentencedtofeedbyhimself,ata smalltableinthemiddleoftheHall,andinaggravatedcasestothe monasticpenaltyofbreadandwater.Analternativepenaltywas detentioninthelibraryatthemostinconvenienttime("perhoram(p.068) velhorascumminimevellet"),andtheperformanceofanimpositionto beshownupinduecourse.Theroughandreadypenaltyofthebirch is,however,frequentlymentionedinthestatutesofCorpusandof othersixteenthcenturyColleges.CardinalWolseythoughtitproper thatanundergraduateshouldbewhippeduntilhehadcompletedhis twentiethyear.AtTrinity,Cambridge(whereoffendersweresociably floggedbeforetheassembledCollegeonFridayevenings)theagewas eighteen.DrCaiusrestrictedtherodtoscholarswhowerenotadult. "Wecallthoseadults,"hesays,"whohavecompletedtheireighteenth year.Forbeforethatage,bothinancienttimesandinourownmemory, youthwasnotaccustomedtowear_brccas_,beingcontentwith _tibialia_reachingtotheknees."Thesterndisciplinarianmightfind anexcuseforprolongingthewhippingageintheFounder'swishthat, "yearsaloneshouldnotmakeanadult,butalongwithyears,gravity ofdeportmentandgoodcharacter."Aslateasthefoundationof PembrokeCollegeatOxford(1624)whippingisthepenaltycontemplated forundergraduatesundereighteen.Butwhenwecometothestatutes whichweredrawnupin1698withaviewtothefoundationofWorcester College,notonlyistherenomentionofthebirch,butevenpecuniary penaltiesaredeprecatedforminoroffences,forwhichimpositions(p.069) andgatingaresuggested. MinorpenaltieswereenforcedbytheHeadofacollege,theViceHead, theDeans,and,insixteenthcenturycolleges,bythetutors.Bylater collegestatutes,theseofficersreceivedfortheirpersonalusea portionofthefinestheyinflicted,andappealsweresometimes permittedfromanofficertotheHead,andeventotheChancelloror ViceChancelloroftheUniversity.Theoathtakenbyscholars frequentlyboundthemtorevealtotheauthorities,anybreachofthe statutes,andthereareindicationsthatmembersoftheCollegewere encouragedtoreporteachother'smisdeeds.ThustheMasterof Christ'sistofineanyonewhomhehearsspeakingonecomplete sentenceinEnglish,oranyonewhomhemayknowtohavebeenguiltyof thisoffence,exceptinsleepingroomsorattimeswhenpermissionhad beengiven. OxfordandCambridgeCollegeswere,aswehaveseen,endowedhomesfor theeducationofsecularclerks.Allofthem,onentrance,hadtohave thetonsure,andprovisionwasoftenmadeforthecuttingoftheir hairandbeard.AtChrist'sCollege,therewasaregularCollege barber"qui...caputetbarbamradetactondebithebdomadissingulis." Theyworeordinaryclericaldress,andundueexpenditureonclothes andornamentswasstrictlyprohibited,_e.g._theFellowsof(p.070) Peterhousewereforbiddentowearringsontheirfingers"adinanem gloriametjactantiam."TheearlyfoundersdidnotinsistuponHoly OrdersfortheHeadsorFellowsoftheircolleges,thoughmanyofthem wouldnaturallyproceedtothepriesthood,butinlatercollege statutesalltheFellowswereultimatelytoproceed,atstatedtimes, toHolyOrdersandtothepriesthood,thoughdispensationsfordelay mightbegranted,andstudentsofMedicineweresometimesexcusedfrom thepriesthood.Whentheybecameprieststheywere,likeother priests,tocelebratemassregularlyintheChapel,butwerenotto receivepaymentforcelebrationsoutsidetheCollege.Asmeretonsured

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undergraduates,theywerenot,atfirst,subjecttoregulationsfor dailyattendanceatdivineservice;butlaterfounderswerestricter inthis,asinothermatters.BishopBateman,who,inthemiddleof thefourteenthcentury,legislatedfortheinfantGonvilleCollege, orderedthateveryFellowshouldhearonemassdailyandsaycertain prayers,andinhisownfoundationofTrinityHall,herepeatedthe injunction.TheprescribedprayersincludedpetitionsfortheFounder, orforthereposeofhissoul;everyFellowofTrinityHallwasto say,immediatelyuponrisinginthemorningandbeforegoingtobedat night,theprayer"RegequaesumusDomine,"duringtheBishop'slifetime, andafterhisdeath,"DeusquiinterApostolicosSacerdotes,"and(p.071) tosaythepsalm"Deprofundisclamavi"anda"Kurieeleeson"forthe reposeofthesouloftheFounder'sfatherandmother,hispredecessors intheseeofNorwich,andafterhisdeathforhisownsoul.Theten priests,whoservedtheChapelatNewCollege,saidmassesforthe Founderandhisbenefactors,buteveryFellowwastoattendmassevery dayandtosayprayersinhisownroom,morningandevening,including "Rege,quaesumus,Domine,WillielmumPontificemFundatoremnostrum" or,afterhisdeath,"DeusquiinterApostolicossacredotesfamulum tuumFundatoremnostrumpontificalidignitate";andeveryday,both afterHighMassinChapel,andafterdinnerandsupperinHall,the psalm"Deprofundis"wassaid.Penaltieswereprescribedfor negligence,andastimewenton,awhippingwasinflictedforabsence fromChapel,_e.g._atChrist'sCollege,andatBalliol,forwhichnew statutesweredrawnupin1507. ResidenceinCollegewascontinuousthroughouttheyear,evenduring theUniversityvacation,whichlastedfromearlyinJulytothe beginningofOctober.Leaveofabsencemightbegrantedatanytimein theyear,onreasonablegrounds,butwastobegivengenerallyin vacations.Generalruleswerelaiddownforbehaviourinkeepingwith theclericalprofessionduringabsence,andstudentsonleavewere(p.072) forbiddentofrequenttavernsorotherwisetransgresstheruleswhich werebindinguponthemintheUniversity.Occasionallywefindsome relaxationinthesestrictregulations,aswhentheFounderofCorpus ChristiatOxfordallows"moderatehuntingorhawking"whenoneofhis scholarsisonholidayawayfromOxford.ThesameindulgentFounder, aftertheusualprohibitionofgamesinCollege,allowsagameofball inthegardenforthesakeofhealthyexercise.("Nonprohibemustamen lusumpilaeadmurum,tabulata,auttegulas,inhorto,causasolum modoexercendicorporisetsanitatis.")Associationswithhomelife weremaintainedbyvacationvisits,buttheinfluxof"people"tothe Universitywas,ofcourse,unknown.TheancientstatutesofPeterhouse permitawoman(evenifshebenotarelation)totalkwithaFellow intheHall,preferablyinthepresenceofanotherFellow,orat least,aservant;butthelegislatorhadgravefearsoftheresultsof such"confabulationes,"andtheprecedenthesetwasnotfollowed.A FelloworscholarisfrequentlypermittedbyCollegestatutesto entertainhisfather,brother,nephew,orafriend,obtainingfirst theconsentoftheHeadoftheCollege,andpayingprivatelyforthe entertainment,butnosuchguestmightsleepinCollege,andthe permissioniscarefullyrestrictedtothemalesex.Womenwere,as(p.073) arule,notallowedwithinaCollegegate;ifitwasimpossibleto findamantowashclothes,alaundressmightbeemployed,butshe mustbeoldandofunprepossessingappearance.AscholarorFellowof acollegehadnot,however,committedhimselfirrevocablytoa celibatelife,formarriageisincludedamongthe"causasrationabiles ethonestas"whichvacatedafellowship.Itwaspossible,though probablyinfrequent,foraFellowwhohadnotproceededtoHolyOrders toleavetheCollege"uxoreducta,"givinguphisemolument,his clericaldress,andthetonsure.EvenifaFellowenjoyedthe Founder'sprovisionforthelongperiodofhiscourseinArtsand Theology,andproceededinduetimetoHolyOrders,itwasnot contemplatedthatheshouldremainaFellowtillhisdeath. "...hehadgetenhimyetnobenefyce, Newassoworldlyfortohaveoffyce," saysChaucer,indicatingthenaturalendofascholar'scareer.He mightbetakehimselftosome"obsequium,"andrisehighintheservice oftheking,orofsomegreatbaronorbishop,andbecome,likeoneof Wykeham'sfirstNewCollegescholars,HenryChichele,anarchbishop andaCollegefounderhimself.Shouldnosuchgreatcareeropenupfor him,hecan,attheleast,succeedtooneofthelivingswhichthe foundersofEnglishcollegespurchasedforthispurpose.His"obsequium" wouldnaturallyleadtohisceasingtoreside,andsovacatehis(p.074) fellowship,andhisacceptanceofabeneficeoveracertainvalue broughtaboutthesameresult.Somesucheventwasexpectedtohappen toeveryFellow;unlesshehappenedtobeelectedtotheHeadship,it wasnotintendedthatheshouldgrowoldintheCollege,andat Queen'sCollege,Oxford,thearbitraryorunreasonablerefusalofa

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beneficevacatedaFellowship.TheobjectoftheCollegeFounderwas, thatthereshouldneverbewantingasuccessionofmenqualifiedto serveGodinChurchandState,andtoChaucer'sunworldlyclerk,ifhe wasamemberofaCollege,therewouldcome,induecourse,the countrylivingandgoodbyetotheUniversity.Butstatuteswerenot alwaysstrictlyobservedandtheidlelifeFellow,whosurvivedtobe thescandalofearlyVictoriandays,wasnotunknownintheendofthe MiddleAges. Oneofthecausesofvacatingafellowshipthrowssomelightuponthe classofmenwhobecamemembersofOxfordandCambridgeColleges.The openingsentencesoffounders'statutesusuallycontainsomesuch phraseas"collegiumpauperumetindigentiumscholarium";butlater sectionsofthestatutescontemplatethepossibilityoftheirsucceeding toproperty"patrimonium,haereditatem,feudumvesaeculare,vel pensionemannuam"andifsuchpropertyexceededtheannualvalueof ahundredshillings,aFellowshipwas_ipsofacto_vacated.The(p.075) "pauperesetindigentes"expressionsmustnotbeconstruedtoo literally;theFounderwasestablishingaclaimtothemeritsofhim thatconsidereththepoor,andthelanguageheusedwaspartofthe ordinaryformulasofthetime,andoughtnottobeinterpretedmore strictlythantheordinaryphrasesoflegalandDiplomaticdocuments orthantheconventionaltermsofcourtesy,whichbeginandconcludea modernletter.ThatanEnglishCollegeFounderwishedtogivehelp wherehelpwasrequired,isundeniable,buthelpwasrequiredby othersthanthepoorest.Theadvancementofthestudyoftheologywas neartheheartofeverymedievalfounder,andthestudyoftheology demandedthesurrenderofthebestyearsofaman'slife,andthe extensionoftheperiodofeducationlongafterhemightbeexpected tobeearninghisownliving.AcurriculumintheUniversitywhich coveredatleastsixteenyears,andmightbefollowedbynothingmore remunerativethanthecureofChaucer'spoorpriest,requiredsome substantialinducementifitwastoattractthebestmen.CanonLaw, CivilLawandMedicine,iftheyofferedmoreopportunityofattaining acompetency,requiredalsoaverylongperiodofapprenticeshipin theUniversity.ThereweremanyyouthsintheMiddleAges(asthere aretoday)neither"pauperes"nor"indigentes"inthestrict(p.076) senseoftheword,buttoopoortobeabletoaffordsixteenyearsof studyintheUniversity.Thelengthofthemedievalcurriculum producedsomeofthenecessitieswhichcollegeswereestablishedto meet. Thatthefounderswerenotthinkingofthepoorestclassesofthe community,isevidentfrommanyprovisionsoftheirstatutes.They frequentlyprovidedonlyboardandlodging,andlefttheir beneficiariestofindelsewheretheothernecessitiesoflife;they appointedpenalties(suchasthesubtractionofcommonsforamonth) whichwouldhavemeantstarvationtothepenniless;theycontemplated entertainmentsandjourneys,andinthecaseofaNewCollegeDoctor, eventhemaintenanceofaprivateservant,atthepersonalexpenseof theirscholarsandFellows;theyprohibitedtheexpenditureofmoney onextravagantdressandamusements.WilliamofWykehammade allowancesfortheexpenseofproceedingtodegreesintheUniversity whenoneofhisFellowshadnoprivatemeansandnofriendstoassist him("propterpaupertatem,inopiam,etpenuriam,carentiamque amicorum");butthesumtobethusadministeredwasstrictlylimited andtherecipienthadtoprovehispoverty,andtosweartothetruth ofhisstatement.Theveryfrequentinsistenceuponprovisionsfora Founder'skin,suggeststhatthesociety,towhichhewisheda(p.077) largenumberofhisrelationstobelong,wasofhighersocialstanding thananalmshouse;andtheliberalallowancesforthefoodofthe Fellows,ascontrastedwiththesumsallottedtoservantsand choristers,showthatlifeinCollegewasintendedtobeeasyand comfortable.Thefactthatmenialworkwastobedonebyservantsand thatFellowsweretobewaitedonattablebythe"poorboys"isa furtherindicationofthedignityoftheSociety.AtNewCollege,it wasthespecialdutyofoneservanttocarrytotheschools,thebooks oftheFellowsandscholars.Thepossessionofconsiderablemeansbya medievalFellow,isillustratedbytwowills,printedin"Munimenta Academica."HenryScayfe,FellowofQueen'sCollege,leftin1449, sevenpoundstohisfather,smallersumstoalargenumberoffriends, includingsixpencetoeveryscholaroftheCollege,andalsodisposed bywillofsheep,cattleandhorses.In1457,JohnSeggefyld,Fellow ofLincolnCollege,bequeathedtohisbrothertenementsinKingstonby Hull,whichhadbeenlefthimbyhisfather,twelvepencetoeachof hiscolleagues,andthirteenshillingsandfourpencetohisexecutor. Whetherthepossessionsofthesemenoughttohaveledtothe resignationoftheirFellowships,isaquestionwhichmayhave interestedtheircolleaguesatthetime;tousthefactsare important,asillustratingtheprivatemeansofmembersofa(p.078) societyof"poorandindigent"scholars,andasindicatingtheclass

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fromwhichsuchscholarsweredrawn. Collegeregulationsinothercountriesaddconsiderablytoour knowledgeofmedievalstudentlife.InParis,wherethesystemhadits humblebeginninginthehireofaroomforeighteenpoorscholars,by abenevolentEnglishmanreturningfromapilgrimagetoPalestinein 1180,thecollegeidealprogressedslowlyandneverreachedits highestdevelopment.EvenwhenmostofthestudentsofPariscameto liveincolleges,thecollegewasnottherealunitofuniversity life,norwasaParisiancollegeaselfgoverningcommunitylike MertonorPeterhouse.ThedivisionoftheUniversityofParisinto Nationsaffecteditssociallife,andtheFacultieswereseparatedat ParisinamannerunknowninEngland.AcollegeatPariswasorganised inaccordancewithFacultydivisions,anarrangementsolittlein harmonywiththeideasofEnglishfounders,thatWilliamofWykeham providedthatCanonistsandCivilists,shouldbemixedinchambers withstudentsofotherFaculties"adnutriendametconservandam majoremdilectionem,amicitiametcharitatemintereosdem."As collegesatPariswerefrequentlyconfinedtonativesofaparticular district,theytendedtobecomesubdivisionsoftheNations.The(p.079) disadvantagesofrestrictingmembershipofacollegetoadioceseor locality,wereseenandavoidedbythefounderoftheCollegeof Sorbonne,inthemiddleofthethirteenthcentury,andthefounderof thesixteenthcenturyCollegeofMansprotestedagainstthecustom,by instructinghisexecutorstoopenhisfoundationtomen,fromevery nationandprovince,insistingthatassociationwithcompanionsof differentlanguagesandcustoms,wouldmakethescholars"civiliores, eloquentiores,etdoctiores,"andthatthefriendshipsthusformed wouldenablethemtorenderbetterservicetotheState.Thetenureof his_bursa_oremolument,byamemberofaPariscollege,wasso precariousthathecouldnotcountuponproceedingtoahigherFaculty inhisowncollege,andtheexistenceofanoutsidebodyofgovernors andofPatronsorVisitors,whohadthepoweroffillingupvacancies furthercheckedthegrowthofcorporatefeelingandcollege patriotism.Thelargepowersentrustedtoanexternalauthoritymade thepositionoftheHeadofacollegeatParis,muchlessimportant thanatOxfordorCambridge. ThedifferencesbetweenEnglishandParisiancollegesmaybestbe realisedbyareferencetothestatutesofsomeearlyParisfounders. About1268,GuillaumedeSaone,TreasurerofRouen,foundedatParis, the"Treasurer'sCollege"fornativesofhisowndiocese.Itwas(p.080) foundedforpoorclerks,twelveofwhomweretobescholarsin Theology,andtwelveinArts.Theyweretobeselectedbythe archdeaconsoftheCathedralofRouen,whothenresidedatGrandCaux andPetitCaux,fromnativesoftheseplaces,or,failingthem,from theDioceseofRouen.Thescholarsweretohaveroomsandaweekly allowance,notforthewholeyear,butforfortyfiveweeksfromthe feastofStDionysius;noprovisionwasmadeforthesevenweeksof thevacation,exceptfortwotheologians,whoweretotakechargeof thehouseatParis.Therevenueswerecollectedanddistributedbythe PrioroftheHospitalofStMaryMagdalenatRouen,andtheArchbishop ofRouenwasRectorandPatron.ThestudentsinArtsneverformedpart ofthefoundation,fortheTreasureralmostimmediatelyrestrictedhis communitytoTheologians,andtheirtenureoftheendowmentwas strictlylimitedtotwoyearsafterobtainingtheirlicence."Forwe donotwishtograntthemanythingmore,becauseourintentionisonly toinducethemtoproceedtothedegreeofmasterintheology."They werefurnishedwithbooks,whichtheywereforbiddentolend,andthey wereplacedundertheimmediatesuperintendenceoftheseniorBursar orFoundationer,whosedutyitwastocallthemtogetheronceaweek, andinquireintotheirconductandtheirprogressintheir(p.081) studies.SomegeneralruleswerelaiddownbytheFounder,and offendersagainstthemweretobeexpelledatthesemeetings.They werepermittedtoreceiveapeacefulcommoner,whopaidforhis chamberandwasastudentofTheology.TheinterestoftheTreasurer ofRoueninTheologyischaracteristic,andthegreatCollegeofthe Sorbonne,foundedaboutthesametime,wasalsorestrictedto theologians.TheCollegeofNavarre,foundedin1304,providedfor twentystudentsofgrammar,twentyinlogicandphilosophy(Arts)and twentyinTheology,eachFacultyformingasubcollege,witha separatehall.Adoctoringrammarwastosuperintendboththestudies andthemoralsofthegrammariansandtoreceivedoubletheirweekly allowanceoffourshillings,andsimilarly,amasterofArtswasto supervisetheArtistsandreceivedoubletheirweeklyallowanceofsix shillings.The"DeanandUniversityofthemastersofthescholarsof thetheologicalFacultyatParis"weretochooseasecularclerktobe RectoroftheCollege,andtogovernitinconjunctionwiththebody thatappointedhim.ThemastersoftheFacultyofTheology,ortheir representatives,weretovisittheCollegeannually,toinquireinto thefinancialanddomesticarrangements,andintothebehaviourofthe

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Rector,masters,andscholars,andtopunishastheydeemednecessary. MembershipoftheCollegewasrestrictedtothekingdomofFrance.(p.082) Similarly,theCollegeduPlessis,foundedin1322,byGeoffreydu Plessis,NotaryApostolic,andSecretaryofPhiliptheLong,was restrictedtoFrenchmen,withpreferencetocertainnortherndioceses. Itsfortyscholarswereinseparatesocieties,withaGrandMasterwho hadtobeamasteror,atleast,abachelorinTheology.Theaffairs oftheCollege,asfarasconcernedtheelection,disciplineandthe deprivationofitsmembers,weretobeadministeredbytwobishopsand anabbot,inconjunctionwiththeMasterandwiththeChancellorof theCathedralofParis,or,intheabsenceofthegreatdignitaries, bytheMasterandtheChancellor.Butthefinancialadministrationwas entrustedtoaprovisororprocurator,whoundertookthecollection anddistributionoftherevenues. ThedetailsofcollegestatutesatParis,bearageneralresemblance totheregulationsofOxfordandCambridgefounders,anddiscipline becamemorestringentastimewenton.AttendanceatChapel(theonly meetingplaceofstudentsindifferentFacultiesinthesameCollege) cametobestrictlyrequired.Punctualityatmealswasfrequently insistedupon,underpainofreceivingnothingbutbread.Silencewas enjoinedatmealtimesandtheBiblewasread.Latinwas,fromthe first,theonlylawfulmediumofconversation.Allthemembersof(p.083) acollege,hadtobewithinthegateswhenthecurfewbellrang. Bearingarmsorwearingunusualclotheswasforbidden,andsinging, shoutingandgamesweredenouncedasinterferingwiththestudiesof others,althoughtheParisianlegislatorsweremoresympatheticwith regardtogames,thantheirEnglishcontemporaries.EventheFounder oftheCistercianCollegeofStBernard,contemplatedthatpermission mightbeobtainedforgames,thoughnotbeforedinnerorafterthe bellrangforvespers.Asixteenthcenturycodeofstatutesforthe CollegeofTours,whilerecordingthecomplaintsoftheneighbours aboutthenoisemadebythescholarsplayingball("deinsolentiis, exclamationibusetludispalmariisdictorumscolarium,quiludunt... pilisdurissimis")permittedthegameunderlessnoisyconditions ("pilisseuscophismollibusetmanu,accumsilentioetabsque clamoribustumultuosis").Theuseofdicewas,asarule,absolutely prohibited,butthestatutesoftheCollegeofCornouaillepermitted itundercertainconditions.Itmightbeplayedtoamuseasickfellow onfeastdays,orwithoutthepleaofsickness,onthevigilsof Christmas,andofthreeHolyDays.Butthestakesmustbesmalland paidinkind,notinmoney("proaliquocomestibilivelpotabili"). PenaltiesforminoroffencesweremuchthesameasinEnglandforfeiture ofcommonsforvaryingperiods,pecuniaryfines,andinthe(p.084) sixteenthcentury,whipping.IntheCollegeofLeMans,bursarswho werenotgraduatesweretobewhippedforafirstoffenceinaschool, andforasecondoffenceintheHall("proutmosestinuniversitate Parisiensi").Theobligationofreportingeachother'sfaults,of whichthereareindicationsinEnglishstatutes,wasalmostuniversal atParis,whereallwereboundtorevealoffences"subsecreto"tothe authorities.Thepenaltyof"sconcing,"stillinflictedatOxford,for offencesagainstundergraduateetiquette,findsaplaceinthe Parisianstatutesamongseriouspunishments.Wefinditinthe StatutesofCornouailleforminoroffences;ifamancarrieswineout oftheCollegeillicitly,heistopayfordoublethequantitytobe drunkbythememberswhowerepresentatthetime;ifanyonewalks throughtheconfinesorchambersinpattens("cumcalepodiis,idest cumpatinis")heistobemulctedinapintofwine.Ifastrangeris introducedwithoutleave("admensamcommunitatisadcomedendumvel videndumsecretummensae"),thepenaltyisaquartofgoodwinefor thefellowspresentinHall.Forunseemlynoise,especiallyatmeals, andattimeofprayers,theordinarypenaltyisaquartofordinary wine("vinimediocris").Forspeakinginthevernacular,thereisa fineof"thepriceofapintofwine,"but,astheusualdirection aboutdrinkingit,isomitted,thiswasprobablynotasconce;at(p.085) theCistercianCollege,thepenaltyforthisoffencewasasconce.So far,theoffencesforwhichasconceisprescribed,mightinmost cases,beparalleledinmorerecenttimesinanEnglishcollege,but thestatutesofCornouaillealsomakesconcingthepenaltyforstriking aservant,unlesstheinjurywassevere,inwhichcase,moreserious punishmentswereimposed.Thewholesentenceisanillustrationofthe lackofcontroloveroutburstsofbadtemper,whichischaracteristic ofmedievallife.Allthescholarsaretobecarefulnottostrikethe servantsinangerorwithillwill,ortoinjurethem;hewhoinflicts aslightinjuryistobefinedaquartofwine;iftheinjurybemore severe,themasteristodeprivehimofhisburseforonedayormore, athisowndiscretionandthatofamajorityofthescholars:ifthere isalargeeffusionofbloodoraseriousinjury,theprovisor(the BishopofParisorhisVicarGeneral)istobeinformed,andto deprivetheoffenderofhisburse,orevenpunishhimotherwise.At

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theSorbonne,anassaultonaservantwastobefollowedbythe drinkingofaquartofspeciallygoodwinebytheFellows,atthe culprit'sexpense;fortalkingtooloudinHall,thesconcewastwo quarts(presumablyofordinarywine).DrRashdallquotesfromtheMS. RegisteroftheSorbonne,actualinstancesoftheinflictionof sconces:"ADoctorofDivinityissconcedaquartofwinefor(p.086) pickingapearoffatreeintheCollegegarden,oragain,for forgettingtoshuttheChapeldoor,orfortakinghismealsinthe kitchen.Clerksaresconcedapintfor'veryinordinately'knocking 'atthedoorduringdinner...'for'confabulating'inthecourtlate atnight,andrefusingtogototheirchamberswhenordered....The headcookissconcedfor'badlypreparingthemeatforsupper,'orfor notputtingsaltinthesoup."AmongtheexamplesgivenbyDrRashdall fromthissourceareasconceoftwoshillingsfordrunkennessanda sconceinwineinflictedupontheheadcookforbeingfound"cumuna meretrice."Anoffencesoseriousinabursar,isbymanycollege statutestobefollowedbyexpulsion,andDrRashdallquotesan instanceofthispenalty:butParisianCollegeFounders,wereless severeindealingwithmoraloffencesthanEnglishFounders.Atthe monasticCollegeofMarmoutier,itwasonlyonthesecondoffencethat bringingintoCollege("mulieremsuspectametinhonestam")ledto expulsion,andattheCollegeofCornouaille,thepenaltyforafirst offencewaslossofcommonsorbursaforfifteendays,andfora secondoffenceamonth'sdeprivation;butevenatCornouailleactual incontinencewastobepunishedbyexpulsion. AlatecodeofstatutesofthefourteenthcenturyCollegeof(p.087) Dainville,giveusapictureofastudent'sday.Thehourofrising wasfiveo'clock,exceptonSundaysandFeastdayswhenanhour's gracewasallowed.Chapelservicebeganat5.30,prayers,meditation, andaNewTestamentlessonbeingfollowedbythemassoftheCollege atsix.AllstudentsresidentintheCollegehadtobepresent.The receptionofcommoners,anearlyinstanceofwhichwenotedinthe CollegeoftheTreasurer,haddevelopedtosuchanextent,thatall Collegeshad,inadditiontotheirbursarsorfoundations,alarge numberof"foraneischolares,"whopaidtheirownexpensesbutwere subjecttoCollegediscipline,andreceivedalargepartoftheir educationinCollege.Aftermass,theday'sworkbegan;attendanceat theSchoolsandtheperformanceofexercisesfortheirmasterin College.Dinnerwasabouttwelveo'clock,wheneitherabursaroran externalstudentread,"firstHolyScripture,thenabookappointedby themaster,thenapassagefromamartyrology."Afterdinner,anhour wasallowedforrecreationwalkingwithintheprecinctsofthe College,orconversationandtheneveryonewenttohisownchamber. Supperwasatseven,withreadingasatdinner,andtheintervaluntil 8.30wasagainfreefor"deambulatiovelcollocutio."At8.30the gatesoftheCollegewereclosed,andeveningChapelbegan.Rules againstremaininginHallaftersupperoccurinParisianaswell(p.088) asinEnglishstatutes,andwefindprohibitionsagainstcarryingoff woodtoprivaterooms.ThegeneralarrangementofParisiancollege chambers,probablyresembledthoseofOxford,orCambridge,andwe findreferencesto"studies."Thestatutesofthemonasticcollegeof Clugnyorderthat"becausethemindisrenderedprudentbysitting downandkeepingquiet,thesaidstudentsattheproperandwonted hoursforstudyshallbe,andsit,aloneintheircellsandattheir studies."ParisianstatutesarestricterthanEnglishstatutesin insistinguponfrequentinspectionsofstudents'chambers,anda sixteenthcenturycodeforaParisiancollegeorderstheofficialsto seetheirpupilseverynightbeforebedtime,andtomakesure,before theythemselvesretireforthenight,thatthestudentsareasleepand notwanderingaboutthequadrangles. StrictsupervisionisfoundincollegesinotherFrenchuniversities, eveninthosewhichbelongtothestudenttype.Itwas,ofcourse, especiallystrictinmonasticcolleges,whichcarriedtheirown customstotheUniversity;intheCollegeofNotreDamedePiti,at Avignon,themasterofthenoviceslivedinaroomadjoiningtheir dormitory,andhadawindow,throughwhichhemightwatchtheir proceedings.Supervisionwassometimesconnectedwithprecautions againstfire,_e.g._attheCollegeofSaintRuf,atMontpellier,(p.089) anofficerwasappointedeveryweektogoroundallchambersandrooms atnight,andtowarnanyonewhohadacandleorafireinadangerous position,nearhisbedorhisstudy.Hewastocarryapailofwater withhimtobereadyforemergencies.Asomewhatsimilarprecaution wastakenintheCollegiumMaiusatLeipsic,wherewaterwaskeptin pailsbesidethedormitories,andleatherpails,somecenturiesold, arestilltobeseenatOxford.Asarule,thedormitoriesseemto havecontainedaseparatebedforeachoccupant,butintheCollegeof StNicholasdePelegryatCahors,studentsinarts(whoenteredabout theageoffourteen)weretosleeptwoinabed.Insistenceontheuse ofLatinisalmostuniversal;thescholarsoftheCollegedeFoixat

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Toulousearewarnedthatonlyploughmen,swineherdsandotherrustics, usetheirmothertongues.SilenceandthereadingoftheBibleat mealswasusual,andstudentsaresometimestoldtomaketheirneeds known,ifpossible,bysigns.Finesforlatenessatmealsarecommon, andthereareinjunctionsagainstrushingintoHallwithviolenceand greed:nooneistogonearthekitchentoseizeanyfood,andthose whoenterHallfirst,aretowaittilltherestarrive,andallareto sitdownintheproperorder.Prohibitionsagainstdogsareinfrequent intheFrenchstatutes;attheCollegedesDouzeMedecinsat Montpellier,onewatchdogwasallowedtoliveinCollege.Women(p.090) wereoftenforbiddentoenteracollege,"quiamuliercaputest peccati,armadyaboli,expulsioparadysi,etcorruptiolegis antiquae."TheCollegeofSaintRufatMontpellier,inthestatutesof whichthisformulaoccurs,did,however,allowwomentostandinthe Chapelatmass,providedthattheydidnotenterthechoir.The monasticinstitutionofOurLadyofPityatAvignon,wentsofarasto haveamatronfortheyoungboys,anoldwoman,entitled"Mater NovitiorumCollegiatorum."AttheCollegeofBreuilatAngers,awoman mightvisittheCollegebydayifthePrincipalwassatisfiedthatno scandalcouldarise.Penaltiesforgoingaboutthetowninmasked bandsandsingingordancing,occurinmanystatutes,butprocessions inhonourofsaintsandchorusestocelebratethetakingofdegrees, aresometimespermitted.Blasphemyandbadlanguagegreatlytroubled theFrenchstatutemakers,andtherearemanyprovisionsagainst blasphemingtheBlessedVirgin.AttheCollegeofBreuilatAngers,a fineoftwopence,wasimposedforspeakingorsinging"verbainhonesta tamalte,"especiallyinpublicplacesoftheCollege;inGermany,the CollegiumMinusatLeipsicprovidesalsoagainstwriting"impudentia dicta"onthewallsoftheCollege.Theusualpenaltiesforminor offencesarefinesandsubtractionofcommons:referencesto(p.091) floggingarerare,thoughitisfoundinbothFrenchandGerman colleges.Moreseriouscrimeswerevisitedwithsuspensionand expulsion.AttheCollegeofPelegry,atCahors,toenterthecollege byawindoworotherwiseafterthegreatgatewasclosed,involved rusticationfortwomonthsforthefirstoffence,sixmonthsforthe secondoffence,andexpulsionforathird.AttheCollegedeVerdale, atToulouse,expulsionwasthepenaltyforalistofcrimeswhich includestheft,enteringthecollegebystealth,breakingintothe cellar,bringinginameretrix,witchcraft,alchemy,invokingdemons orsacrificingtothem,forgery,andcontracting"carnalevel spiritualematrimonium." WemaycloseoursurveyoftheMedievalCollege,withaglimpseofa Frenchcollegeinthefourteenthcentury.Wehavetherecordofa visitationoftheBenedictinefoundationofStBenedict,at Montpellier,partlyamonasteryandpartlyacollege.ThePrioris strictlyquestionedabouttheconductofthestudents.Hegivesagood charactertomostofthem:butthelittleflockcontainedsomeblack sheep.Peterissomewhatlightheaded("aliquantulumestlevis capitis")butnotincorrigible;hehasbeenguiltyofemploying"verba injuriosaetprovocativa,"butthePriorhascorrectedhim,andhehas takenthecorrectionpatiently.Bertrand'slifeis"aliquantulum(p.092) dissoluta,"andhehasmadeaconspiracytobeat(and,assomethink, tokill)DominusSavaricus,whohadbeatenhimalongwiththerest, whenhedidnotknowhislessons.(Bertrandsaysheiseighteenand looksliketwentyone,butthisisamonasticcollegeandthebeating ismonasticdiscipline.)ThePriorfurtherreportsthatBertrandis quarrelsome;hehashadtomakehimchangehisbedandhischamber, becausetheotherscouldnotstandhim;heisidleandoftensays openly,thathewouldratherbea"claustralis"thanastudent.Breso issimpleandeasilyled,andwasoneofBertrand'sconspirators. Williamis"pessimaeconversationis"andincorrigible,scandalousin wordanddeed,idleandgiventowanderingaboutthetown.Correction isvaininhiscase.AfterthePriorhasreported,thestudentsare examined_vivavoce_upontheportionsofthedecretals,whichthey arestudying,andtheresultsoftheexaminationbearoutgenerally thePrior'sviews.Bertrand,BresoandWilliam,arefoundtoknow nothing,andtohavewastedtheirtime.Theothersacquitthemselves well,andtheexaminersaremercifultoaboywhoisnervousin_viva voce_,butofwhosestudiesDominusSavaricus,whohasrecoveredfrom theattackmadeuponhim,givesagoodaccount.Monks,andespecially novices,werehuman,andtheexperienceofStBenedict'sat Montpellierwasprobablysimilartothatofsecularcollegesin(p.093) Franceandelsewhere.EvenindemocraticBologna,itwasfound necessaryintheSpanishCollege(fromtheMS.statutesofwhich,Dr Rashdallquotes)toestablishadisciplinewhichincludedapenaltyof fivedaysinthestocksandamealofbreadandwater,eatensitting ontheflooroftheHall,foranassaultuponabrotherstudent;if bloodwasshed,thepenaltywasdouble.ThestatutesoftheSpanish Collegeweresevereforthefourteenthcentury,andtheypenalise absencefromlecture,unpunctuality,nocturnalwanderingsandso

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forth,asstrictlyasanyEnglishfounder.

CHAPTERV (p.094) UNIVERSITYDISCIPLINE Thegrowingtraditionofstrictcollegedisciplineultimatelyledto disciplinarystatutesintheuniversities.Fromveryearlytimes, universitieshad,ofcourse,maderegulationsaboutthecurriculum, andtheborderlinebetweenascholar'sstudiesandhismannersand morals,couldnotbeabsolutelyfixed.AtParis,indeed,itisnot untilthefifteenthcenturythatwefindanydetailedcodeof disciplinarystatutes;butfourteenthcenturyregulationsaboutdress werepartlyaimedatcheckingmisdeedsofstudentsdisguisedas laymen,andin1391theEnglishNationprohibitedanunduenumberof "potationesetconvivia,"incelebrationofthe"jocundadvent"ofa freshmanoronotheroccasions.Itwasnottillthemiddleofthe fifteenthcenturythattheUniversityofParis,awoketothe realisationofitsownshortcomingsinmannersandmorals;Cardinal WilliamdeEstoutvillewascommissionedbyNicholasV.toreformit, andinternalreform,thenecessityofwhichhadbeenrecognisedfor someyears,beganaboutthesametimewithanedictoftheFacultyof Artsorderingageneralimprovement,andespeciallyforbiddingthe(p.095) celebrationoffeasts"cummimisseuinstrumentisaltis." Estoutville'sordinancesarelargelyconcernedwiththecurriculum,he wasatleastasanxioustoreformthemastersasthepupils,andhis exhortationsarefrequentlyingeneralorscripturalterms.Thepoints ofundergraduatedisciplineonwhichhelaysstressarefeasting, dressingimproperlyorwearingtheclothesoflaymen,quarrelling,and gamesanddances"dissolutasetinhonestas."Fourmastersordoctors aretoinspectannuallythecollegesandpedagogies,inwhichthe studentslive,andaretoseethatproperdisciplineismaintained. Fromtimetotime,similarregulationsweremadebytheFacultyof Arts,_e.g._in1469,itisorderedthatnostudentistowearthe habitofafool,exceptforafarceoramorality(amusements permittedatthisperiod).Anyonecarryingarmsorwearingfools' dressistobebeateninpublicandinhisownhall.Theselast regulationsaredoubtlessconnectedwithtownandgownriots,for whichtheFeastofFoolsaffordedatemptingopportunity. Theabsenceofdisciplinaryregulationsintherecordsofthe UniversityofParis,islargelytobeexplainedbythefactthat criminalchargesagainstParisianscholarsweretriedintheBishop's Court,andcivilactionsintheCourtoftheProvostofParis.At Oxford,wherethewholejurisdictionbelongedtotheChancellorof(p.096) theUniversity,disciplinarystatutesaremuchmorenumerous.Wefind, fromthemiddleofthethirteenthcenturyonwards,aseriesofedicts againstscholarswhobreakthepeaceorcarryarms,whoenter citizens'housestocommitviolence,whopractisetheartofswordand buckler,orwhoareguiltyofgrossimmorality.Astatuteof1250 forbidsscholarstocelebratetheirnationalfeastdaysdisguisedwith masksorgarlands,andoneof1313restrictsthecarryingofarmsto studentswhoareenteringon,orreturningfrom,longjourneys. Offenderswhorefusetogotoprison,orwhoescapefromit,aretobe expelled.Asearlyasthemiddleofthethirteenthcentury,itwasthe dutyoftheproctorsandoftheprincipalsofhalls,toinvestigate into,andtoreportthemisdeedsofscholarswhobroketherulesof theUniversityorlivedevillives.Alistoffinesdrawnupin1432 (aperiodwhenintheopinionoftheUniversityapecuniarypenalty wasmoredreadedthananythingelse)prescribesfinesoftwelvepence forthreateningviolence,twoshillingsforwearingarms,four shillingsforaviolentshovewiththeshouldersorablowwiththe fist,sixshillingsandeightpenceforablowwithastoneorstick, tenshillingsforablowwithasword,aknife,adaggerorany similar"bellicoseweapon,"twentyshillingsforcarryingbowsand arrowswithevilintent,thirtyshillingsforcollectingan(p.097) assemblytobreakthepeace,hindertheexecutionofjustice,ormake anattackuponanyone,andfortyshillingsforresistingtheexecution ofjusticeorwanderingaboutbynight.Ineverycasedamageshave alsotobepaidtoanyinjuredperson.Thedeviceofoveraweinga court(familiarinScottishhistory)isprohibitedbyaregulation thatnooneshallappearbeforetheChancellorwithmorethantwo companions. TherecordsoftheChancellor'sCourtfurnishuswithinstancesofthe enforcementoftheseregulations.In1434,ascholarisfoundwearing adaggerandissentencedtobe"inbocardatus,"[1]_i.e._imprisoned

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intheToweroftheNorthGateofthecity,andanotheroffender,in 1442,suffersaday'simprisonment,payshisfineoftwoshillings, andforfeitshisarms.Inthesameyear,JohnHordene,ascholarof PeckwaterInn,isfinedsixshillingsandeightpenceforbreakingthe headofThomasWalker,mancipleofPaulineHall,andThomasWalkeris finedthelikesumfordrawinghisswordonHordeneandforgambling. In1433,twoscholars,guiltyofattackingMasterThomasRygbyin BagleyWoodandstealingtwelveshillingsandsevenpencefromhim, failtoappear,andareexpelledfromtheUniversity,theirgoods (estimatedtobeworthaboutthirteenshillings)being(p.098) confiscated.In1457,fourscholarsarecaughtenteringwithweapons intoawarrenorparktohuntdeerandrabbits;theyarereleasedon takinganoaththat,whiletheyarestudentsoftheUniversity,they willnottrespassagain,inclosedparksorwarrens.In1452,a scholarofHaburdayshHallisimprisonedforusingthreatening languagetoatailor,andisfinedtwelvepenceandimprisoned;the tailorinsultstheprisonerandisfinedsixshillingsandeightpence. Wehavequotedinstancesofundergraduateoffences,buttheevildoers arebynomeansinvariablyyoungstudents,_e.g._in1457theVicarof StGileshastotakeanoathtokeepthepeace,hisclubisforfeited, andheisfinedtwoshillings;andinthesameyeartheMasterofSt John'sHospital,whohasbeenconvictedofdiversenormousoffences, isexpelledtheUniversityforbreakingprison. [Footnote1:Theprisonwascalled"Bocardo" because,likethemoodknownas"Bocardo"inthe syllogism,itwasdifficulttogetoutof.] TheincreasedstringencyofdisciplinaryregulationsatOxfordinthe endofthemedievalperiodisbestillustratedbythestatuteswhich, inthefifteenthcentury,theUniversityenforceduponmembersofthe unendowedHalls.StudentswhowerenotmembersofaCollegelived,for themostpart,inoneofthenumerousHallswhich,uptothe Reformation,weresoimportantafeatureoftheUniversity.Acodeof thesestatutes,printedforthefirsttimebyDrRashdall,showsthat thelibertyoftheearliermedievalundergraduatehadlargely(p.099) disappeared,andthatthelifeofaresidentinaHall,intheendof thefifteenthcentury,wasalmostasmuchgovernedbystatuteand regulationasifhewerethepartakerofafounder'sbounty.Hemust hearmassandsaymatinsandvesperseveryday,underpainofafine ofapenny,andattendcertainservicesonfeastdays.Histable mannersarenolongerregulatedbythecustomsandetiquetteofhis fellows,butbytherulesoftheUniversity.Hislapsesfromgood moralsarenolongertobevisitedwithpenaltiesimposedbyhisown society;ifhegamblesorpractiseswithswordandbuckler,heisto payfourpence;ifhesinswithhistongue,orshoutsormakesmelody whenotherswishtostudyorsleep,orbringstotableanunsheathed knife,orspeaksEnglish,orgoesintothetownorthefields unaccompaniedbyafellowstudent,heisfinedafarthing;ifhecomes inafter8P.M.inwinteror9P.M.insummer,hecontractsagate billofapenny;ifhesleepsout,orputsupafriendforthenight, withoutleaveofhisPrincipal,thefineisfourpence;ifhesleeps withanotherstudentintheHallbutnotinhisownbed,hepaysa penny;ifhebringsastrangertoamealoralectureoranyother "actumcommunem"intheHall,heisfinedtwopence;ifheispugnacious andoffensiveandmakesodiouscomparisons,heistopaysixpence; ifheattacksafellowmemberoraservant,theUniversityhas(p.100) appointedpenaltiesvaryingwiththeseverityoftheassault,andfor asecondoffencehemustbeexpelled.HehastoobeyhisPrincipal muchasmembersofaCollegeobeytheirHead,and,inlieuofthe pecuniarypenalties,thePrincipalmayfloghimpubliclyonSaturday nights,eventhoughhisownmastermaycertifythathehasalready correctedhim,ordeclarehiswillingnesstocorrecthim,forhis breachesofthestatutes.Theprivatemasterortutorwas,asDr Rashdallsuggests,probablyaluxuryoftherichboy,towhomhis wealthmightthusbringitsownpenalty. ItisstartlingtothemodernmindtofindUniversitystatutesand disciplinaryregulationsforbiddingnotonlyextravagantand unbecomingdress,butsometimesalsothewearingofdistinctive academiccostumebyundergraduates,fordistinctiveacademiccostume wastheprivilegeofagraduate.Thescholarworeordinaryclerical dress,unlesstheFounderofaCollegeprescribedaspeciallivery. Themasterhada_cappa_orcope,suchasaCambridgeViceChancellor wearsonDegreeDays,withaborderandhoodofminever,suchas Oxfordproctorsstillwear,anda_biretta_orsquarecap.In1489, theinsolenceofmanyOxfordscholarshadgrowntosuchapitchthat theywerenotafraidtowearhoodsinthefashionofmasters,whereas bachelors,totheirowndamnationandtheruinoftheUniversity,(p.101) weresoregardlessoftheiroathsastowearhoodsnotlined throughoutwithfur.Penaltieswereprescribedforbothkindsof

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offenders;butthoughtheOxfordundergraduateneversucceededin annexingthehood,hegraduallyacquiredthe_biretta_,whichhis successoroftodayisoccasionallyfinedfornotwearing.Themodern gownortogaisexplainedbyDrRashdallasderivedfromtherobeor cassockwhichamedievalMasterofArtsworeunderhis_cappa_. ThedisciplinaryregulationsoffifteenthandsixteenthcenturyOxford maybeparalleledfromotheruniversities.AtLouvaintherewasakind ofproctorialwalkundertakenbytheUniversityofficialknownasthe Promotor.Onreceivingthreeorfourhours'noticefromtheRector, thePromotor,withastaffofservants,perambulatedthestreetsat night,andheandhis"bulldogs"receivedafinefromanyonewhomthey apprehended.Offendingstudentscaught_inflagrantedelicto_he conductedtotheUniversityprison,andothershereportedtothe Rector."Notabilesperson"mightbeincarceratedinamonastery incorporatedwiththeUniversity.Armsfounduponanyonewere forfeited.ThePromotorwasalsotheUniversitygaoler,andwas responsibleforthesafecustodyofprisoners,andhemightplacein fettersdangerousprisonersormenaccusedofseriouscrimes.(p.102) Interviewswithcaptiveshadtotakeplaceinhispresence;male visitorshadtogiveuptheirknivesorotherweaponsbeforebeing admitted,andfemalevisitorshadtoleavetheircloaksbehindthem. Studentswereforbiddentowalkinthestreetsatnightafterthebell ofStMichael'sChurchhadbeenrungatnineo'clockinwinter,and teno'clockinsummer,unlesstheywereaccompaniedbyadoctorora "gravispersona"andwerebearingatorchorlantern.Thelistof offencesatLouvainaremuchthesameaselsewhere,butan eighteenthcenturycodeofstatutesspeciallyprohibitsbathingand skating.Thelawsagainstborrowingandlendingwereunusuallystrict, andnostudentundertwentyfiveyearswasallowedtosellbooks withouttheconsentofhisregent,thepenaltyforasixteenthcentury studentinArtsbeingapublicflogginginhisowncollege. AtLeipsic,theUniversitywasgenerallyresponsibleforthe discipline,sometimesevenwhentheoffenceshadbeencommittedinthe colleges;andarecordoftheproceedingsoftheRector'sCourtfrom 1524to1588,whichwaspublishedbyFriedrichZarncke,thelearned historianofLeipsic,givesusalargevarietyofincidentsof UniversitylifeinsixteenthcenturyGermany.Leipsicpossesseda Universityprison,andwefind,in1524,twostudents,Philippus(p.103) JosmanandErasmusEmpedophillus,whohadquarrelled,andinsulted eachother,sentencedtoperform,intheprison,impositionsforthe Rector.Sixoreightdays'imprisonmentisafrequentpenaltyfora drunkenrow.AcollegeofficialbringstotheRector'sCourtin1545 oneofhispupils,JohnDitz,whohadlostmuchmoneybygambling. Ditzandoneofhisfriends,CasparWinckler,whohadwonsixflorins andsomebooksfromhim,havealreadybeenfloggedbytheir preceptors;theyarenowsentencedtoimprisonment,butastheweather isverycold,theyaretobereleasedafteroneday'sdetention,and sentbacktotheirpreceptorstobefloggedagain.Theircompanions aresentencedtoreturnanymoney,booksorgarmentswhichtheyhad woningamblinggames.AstudentofthenameofValentineMuff complainstotheRectorthathispedagoguehasbeatenandreprovedhim undeservedly:afteraninquiryheiscondemnedtotherods"onceand again."Forthrowingstonesatwindowsastudentisfinedoneflorin inadditiontothecostofreplacingthem.Forgravemoraloffences finesofthreeflorinsareimposed,andthepenaltyisnot infrequentlyreduced.Amonth'simprisonmentisthealternativeofthe fineofthreeflorins,butiftheweatheriscold,theculprit,who hasbeenguiltyofgrossimmorality,isletoffwithtwoflorins.A drunkenyouthwhomeetssomegirlsintheeveningandtriesto(p.104) compelthemtoenterhiscollege,issentencedtofivedays' imprisonment,butisreleasedontheintercessionofthegirlsand manyothers.Anattackonaservantwithaknifeispunishedby forfeitureoftheknifeandafineofhalfaflorin,andapenaltyof aflorin(dividedamongthefourvictims)isinflictedforenteringa housewitharmsandwoundingthefingersofsomeofitsinhabitants.A ruffianofnoblebirth,whohadbeenguiltyofgrossimmoralityandof violence,declinestoappearintheRector'sCourt,andisduly sentencedtoexpulsion.Buthisfatherpromisestosatisfythe Universityandtheinjuredparty,andsevennobleswriteaskingthat heshouldbepardoned,andacompromiseismade,bywhichheappears incourtandpaysafine.FortheUniversityoffenceofhavingasan attendantaboywhoisnotenrolled,ValentineLeoisfinedthree florins,whichwerepaid."Butsinceheappearedtobegoodand learned,andproducedanexcellentspecimenofhissingularerudition, andwrotelearnedversesandothercompositionstotheRectorandhis assessors,bywhichhebeggedpardonandmodestlypurgedhisoffence, andespeciallyasadoctor,whosesonshetaught,andothers intercededforhim,heeasilyprocuredthattheflorins,shouldbe returnedtothedoctorwhohadpaidthemforhim."

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Theleniencyofthepunishmentsforgravemoraloffences,as(p.105) contrastedwiththestrictinsistenceuponthelessermattersofthe law,cannotfailtoimpressmodernreaders,butthisisnota characteristicpeculiartoLeipsic.Fines,andinthefifteenthand sixteenthcenturies,whippingswerefrequentlyinflictedinall universitiesforviolentattacksupontheperson.DrRashdallquotesa caseatIngolstadtwhereastudentwhohadkilledanotherinadrunken boutwasletoffwiththeconfiscationofhisgoods,andthepenalty ofexpulsionwasremitted;andtheeighteenthcenturyhistoryof CorpusChristiCollegeatOxfordsuppliesmorerecentinstancesof punishmentswhichcouldscarcelybesaidtofitthecrime. ThestatutesoftheFrenchuniversitiesoutsideParisandofthethree medievalScottishuniversities(StAndrews,Glasgow,andAberdeen) supplymanyillustrationsoftheregulationswehavenotedelsewhere, butcontainlittlethatisunusual.StAndrews,whichallowedhawking, forbadethedangerousgameoffootball.TheFacultyofArtsatGlasgow in1532issuedanedictwhichhasacuriousresemblancetotheEton customof"shirking."Reverenceandfilialfearweresoimportant, saidthemasters,thatnostudentwastomeettheRector,theDean,or oneoftheRegentsopenlyinthestreets,bydayorbynight; immediatelyhewasobservedhemustslinkawayandescapeasbest(p.106) hecould,andhemustnotbefoundagaininthestreetswithout specialleave.Thepenaltywasapublicflogging.Similarly,evena lawfulgamemustnotbeplayedinthepresenceofaregent.Flogging wasarecognisedpenaltyinalltheScottishuniversities;itfound itswayintothesystematStAndrewsandGlasgow,andwasintroduced atonceatAberdeen.TheearlystatutesofAberdeenUniversity(King's College)unfortunatelyexistonlyintheforminwhichtheywere editedintheseventeenthcentury.Theyincludearhymedseriesof rulesforbehaviourattable,which,thoughpostmedievalindate, giveussomecluetothetablemannersofthemedievalstudents: Majoremnepraevenia} Locumassignatumtenea} Mensaeassignataeaccumba} Manibusmundisnudiseda} Aperientescaputfaciemneobtega} Vultushilareshabea} Riteinconvictucomeda} Salcultellocapia} Salinumnedejicia} Manubriumhaudaciemporriga}tis Tribuscibosdigitisprehenda} Cultropriusquamdentetera} .....} Ossainorbemdepona} Velpavimentumjacia} Modesteomniafacia} Ossasiinconvivasjacia} Nedumsiillosvulnera} Nequeraminisivapula} .....} Posthaustumlabiadeterga}(p.107) Modicum,sedcrebrobiba} .....} Osantehaustumevacua} Unguessordidulosfugia}tis .....} Ructantestergareflecta} Nescalpatiscavea} .....} Ederemementoteutviva} Nonvivereutcomed} TheEconomist'saccountsatAberdeenhavebeenpreservedforpartof theyear1579,andshowthatthefoodofaScottishstudent,just afterthemedievalperiod,consistedofwhitebread,oatbread,beef, mutton,butter,smallfish,partans(crabs),eggs,abilloffare certainlyabovethefoodofthelowerclassesinScotlandatthetime. Thedrinksmentionedarebestale,secondale,andbeer.Hisvictuals interestedthemedievalstudent;theconversationoftwoGerman students,aspicturedina"students'guide"toHeidelberg(_cf._p. 116),islargelyoccupiedwithfood."Thevealissoftandbad:the calfcannothaveseenitsmotherthreetimes:nooneinmycountry wouldeatsuchstuff:thedrinkisbitter."Thelittlebookshowsus thetwostudentswalkinginthemeadows,andwhentheyreachthe Neckar,onedissuadestheotherfrombathing(adangerousenterprise forbiddeninthestatutesofsomeuniversities,includingLouvain(p.108) andGlasgow).Theyquarrelaboutabook,andnearlycometoblows;one

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complainsthattheotherreportedhimtothemasterforsleepingin lecture.Bothspeakofthe"lupi,"thespieswhoreportedstudents usingthevernacularorvisitingthekitchen.The"wolves"werepart oftheadministrativemachineryofaGermanUniversity;astatuteof Leipsicin1507ordersthat,accordingtoancientcustom,"lupi"or "signatores"beappointedtonotethenamesofanystudentwhotalked German("vulgarisantes")thattheymightbefinedinduecourse,the moneybeingspentonfeasts.OneofthetwoHeidelbergstudents complainsofhavingbeengivena"signum"orbadmark"prosermone vulgariterprolato,"andtheotherhasbeencaughtinthekitchen. Theydiscusstheirteachers;oneofthemcomplainsofalecture because"nimisaltagravisquemateriaest."Thelittlebookgives,in someways,aremarkablepictureofGermanstudentlife,withits interestsanditstemptations;butitraisesmoreproblemsthanit solves,andaffordsafreshillustrationofthedifficultyof attemptingtorecreatethelifeofthepast.

CHAPTERVI(p.109) THEJOCUNDADVENT Themedievalstudentbeganhisacademiccareerwithaninitiation ceremonywhichvariedindifferentcountriesandatdifferentdates, butwhich,sofarasweknow,alwaysinvolvedfeastingandgenerally impliedconsiderablepersonaldiscomfort.Thedesignation,"bejaunus" orbajan,whichsignifiesyellowbeak("becjaune"),seemstohave beengivenalmosteverywheretothefreshman,andthecustomof receivingthefledgelingintotheacademicsocietywas,towardsthe closeoftheMiddleAges,nomeretraditionofstudentetiquette,but anacknowledgedandadmittedacademicrite.Thetradition,whichdates fromveryearlytimes,andwhichhassomanyparallelsoutside Universityhistory,wassostrongthattheauthoritiesseemtohave deemeditwisesttoacceptitandtobecontentwithtryingtolimit theexpenseandthe"ragging"whichitentailed. WehavenodetailedknowledgeoftheinitiationoftheParisian student,butastatutemadebytheUniversityin1342provesthatthe twoelementsofbullyingthenewcomerandfeastingathisexpense werebothinvolvedinit.Itrelatesthatquarrelsfrequently(p.110) arisethroughthecustomofseizingthegoodsofsimplescholarson theoccasionoftheir"bejaunia,"andcompellingthemtoexpendon feastingthemoneyonwhichtheyintendedtolive.Insults,blows,and otherdangersarethegeneralresultsofthesystem,andthe Universityordersthatnooneshallexactmoneyoranythingelsefrom bajansexceptthe"socii"withwhomtheylive,andtheymaytakeonly afreewilloffering.Bajansaretoreveal,underheavypenalties,the namesofanywhomolestthembywordorblow,threateningthemor offeringtheminsults.OffendersaretobehandedovertotheProvost ofParistobepunished,butnot"adpenamsanguinis." AfifteenthcenturycodeofstatutesoftheCistercianCollegeat Paris(generallymuchlesssternthanonewouldexpectinahouseof thatsevereOrder)referstothetraditionsthathadgrownupinthe Collegeabouttheinitiationofabajan,andtothe"insolentiaset enormitatesmultas"whichaccompaniedtheirobservance.Thewholeof theceremoniesofinitiationarethereforeforbidden"omnes receptionesnovitervenientium,quosvoluntariaopinioneBejanos nuncuparesolent,cumsuisconsequentiis,necnonbajulationes, fibrationes...tamincapitulo,indormitorio,inparvisscholis,in jardinis,quamubiubi,ettamdediequamdenocte."Withtheseevil customsistogotheverynameoftheAbbasBejanorum,andall(p.111) "vasa,munimenta,etinstrumenta"usedfortheseceremoniesaretobe givenup.Newcomersinfuturearetobeentrustedtothecareof discreetseniors,whowillinstructtheminthehonourablecustomsof theCollege,reporttheirshortcomingsinchurch,inwalks,andin games,supervisetheirexpenditure,andpreventtheirbeingovercharged "projocundoadventu"orinotherways.Sostrongwasthetraditionof the"jocundadvent"thatitthusfindsaplaceeveninareformer's constitution,andwefindreferencestoitelsewhereinthestatutes ofParisiancolleges.Anundatedearlycode,drawnupforthe Treasurer'sCollege,ordersthememberstofulfilhonestlytheir jocundadventinaccordancewiththeadviceoftheirfellowstudents. AtCornouaille,thenewcomerisinstructedtopayforhisjocund adventneithertoomeanlynorwithburdensomeextravagance,butin accordancewithhisrankandhismeans.AttheCollegeofDainville theexpenseofthebajanhoodislimitedtoaquartofgoodwine ("ultraunumsextariumvininonmediocrissuissociispronovosub

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ingressuseubejannononsolvat").AttheCollegeofCambray,abursar istopaytwentyshillingsforutensils,andtoprovideapintofgood wineforthefellowsthenpresentinhall.DrRashdallquotesfromthe RegisteroftheSorbonneaninstanceinwhichtheAbbotoftheBajans wasfinedeightshillings(tobeexpendedinwine)becausehehad(p.112) notfulfilledhisdutiesinregardtothecleansingofthebajans byanaspersionofwateronInnocents'Day.Thebajanswerenotonly washed,butcarriedinprocessionuponasses. ThestatutesoftheuniversitiesofSouthernFrance,andespeciallyof AvignonandAix,giveussomefurtherinformation,andwepossessa recordoftheproceedingsatAvignonoftheCourtoftheAbbotofthe Bajans,referredtointhepassagewehavequotedfromtheregulations oftheCistercianCollegeatParis.Similarprohibitionsoccurin otherCollegestatutes. AtAvignon,theConfraternityofStSebastianexistedlargelyforthe purgationofbajansandthecontroloftheabuseswhichhadgrownup inconnectionwiththejocundadvent.Oneofitsstatutes,datedabout 1450,ordersthatnonovice,commonlycalledabajan,shallbe admittedtothepurgationofhissinsortakethehonourablenameof studentuntilhehaspaidthesumofsix_grossi_asentrancemoneyto theConfraternity.Thereisalsoanannualsubscriptionofthree _grossi_,andthepaymentofthesesumsistobeenforcedbythe seizureofbooks,unlessthedefaultercanprovethatheisunableto payhisentrancefeeorsubscription,asthecasemaybe.ThePrior andCouncillorsoftheFraternityhavepowertograntadispensation onthegroundofpoverty.Afterprovidinghisfeast,andtakingan(p.113) oath,thebajanistobeadmitted"jocoseetbenigne,"istolosehis basename,andafterayearistobearthehonourabletitleof student.Noblemenandbeneficedclergyaretopaydouble.Thebajanis imploredtocomplywiththeseregulations"cordehilarissimo,"andhis "socii"areadjuredtorememberthattheyshouldnotseektheirown thingsbutthethingsofChrist,andshouldthereforenotspendon feastsanythingoversix_grossi_paidbyabajan,butdevoteitto thehonourofGodandStSebastian.TheCourtoftheAbbotofthe Bajans,attheCollegeofAnnecy,inthesameUniversity,throwsa littlemorelightontheactualceremonyofpurgation.Thebajansare summonedintotheAbbot'sCourt,whereeachofthemreceives,_pro forma_,ablowfromaferule.TheyallstandintheCourt,with uncoveredheadsandbythemselves("Mundusabimmundovenit separandus");underthepenaltyoftwoblowstheyarerequiredtokeep silence("quiavoxfunestainjudiciisaudirinondebet.")Thebajan whohaspatientlyandhonestlyservedhistimeandisabouttobe purged,isgiven,inparodyofanInceptionintheUniversity,a passageintheInstitutestoexpound,andhisfellowbajans,under painoftwoblows,havetodisputewithhim.Ifheobtainslicence, thetwolastpurgedbajansbringwater"prolavationeetpurgatione." TheotherrulesoftheAbbot'sCourtdealwiththedutiestobe(p.114) performedbytheyoungestfreshmaninChapel(andattableifservants arelacking),andorderbajanstogiveplacetoseniorsandnottogo nearthefireinhallwhenseniorsarepresent.Noone,eithersenior orfreshman,istoapplytheterm"Domine"toabajan,andnofreshman istocallaseniormanabajan.TheCourtmettwiceaweek,andit couldimposepenaltiesuponseniormenaswellasbajans,butcorporal punishmentisthreatenedonlyagainstthe"infectosetfetidissimos bejannos." AtAix,afifteenthcenturycodeofstatutesorderseverybajantopay feestotheUniversity,andtogiveafeasttotheRector,the Treasurer,andthePromotor.TheRectoristobringonescholarwith him,andthePromotortwo,tohelp"adpurgandumbejaunum,"andthe bajanistoinviteabedelandothers.Dispensationsonthegroundof povertycouldbeobtainedfromtheRector,andtwoorthreefreshmen mightmaketheirpurgationtogether,"cuminfinitasestvitanda,"even aninfinityoffeastsistobeavoided.ThePromotorgivesthefirst blowwithafryingpan,andthescholarswhohelpinthepurgationare limitedtotwoorthreeblowseach,sinceaninfinityofblowsisalso tobeavoided.TheRectormayremitaportionofthepenaltyatthe requestofnobleorhonourableladieswhohappentobepresent,(p.115) foritisuselesstoinviteladiesifnoremissionistobeobtained. Ifthebajanisproudortroublesome,thepleasoftheladieswhomhe hasinvitedwillnotavail;hemusthavehisthreeblowsfromeachof hispurgators,withoutanymercy.Ifafreshmanfailedtomakehis purgationwithinamonth,itwastotakeplace"instudiosublibro superanum";thechoicebetweenabookandafryingpanasaweaponof castigationischaracteristicofthesolemnfoolingofthejocund advent.Theseizureofgoodsandofbooks,mentionedinsomeofthe statuteswehavequoted,isfrequentlyforbidden.AtOrleansthe statutesprohibitleadingthebajan"utovisadoccisionem"toa

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taverntobeforcedtospendhismoney,anddenouncethecustomas provocativeof"ebrietates,turpiloquia,lascivias,pernoctationes" andotherevils.Theyalsoforbidthepracticeofcompellinghimto celebratethejocundadventbyseizingbooks,oneormore,orby exactinganythingfromhim.Therearenumerousotherreferencesin Frenchstatutes,someofwhichdenouncethe_bejaunia_assufficiently expensivetodetermenfromcomingtotheUniversity,butdetailsare disappointinglyfew. Theinitiationofthebajanattaineditshighestdevelopmentinthe Germanuniversities,wherewefindtheFrenchconceptionofthebajan, asafflictedwithmortalsinandrequiringpurification,combined(p.116) withthecharacteristicGermanconceptionofhimasawildanimalwho hastobetamed.Hisreformationwasaccomplishedbytheuseof planes,augers,saws,pincersandotherinstrumentssuitablefor removinghorns,tusksandclawsfromadangerousanimal,andthe Deposition,or"modusdeponendicornuaiisquiinnumerumstudiosorum cooptarivolunt,"becamearecognisedUniversityceremony.The statutesattempttocheckit,_e.g._atViennathebajanisnottobe oppressedwithundueexactionsorotherwisemolestedorinsulted,and atLeipsictheinsultsarenottotaketheformofblows,stones,or water.AtPrague,"thosewholaydown(deponent)theirrusticmanners andignorancearetobetreatedmoremildlyandmoderatelythanin recentyears(1544),andtheirlipsorotherpartsoftheirbodiesare nottobedefiledwithfilthorputridandimpuresubstanceswhich producesickness."ButthePraguestatutecontemplatesaDeposition ceremonyinwhichthefreshmanisassumedtobeagoatwithhornsto beremoved.AblackletterhandbookormanualforGermanstudents, consistingofdialoguesorconversationalLatin(muchontheprinciple oftourists'conversationaldictionaries),openswithadescriptionof thepreparationsforaDeposition.Thebook,whichhasbeenreprinted inZarncke's_DieDeutschenUniversittenimMittelalter_,is(p.117) (frominternalevidence)apictureoflifeatHeidelberg,butitis writteningeneralterms. Thenewcomerseeksoutamasterthathemaybeenteredontherollof theUniversityandbeabsolvedfromhisbajanship."Areyourparents rich?"isoneofthemaster'sfirstquestions,andheistoldthat theyaremoderatelyprosperousmechanicswhoarepreparedtodothe bestfortheirson.ThemastertakeshimtotheRectortobeadmitted, andthenaskshim,"Wheredoyouintendtohaveyour'deposition'asa bajan?"Theboyleavesallarrangementsinthemaster'shands, remindinghimofhispoverty,anditisagreedtoinvitethree masters,twobachelors,andsomefriendsofthemastertothe ceremony.Withawarningthathemustnotbeafraidifstrangerscome andinsulthim,foritisallpartofthetraditionofabajan's advent,themastergoestomakearrangementsforthefeast.Two youths,CamillusandBartoldus,thenarrive,andpretendtobegreatly disturbedbyafoulsmell,sostrongthatitalmostdrivesthemfrom theroom.Camilluspreparestogo,butBartoldusinsistsuponan investigationofthecause.Camillusthenseesamonsterofterrible aspect,withhugehornsandteeth,anosecurvedlikethebeakofan owl,wildeyesandthreateninglips."Letusflee,"hesays,"lestit attackus."Bartoldusthenguessesthatitisabajan,acreature(p.118) whichCamillushasneverseen,butofwhoseferocityhehasheard.The boldBartoldusthenaddressesthebajan."DomineJoannes,"hesays, "whencedoyoucome?Certainlyyouareacompatriotofmine,giveme yourhand."Joannesstretchesouthishand,butismetwiththe indignantquestion,"Doyoucometoattackmewithyournails?Whydo yousitdown,wildass?Doyounotseethatmastersarepresent, venerablemen,inwhosepresenceitbecomesyoutostand?"Joannes stands,andisfurtherinsulted.Histormentorsthenaffecttobe sorryforhimandmaketouchingreferencestohismother'sfeelings ("Quid,simatersciret,quaeuniceeumamat?"),butrelapseinto abuse(Obeane,Oasine,Ofoetidehirce,Oolenscapra,Obufo,O cifra,Ofiguranihili,Otuomninonihil)."Whatarewetodowith him?"saysCamillus,andBartoldussuggeststhepossibilityofhis reformationandadmissionintotheirsociety.Buttheymusthavea doctor.Camillusisfamousandlearnedinthescienceofmedicine,and canremovehishorns,filedownhisteeth,curehisblindness,and shavehislongandhorriblebeard.Whilehegoesforthenecessary instruments,Bartoldustellsthevictimtocheerup,forheisabout tobecuredfromeveryevilofmindandbody,andtobeadmittedto theprivilegesoftheUniversity.Camillusreturnswithointment,(p.119) andtheyproceedtosomehorseplaywhichJoannesresists(Compesce eiusimpetusetutequumintractatumipsumillumconstringe).Tusks andteethhavingbeenremoved,thevictimissupposedtobedying,and ismadetoconfesstoBartoldusalistofcrimes.Hispenanceisto entertainhismasters"largissimacoena,"notforgettingthedoctor whohasjusthealedhim,andtheconfessorwhohasjustheardhis confession,fortheyalsomustbeentertained"pinguirefectione."But

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thisconfessorcanonlydefinethepenance,hecannotgiveabsolution, arightwhichbelongstothemasters.Joannesisthentakentohis masterfortheDepositionproper.DrRashdalldescribesthescene, fromararesixteenthcenturytract,whichcontainsanillustrationof aDeposition,andadefenceofitbyLuther,whojustifiedhistaking partinoneoftheseceremoniesbygivingitamoralandsymbolical meaning.Thebajanliesuponatable,undergoingtheplaningofhis tusks,"whileasawliesupontheground,suggestiveoftheactual dehorningofthebeast.Theworkitselfandlaterapologiesforthe institutionmentionamongtheinstrumentsoftortureacomband scissorsforcuttingthevictim'shair,an_auriscalpium_forhis ears,aknifeforcuttinghisnails;whiletheceremonyfurther appearstoincludetheadornmentoftheyouth'schinwithabeardby meansofburnedcorkorotherpigment,andtheadministration,(p.120) internalorexternal,ofsaltandwine." IntheEnglishuniversitieswehavenotraceofthe"jocundadvent" duringthemedievalperiod,butitisimpossibletodoubtthatthis kindofhorseplayexistedatOxfordandCambridge.ThestatutesofNew Collegereferto"thatmostvileandhorridsportofshavingbeards"; itwas"wonttobepractisedonthenightprecedingtheInceptionofa MasterofArts,"butthefreshmenmayhavebeenthevictims,asthey wereinsimilarceremoniesattheFeastofFoolsinFrance.Antony Wood,writingofhisownundergraduatedaysinthemiddleofthe seventeenthcentury,tellsthatcharcoalfiresweremadeintheHall atMertononHolyDays,fromAllSaints'EvetoCandlemas,andthat "atallthesefireseverynight,whichbegantobemadealittle afterfiveoftheclock,theseniorundergraduateswouldbring intothehallthejuniorsorfreshmenbetweenthattimeandsix oftheclock,theremakethemsitdowneonaformeinthemiddle ofthehall,joyningtothedeclaimingdesk;whichdone,every oneinorderwastospeakesomeprettyapothegme,ormakeajest orbull,orspeakesomeeloquentnonsense,tomakethecompany laugh.Butifanyofthefreshmencameoffdull,ornotcleverly, someoftheforwardorpragmatisedseniorswould"tuck"them, thatis,setthenailoftheirthumbtotheirchin,just(p.121) underthelowerlipp,andbythehelpoftheirotherfingers underthechin,theywouldgivehimamark,whichsometimeswould produceblood." OnShroveTuesday,1648,Mertonfreshmenentertainedtheother undergraduatestoabrasspot"fullofcawdel."Wood,whowasa freshman,describeshow "everyfreshmanaccordingtoseniority,wastopluckoffhis gowneandbandandifpossibletomakehimselflooklikea scoundrell.Thisdone,theyconductedeachothertothehigh table,andtheremadetostandonaformeplacedthereon;from whencetheyweretospeaktheirspeechwithanaudiblevoiceto thecompany;whichifwelldone,thepersonthatspokeitwasto haveacupofcawdleandnosalteddrink;ifindifferently,some cawdleandsomesalteddrink;butifdull,nothingwasgivento himbutsalteddrinkorsaltputincollegebeere,withtucksto boot.Afterwardswhentheyweretobeadmittedintothe fraternity,theseniorcookwastoadministertothemanoath overanoldshoe,partofwhichrunsthus:'Itemtujurabisquod pennilessbench(aseatatCarfax)nonvisitabis'&c.Therestis forgotten,andnonetherearenowremembersit.Afterwhich spokenwithgravity,theFreshmankisttheshoe,putonhisgown andbandandtookhisplaceamongtheseniors." "This,"saysWood,"wasthewayandcustomthathadbeenusedin(p.122) thecollege,timeoutofmind,toinitiatethefreshmen;butbetween thattimeandtherestorationofK.Ch.2itwasdisused,andnowsuch athingisabsolutelyforgotten."Hiswholedescription,and especiallytheparodyofthemaster'soathnottovisitStamford,goes toshowthathewasrightinattributingtheceremoniestoremote antiquity,andthereareindicationsthattheinitiationoffreshmen waspractisedelsewhereinOxford.Hearnespeaksofsimilarcustomsat BalliolandatBrasenose,andaneighteenthcenturyeditorofWood asserts,that"strikingtraces"ofthepractice"maybefoundinmany societiesinthisplace,andinsomeaverynearresemblanceofithas beenkeptuptillwithinthesefewyears."OurquotationfromWoodmay thereforeservetoillustratethetreatmentofthemedievalfreshman atOxford.WepossessnodetailsofthejocundadventatCambridge, butinthemedievalScottishuniversities,wherethenameofbajan stillsurvives,therewererelicsofitwithinrecenttimes.AtSt Andrews,afeastofraisinswasthelastsurvivalofthebajan's "standingtreat,"andattacksmadeby"Semis"(secondyearmen)upona bajanclassemergingfromalectureroomwereanenliveningfeatureof

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studentlifeatAberdeenuptotheendofthenineteenthcentury.The weaponsinusewerenotebooks,andthebelabouringofAberdeen(p.123) bajanswiththeseinstrumentsmaybehistoricallyconnectedwiththe chastisementwhichwehavefoundinsomeofthemedievalinitiation ceremonies.Itwouldbefancifultoconnectthegowntearing,which wasalsoafeatureoftheseattacks,withtheassaultsuponthe Rector'srobeatBologna.

CHAPTERVII(p.124) TOWNANDGOWN Theviolencewhichmarkedmedievallifeasawholewasnotlikelyto beabsentintownswherenumbersofyoungclerksweremembersofa corporationatvariancewiththeauthoritiesofthecity.University recordsarefullofinjuriesdonetomastersandstudentsbythe townsfolk,andofprivilegesandimmunitiesobtainedfromPopeorKing orBishopattheexpenseoftheburgesses.WhenanewUniversitywas founded,itwassometimestakenforgrantedthattheseconflictsmust arise,andthatthetownsmenwerecertaintobeinthewrong.Thus, whenDukeRudolfIV.foundedtheUniversityofViennain1365,he providedbeforehandforsuchcontingenciesbyordainingthatanattack onastudentleadingtothelossofalimborothermemberofthebody wastobepunishedbytheremovalofthesamememberfromthebodyof theassailant,andthatforalesserinjurytheoffender'shandwasto bewounded("debetmanuspugionetransfigi").Thecriminalmight redeemhispersonbyafineofahundredsilvermarksforaserious injuryandoffortymarksforslighterdamages,thevictimto(p.125) receivehalfofthefine.Assailantsofstudentswerenottohave benefitofsanctuary.Oxfordhistoryaboundsintownandgownriots, themostfamousofwhichisthebattleofStScholastica'sDay(10th February)1354.Theriotoriginatedinatavernquarrel;someclerks disapprovedofthewineataninnnearCarfax,and(inAntonyWood's words)"thevintnergivingthemstubbornandsaucylanguage,they threwthewineandvesselathishead."Hisfriendsurgedthe innkeeper"nottoputupwiththeabuse,"andrangthebellofSt Martin'sChurch.Amobatonceassembled,armedwithbowsandarrows andotherweapons;theyattackedeveryscholarwhopassed,andeven firedattheChancellorwhenheattemptedtoallaythetumult.The justlyindignantChancellorretortedbyringingStMary'sbellanda mobofstudentsassembled,alsoarmed(inspiteofmanystatutesto thecontrary).Abattleroyalragedtillnightfall,atwhichtimethe frayceased,noonescholarortownsmanbeingkilledormortally woundedormaimed.Ifthematterhadendedthen,littlewouldhave beenheardofthestory,butnextdaythetownsmenstationedeighty armedmeninStGiles'sChurch,whosalliedoutupon"certainscholars walkingafterdinnerinBeaumontkilledoneofthem,andwounded others."Asecondbattlefollowed,inwhichthecitizens,aidedbysome countrymen,defeatedthescholars,andravagedtheirhalls,(p.126) slayingandwounding.Nightinterruptedtheiroperations,butonthe followingday,"withhideousnoisesandclamourstheycameandinvaded thescholars'houses...andthosethatresistedthemandstoodupon theirdefence(particularlysomechaplains)theykilledorelseina grievoussortwounded....Thecrownsofsomechaplains,thatis,all theskinsofarasthetonsurewent,thesediabolicalimpsflayedoff inscornoftheirclergy." TheinjuredUniversitywasfullyavenged.TheKinggrantedit jurisdictionoverthecity,and,especially,controlofthemarket, andtheBishopofLincolnplacedthetownsmenunderaninterdictwhich wasremovedonlyonconditionthattheMayorandBailiffs,forthe timebeing,and"threescoreofthechiefestBurghers,should personallyappear"everyStScholastica'sDayinSt.Mary'sChurch,to attendamassforthesoulsoftheslain.Thetraditionthattheywere towearhaltersorsilkencordshasnoauthority,buttheywereeach "toofferatthealtaronepenny,ofwhichoblationfortypenceshould bedistributedtofortypoorscholarsoftheUniversity."Thecustom, withsomemodifications,survivedtheReformation,anditwasnottill thenineteenthcenturythattheMayorofOxfordceasedtohavecause toregretthebattleofStScholastica'sDay. TheaccountsofStScholastica'sDayandofmostotherriotswhich(p.127) havecomedowntousarewrittenfromthestandpointofthescholars, buttherecordsofthecityofOxfordgivelessdetailedbutnotless credibleinstancesofassaultsbymembersoftheUniversity.Onthe eveofStJohnBaptist'sDayin1306,forexample,thetailorsof OxfordwerecelebratingMidsummer"cumCytharisViellisetaliis

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diversisinstrumentis."Aftermidnight,theywentout"deshoppis suis"anddancedandsanginthestreets.Aclerk,irritatedbythe noise,attackedthemwithadrawnsword,woundedoneofthem,andwas himselfmortallywoundedintheskirmish.Oftwentyninecoroners' inquestswhichhavebeenpreservedfortheperiod12971322,thirteen aremurderscommittedbyscholars.Attacksontownsmenwerenotmere undergraduatefollies,butwerecountenancedandevenledbyofficials oftheUniversity,_e.g._onaMarchnightin1526oneoftheproctors "sateupponablockeinthestreeteaforetheshoppeofoneRobert Jermyns,abarber,havingeapoleaxeinhishand,ablackcloakeon hisbacke,andahattonhishead,"andorganisedariotinwhichmany townsmenwere"strikendowneandsorebeaten."Citizens'houseswere attackedand"thesaideProctourandhiscompany...calledforfire," threateningtoburnthehouses,andinsultingtheinmateswith opprobriousnames.Whensuchanincidentasthiswaspossible,it(p.128) wasoflittleusefortheUniversitytoissueregulationsorevento punishlessexaltedsinners,andthetownmusthavesufferedmuchfrom theoutragesofscholarsandofthe"chamberdekens"orpretended scholarsoftheUniversity,whowereresponsibleformuchofthe mischief.AtParisthingsbecamesobadthattheParlementhadto issueaseriesofpoliceregulationstosuppressthebandsof scholars,orpretendedscholars,whowanderedaboutthestreetsat night,disguisedandarmed.Theyattackedpassersby,andiftheywere woundedintheaffray,theirmedicalfriends,wearetold,dressed theirwounds,sothattheyeludeddiscoveryinthemorning.The historyofeveryUniversitytownprovidesinstancesofstreet conflictstherecordsofOrleansandToulouseaboundinthembutwe mustbecontentwithatalefromLeipsic. Thepagesofthe"ActaRectorum"atLeipsicarefullofillustrations ofthewildersideofstudentlife,fromwhichweextractthestoryof oneunhappyyear.Theyear1545openedverybadly,saysthe"Rector's Chronicle,"withthreehomicides.OnHolyInnocents'Day,abachelor wasmurderedbyaskinnerinastreetriot,andthemurderer,though hewasseenbysomerespectablecitizens,wasallowedtoescape.A studentwhokilledamanonthenightoftheSundayafterthe(p.129) EpiphanywaspunishedbytheUniversityinaccordancewithits statutes(_i.e._byimprisonmentforlifeinthebishop'sprison).The thirdmurderwasthatofayoungbachelorwhowaswalkingoutsidethe city,whentwosonsofrusticsintheneighbourhoodfellonhimand killedhim.Theirnameswereknown,butthecityauthoritiesrefused totakeaction,andthepopulace,believingthattheywouldnotbe punished,pursuedthemembersoftheUniversitywithcontinuedinsults andthreats.Afteranunusuallyseriousattack_cumbombardis_,(in which,"bythedivineclemency,"ayoungmechanicwaswounded),the University,failingtoobtainredress,appealedtoPrinceMauriceof Saxony,whopromisedtoprotecttheUniversity.Aconferencebetween theUniversityandthecityauthoritiestookplace,andedictsagainst carryingarmswerepublished,buttheskinnersimmediatelyindulgedin anotheroutrage.Oneofthem,HansvonBuntzellonWhitsunday, attacked,withadrawnsword,thesonofadoctorofmedicine,"a youth(asallagree)mostguiltless,"andwoundedhiminthearm,and ifanotherstudenthadnotunexpectedlyappeared,"wouldwithoutdoubt havekilledthisexcellentboy."Thecriminalwaspursuedtothehouse ofaskinnercalledMeysen,wherehetookrefuge.Thecityauthorities, inspiredbythePrince'sintervention,offeredtoimposethree(p.130) alternativesentences,andtheUniversitywasaskedtosaywhether HansvonBuntzellshouldloseoneofhishands,orbepubliclywhipped andbanishedfortenyears,orshouldhaveacertainstigma("quod essetmanusamittendaesignum")burnedinhishandandbebanished. TheUniversityrepliedthatitwasforthecitytocarryoutthe commandsofthePrince,anddeclinedtoselectthepenalty.Onthe followingMondayascaffoldwaserectedinthemarketplace,onwhich wereplacedrodsandaknifeforcuttingoffthehand,"which apparatuswasthoughtbytheskinnerstobemuchtoofierceandcruel, andaconcoursebeganfromallparts,composednotofskinnersalone, butofmechanicsofeverykind,intercedingwiththeCouncilforthe criminal."Thepleadingsofthemultitudegainedtheday,andallthe preparationswereremovedfromthemarketplaceamidthemurmursof thestudents.Aftersupper,threeseniormembersoftheskinnerscame totheRector,beggingforacommutationofthepunishment,andoffering tobeatHansthemselvesinpresenceofrepresentativesofthe UniversityandtheTownCouncil,withgreaterferocitythanthepublic executionercoulddoifheweretowhiphimthreetimesinpublic.The RectorrepliedthathemustconsulttheUniversity,andtheproposal wasthrownoutinCongregation.OntheSaturdayaftertheFeastof(p.131) Trinity,thestigmawasburnedonthecriminal'shand,andasa necessaryconsequencehewasbanished. Townriotsdonotcompletethetaleofviolence.Therewerestruggles withJews,andaJewishrowatOxfordin1268resultedintheerection

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ofacross,withthefollowinginscription: Quismeusauctorerat?Judaei.Quomodo?SumptuQuisjussit? Regnans.Quoprocurante?Magistri.Cur?Cruceprofractaligni. Quotempore?FestoAscensusDomini.Quisestlocus?Hicubi sisto. Clerks'enemieswerenotalwaysbeyondtheirownhousehold.The historyofParis,theearlierhistoryofOxford,andtherecordof manyanotherUniversitygiveusinstancesofmortalcombatsbetween theNations.ThescholarsofParis,inthethirteenthandfourteenth centuries,hadtofacethemortalenmityofthemonksoftheAbbeyof StGermain,themeadowinfrontofwhichwasclaimedbytheFacultyof Arts.ThesightofParisstudentswalkingorplayingonthe PrauxclercshadmuchthesameeffectupontheAbbotandmonksas thefamousdonkeyshaduponthestrongmindedauntofDavid Copperfield,butthemeasurestheytookforsuppressingthenuisance werelessexactlyproportionedtotheoffence.Onesummerdayin1278, mastersandscholarswentforrecreationtothemeadow,whenthe(p.132) Abbotsentoutarmedservantsandretainersofthemonasterytoattack them.Theycameshouting"Admortemclericorum,"deathtotheclerks, "verbiscrudelibus,_admortemadmortem_,inhumaniterpluries repetitis."A"famousBachelorofArts"andotherclerkswereseriously woundedandthrownintohorribledungeons;anothervictimlostaneye. Theretreatintothecitywascutoff,andfugitiveswerepursuedfar intothecountry.Bloodflowedfreely,andthescholarswhoescaped returnedtotheirhallswithbrokenheadsandlimbsandtheirclothes torntofragments.Someofthevictimsdiedoftheirwounds,andthe monkswerepunishedbyKingandPope,theAbbotbeingpensionedoff andtheAbbeycompelledtoendowtwochaplainstosaymassesfor scholars.FortyyearslatertheUniversityhadagaintoappealtothe PopetoavengeassaultsbyretainersoftheAbbeyuponscholarswho werefishinginthemoatoutsidetheAbbeywalls.Themonks,of course,mayhavegivenadifferentversionoftheincidents.

CHAPTERVIII(p.133) SUBJECTSOFSTUDY,LECTURESANDEXAMINATIONS ThestudentofamedievalUniversitywas,aswehaveseen,expectedto converseinLatin,andallinstructionwasgiveninthatlanguage.It wasthereforeessentialthat,beforeenteringontheUniversity curriculum,heshouldhaveacompetentknowledgeofLatin.College foundersattemptedtosecurethisinvariousways,sometimesbyan examination(_e.g._attheCollegeofCornouaille,atParisnoonewas admittedabursaruntilhewasexaminedandfoundtobeabletoread) andsometimesbymakingprovisionforyoungboystobetaughtbya masterofgrammar.TheFounderofNewCollegemetthedifficultyby thefoundationofWinchesterCollege,atwhichallWykehamists(except theearliestmembersofNewCollege)weretobethoroughlygroundedin Latin.ItwasmoredifficultforaUniversitytoinsistuponsucha test,butin1328,theUniversityofParishadorderedthatbeforea youthwasadmittedtotheprivilegesof"scholarity"orstudentship, hemustappearbeforetheRectorandmakehisownapplicationin continuousLatin,withoutanyFrenchwords.Formulaeforthis(p.134) purposewould,doubtless,soonbeinventedandhandeddownby tradition,andtheprecautioncannothavebeenofmuchpractical value.TherewereplentyofgrammarschoolsintheMiddleAges,anda cleverboywaslikelytofindapatronandaplaceofeducationinthe neighbourhoodofhishome.ThegrammarschoolsinUniversitytownshad thereforeoriginallynospecialimportance,butmanyofthe undergraduateswhocameupatthirteenorfourteenrequiredsome trainingsuchasWilliamofWaynfleteprovidedforhisyoungerdemies inconnexionwiththeGrammarSchoolwhichheattachedtoMagdalen,or suchasWalterdeMertonconsidereddesirablewhenheordainedthat thereshouldbeaMasterofGrammarinhisCollegetoteachthepoor boys,andthattheirseniorsweretogotohiminanydifficulty withoutanyfalseshame("absquerubore").Manyuniversitiesextended certainprivilegestoboysstudyinggrammar,byplacingtheirnameson matriculationrolls,thoughsuchmatriculationwasnotpartofthe curriculumforadegree.MastersinGrammarwerefrequently,butnot necessarily,Universitygraduates;atParisthereweregrammar mistressesaswellasgrammarmasters.Theconnexionbetweenthe grammarschoolsandtheUniversitywasexceptionallycloseatOxford andCambridge,wheredegreesingrammarcametobegiven.The(p.135) UniversityofOxfordearlylegislatedfor"inceptors"whoweretaking degreesingrammar,andorderedthegrammarmasterswhoweregraduates

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toenrol,_proforma_,thenamesofpupilsofnongraduates,andto compelnongraduatemasterstoobeytheregulationsoftheUniversity. Ameetingofthegrammarmasterstwiceatermfordiscussionsabout theirsubjectandthemethodofteachingitwasalsoorderedbythe University,whichultimatelysucceededinwrestingtherightof licensinggrammarmastersfromtheArchdeaconorotherofficialto whomitnaturallybelonged.Afourteenthcenturycodeofstatutesfor theOxfordgrammarschoolsorderstheappointmentoftwoMastersof Artstosuperintendthem,andgivessomeminuteinstructionsaboutthe teaching.Grammarmastersaretosetversesandcompositions,tobe broughtnextdayforcorrection;andtheyaretobespeciallycareful toseethattheyoungerboyscanrecognisethedifferentpartsof speechandparsethemaccurately.Inchoosingbookstoreadwiththeir pupils,theyaretoavoidthebooksofOvid"deArteAmandi"and similarworks.BoysaretobetaughttoconstrueinFrenchaswellas inEnglish,lesttheybeignorantoftheFrenchtongue.Thestudyof Frenchwasnotconfinedtothegrammarboys:theUniversityrecognised thewisdomoflearningalanguagenecessaryforcomposing(p.136) charters,holdinglaycourts,andpleadingintheEnglishfashion,and lecturesinFrenchwerepermittedatanyhourthatdidnotinterfere withtheregularteachingofArtssubjects.Suchlectureswereunder thecontrolofthesuperintendentsofthegrammarmasters. ThedegreeswhichOxfordandCambridgeconferredinGrammardidnot involveresidenceorentitletherecipientstoavoteinConvocation; buttheconfermentwasaccompaniedbyceremonieswhichwerealmost parodiesofthesolemnproceedingsofgraduationorinceptionina recognisedFaculty,abirchtakingtheplaceofabookasasymbolof thepowerandauthorityentrustedtothegraduand.Asixteenthcentury EsquireBedelofCambridgeleft,forthebenefitofhissuccessors, detailsoftheformforthe"enteryngofaMasterinGramer."The "Father"oftheFacultyofGrammar(atCambridgethemysterious individualknownasthe"MasterofGlomery")broughthis"sons"toSt Mary'sChurchforeighto'clockmass."Whenmassisdone,fyrstshall begynnetheacteinGramer.TheFathershallhavehyssetemadebefore theStageforPhysyke(oneoftheplatformserectedinthechurchfor doctorsofthedifferentfaculties,etc.)andshallsyttealofteunder thestageforPhysyke.TheProctourshallsay,Incipiatis.Whenthe FatherhathargyudeasshallplesetheProctour,theBedeyllin(p.137) ArteshallbringtheMasterofGramertotheVycechancelar,delyveryng hymaPalmerwythaRodde,whychtheVycechancelarshallgyvetothe seydeMasterinGramer,andsocreatehymMaster.Thenshallthe BedellpurvayforeverymasterinGramerashrewdeBoy,whomthe masterinGramershallbeteopenlyeintheScolys,andthemasterin GramershallgivetheBoyaGroteforHysLabour,andanotherGroteto hymthatprovydeththeRodeandthePalmer&c.desingulis.Andthus endythetheActeinthatFacultye."Weknowoftheexistenceof similarceremoniesatOxford."Hadtheambitiontotakethesedegrees inGrammarbeenwidelydiffused,"saysDrRashdall,"thedemandfor whippingboysmighthavepressedratherhardlyupontheyouthof Oxford;butveryfewofthemarementionedintheUniversity Register." ThebasisofthemedievalcurriculuminArtsistobefoundinthe SevenLiberalArtsoftheDarkAges,dividedintothe_Trivium_ (Grammar,RhetoricandDialectic)andthe_Quadrivium_(Music, Arithmetic,GeometryandAstronomy).The_Quadrivium_wasof comparativelylittleimportance;GeometryandMusicreceivedsmall attention;andArithmetic,andAstronomywereatfirstchieflyuseful forfindingthedateofEaster;buttheintroductionofmathematical learningfromArabiansourcesinthethirteenthcenturygreatly(p.138) increasedthescopeofGeometryandArithmetic,andaddedthestudyof Algebra. TheGrammartaughtintheuniversitiesassumedaknowledgeofsucha textbookasthatofAlexanderdeVillaDei,andconsistedofan analysisofthesystemsofpopulargrammarians,basedonthesection _Debarbarismo_inthe_ArsGrammatica_ofliusDonatus,a fourthcenturygrammarian,whoseworkbecameuniversallyused throughoutEurope.Latinpoetswerereadinthegrammarschools,and servedforgrammaticalandphilologicalexpositionsinthe universities,andthestudyofRhetoricdependedlargelyonthe treatisesofCicero.The"Dialectic"ofthe_Trivium_wasthereal interestofthemedievalstudentamongtheancientsevensubjects,but thecurriculuminArtscametoincludealsothethreePhilosophies, Physical,Moral,andMetaphysical.ThearmsoftheUniversityof Oxfordconsistofabookwithsevenclaspssurroundedbythreecrowns, theclaspsrepresentingthesevenLiberalArtsandthecrownsthe threePhilosophies.Theuniversitieswereschoolsofphilosophy, mentalandphysical,andtheattentionofstudentsinArtswaschiefly directedtothelogic,metaphysics,physics,andethicsofAristotle.

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Uptothetwelfthcentury,Aristotlewasknownonlythroughthe translationsintoLatinofthesectionsofthe_Organon_,(p.139) entitled_DeInterpretatione_and_Categoriae_,andthroughthe logicalworksofBoethius.Inthetwelfthandthirteenthcenturiesthe rangeofmedievalstudieswasgreatlyenlargedbytheintroductionof otherworksofAristotlefromtranslationspartlyfromtheArabicand partlydirectfromtheGreek.TheconservatismoftheUniversityof ParisatfirstforbadethestudyofthenewAristotle,butitsoon becameuniversalinthemedievaluniversities.Inadditiontothe worksofAristotle,astheywereknownintheMiddleAges,medieval studentsreadsuchbooksasPorphyry's_Isagoge_,orIntroductionto Aristotle;thecriticismofAristotle's_Categories_,byGilbertdela Porre,knownasthe_SexPrincipia_;the_SummulaeLogicales_,a semigrammatical,semilogicaltreatisebyPetrusHispanus(PopeJohn XXI.);the_ParvaLogicalia_ofMarsiliusofInghen;the_Labyrinthus_ and_Grecismus_ofEberhard;theScripturalcommentariesofNicolaus deLyra;the_TractatusdeSphaera_,anastronomicalworkbya thirteenthcenturyScotsman,JohnHolywood(JoannesdeSacroBosco); andtheyalsostudiedPriscian,Donatus,Boethius,Euclid,and Ptolemy.In1431the_NovaRhetorica_ofCicero,the_Metamorphoses_ ofOvid,andtheworksofVirgilwereprescribedatOxfordas alternativestothefourthbookofthe_Topica_ofBoethius.Bythe endofthecenturyHumanismhadfoundaplaceintheuniversities,(p.140) andsixteenthcenturycollegesatOxfordandCambridgeprovidedfor thestudyoftheliteraturesofGreeceandRome.InScotlandthe medievalteachingofAristotlereignedsupremeinallitsthree universitiesuntiltheappointmentofAndrewMelvilleasPrincipalat Glasgowin1574,andin1580hehadsomedifficultyinpersuadingthe mastersatStAndrewsto"peruseAristotleinhisainlanguage." Lectureswereeither"ordinary"or"cursory,"adistinctionwhich,as DrRashdallhasshown,correspondedtothe"ordinary"and "extraordinary"lecturesatBologna.Theordinarylectureswerethe statutableexercisesappointedbytheFaculty,anddeliveredbyits properlyaccreditedteachersinthehoursofthemorning,whichwere sacredtotheprelectionsofthemasters.Cursorylectureswere deliveredintheafternoon,frequentlybybachelors;butasCollege teachingbecamemoreimportantthanthelecturesgivenintheSchools, thedistinctiongraduallydisappeared.Ordinarylectureswere delivered"solemniter"andinvolvedaslowandmethodicalanalysisof thebook.ThestatutesofViennaprescribethatnomastershallread morethanonechapterofthetext"antequaestionemveletiam quaestioneexpedita."VariousreferencesinCollegeandUniversity statutesshowthatthecursorylecturewasnotregardedasthe(p.141) fullequivalentofanordinarylecture.AtOxford,attendanceona lectureonthebooksoranybookoftheMetaphysics,oronthe Physics,ortheEthics,wasnottocountforadegree,exceptinthe caseofabooklargelydealingwiththeopinionsoftheancients.The thirdandfourthbooksoftheMetaphysicswereexceptedfromtherule, "theybeingusuallyreadcursorily,thattheordinaryreadingofthe otherbooksmightproceedmorerapidly."Thecursorylecturewas clearlybelovedofthepupil,forOxfordgrammarmastersarereproved forlecturing"cursorie"insteadof"ordinarie"forthesakeofgain; andatVienna,thetariffforcursorylecturesisdoublethatfor ordinarylectures.AtParisthebooksofAristotledeDialecticawere toberead"ordinarieetnonadcursum,"andstudentsofmedicinehad toreadcertainbooks"semelordinarie,biscursorie."Thestatutesof Heidelbergcontrast"cursorie"with"extense."IntheFacultyofCanon Lawtherewasanadditionaldistinction,theordinarylecturebeing generallyrestrictedtotheDecretum;atOxford,thebookofDecretals istobereadatthemorninghoursatwhichthedoctorsoflaware wonttodeliverordinarylectures,andatViennathedoctorsare forbiddentoreadanythingbuttheDecretalsinthemorningat ordinarylectures.TheinstructionsgiventotheViennadoctorsof(p.142) lawillustratethethoroughnessofthemedievallectureinall faculties.Theyarefirsttostatethecasecarefully,thentoread thetext,thentorestatethecase,thentoremarkon"notabilia,"and thentodiscussquestionsarisingoutofthesubject,andfinally,to dealwiththeGlosses.So,atOxford,theMastersinArtsaretoread thebooksonlogicandthephilosophies"rite,"withthenecessaryand adequateexpositionofthetext,andwithquestionsandarguments pertinenttothesubjectmatter. Aproblem,stillunsolved,aboutthemethodsoflecturingdisturbed themindsoftheParisianmasters.Weretheytodictatelecturesorto speaksofastthattheirpupilscouldnotcommittheirwordsto writing?Fromthestandpointofteacherswhodeliveredfrequent lectures,allofthesametype,andonafewsetbooks,itwas probablydesirablethatthereshouldnotbeopportunitiesof possessingsuchcopiesofaprofessor'slecturesasusedtocirculate, notmanyyearsago,inScottishandinGermanuniversities.In1229

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theFacultyofArtsatParismadeastatuteonthemethodsof lecturing.Itexplainsthattherearetwowaysofreadingbooksinthe liberalarts.Themastersofphilosophymaydelivertheirexpositions fromtheirchairssorapidlythat,althoughthemindsoftheir audiencemaygrasptheirmeaning,theirhandscannotwriteit(p.143) down.This,theysay,wasthecustominotherfaculties.Theotherway istospeaksoslowlythattheirhearerscantakedownwhattheysay. Onmaturereflection,theFacultyhasdecidedthattheformeristhe betterway,andhenceforthinanylecture,ordinaryorcursory,orin anydisputationorothermannerofteaching,themasteristospeakas indeliveringaspeech,andasifnoonewerewritinginhispresence. Alecturerwhobreaksthenewruleistobesuspendedforayear,and ifthestudentsshowedtheirdisliketoit,byshouting,hissing, groaning,orthrowingstones,theyweretobesentdownforayear. Morethantwohundredyearslater,in1452,thestatutewasrescinded byCardinalEstoutville,butitwasprobablyneveroperative. Estoutvillepermittedeithermethodoflecturing,andcontented himselfwithforbiddinglecturerstousequestionsandlectureswhich werenotoftheirowncomposition,ortodelivertheirlectures (howevergood)tobereadbyoneoftheirscholarsasadeputy.He instructsthemasterstolectureregularlyaccordingtothestatutes andtoexplainthetextofAristotle,"depunctoinpunctum,"and, holdingthatfearandreverencearethelifebloodofscholastic discipline,herepeatsaninjunctionwhichwefindin1336,thatthe studentsinArtsaretositnotonbenchesorraisedseats,buton(p.144) thefloor,"utoccasiosuperbiaeajuvenibussecludatur."Thenameof thestreetinwhichlecturesweregiven,VicusStramineus,issaidto havebeenderivedfromthestrawonwhichthestudentssat.The questionwhetherlecturesshouldbecommittedtowritingornot, troubledthemastersofotheruniversitiesbesidesParis,andthe statutesoftheCollegedeVerdaleatToulouseaccept,in1337,the viewtakenatParisahundredyearsearlier.Sincestudyisavehement applicationofthemind,andrequiresthewholeman,thescholarsare forbiddentofatiguethemselveswithtoomanylecturesnotmorethan twoorthreeadayandinlecturetheyarenottotakedownthe lecturer'swords,nor,trustinginwritingsofthiskind,toblunt their"propriumintellectum."IntheSchools,theymustnotuse "incausta"orpencilsexceptforcorrectingabook,etc.Andwhatthey havebeenabletoretainintheirmemorytheymustmeditateonwithout delay. Theinsistenceonmeditationwasausefuleducationalmethod,butas teachingbecamemoreorganised,thestudentwasnotleftwithout guidanceinhismeditations.Thehelpwhichhereceivedoutside lectureswasgiveninRepetitionsorResumptions.Theprocedureat RepetitionsmaybeillustratedfromthestatutesoftheCollegeof DainvilleatParis:"Weordainthatallbursarsingrammarand(p.145) philosophyspeaktheLatintongue,andthatthosewhohearthesame bookordinarilyandcursorilyshallattendoneandthesamemaster (namely,onewhomthemaster[oftheCollege]assignstothem),and afterthelecturetheyshallreturnhomeandmeetinoneplaceto repeatthelecture.Oneafteranothershallrepeatthewholelecture, sothateachofthemmayknowitwell,andthelessadvancedshallbe bounddailytorepeatthelecturestothemoreproficient."Alater codeofthesameCollegeprovidesthat"Allwhostudyhumaneletters shall,oneverydayoftheschoolsreadinthemorningacomposition, thatisaspeechinLatin,Greekorthevernacular,totheirmaster, beingpreparedtoexpoundthewriterorhistorianwhoisbeingreadin dailylectureintheirschools.Attheendoftheweek,thatison FridayorSaturday,theyshallshowuptotheirmasterarsumofall thelecturestheyhavelearnedthatweek,andeverydaybeforetheygo totheschoolstheyshallbeboundtomakerepetitionstooneofthe philosophersorofthetheologianswhomthe[College]mastershall choose;forthiswork."AtLouvain,thetimebetween5A.M.andthe firstlecture(aboutseven)wasspentinstudyingthelessonthatthe studentsmightbetterunderstandthelecture;afterhearingit,they returnedtotheirownroomstoreviseitandcommitittomemory. Afterdinner,theirbookswereplacedonatable,andallthe(p.146) scholarsofoneFacultyrepeatedtheirlessonandansweredquestions. Asimilarperformancetookplaceinthetwohoursbeforesupper.After supper,thetutortreatedthemforhalfanhourtoa"jocumhonestum," andbeforesendingthemtobedgavethemalightandpleasant disputation.Thedisputationwasapreparationforthedisputations whichformedpartofwhatweshouldnowtermthedegreeexaminations. Athesiswaspropounded,attacked,anddefended("impugnedand propugned")withtheproperformsofsyllogisticreasoning. Theteaching,bothinlecturesandindisputations,wasoriginally Universityteaching,andtheyoungerMastersofArts,the"necessary regents,"wereboundtostayupforsomeyearsandlectureinthe Schools.Theywerepaidbytheirscholars,andtheoriginalmeaningof

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theword"Collections,"stillinfrequentuseatOxford,is traditionallysupposedtobefoundinthepaymentsmadeforlectures attheendofeachterm.Thus,atOxford,astudentpaidthreepencea term(oneshillingayear)tohisregentforlecturesinLogic,and fourpenceatermforlecturesinNaturalPhilosophy.Thesystemwas notasatisfactoryone,andalikeinParis,inOxford,andin Cambridge,itsuccumbedtothegrowthofCollegeteaching.TheHeadof aParisianCollege,fromthefirst,superintendedthestudiesof(p.147) thescholars,and,althoughthisdutywasnotrequiredofanOxfordor CambridgeHead,provisionwasgraduallymadeinthestatutesof Englishcollegesfortheinstructionofthejuniormembersbytheir seniors.Thefirstimportantstepinthisdirectionwastakenby WilliamofWykeham,whoorderedspecialpaymenttobemadebythe CollegetoFellowswhoundertookthetuitionoftheyoungerFellows. Hisexamplewasfollowedinthis,asinothermatters,bysubsequent foundersbothatOxfordandatCambridge,andgraduallyUniversity teachingwas,intheFacultyofArts,almostentirelysupersededby Collegetuition.Inotheruniversities,lecturescontinuedtobegiven byUniversityofficials. Themedievalundergraduateshadatendencyto"rag"inlectures,a traditionwhichisalmostunknownatOxfordandCambridge,butwhich persistedtillquiterecenttimesintheScottishuniversities. Prohibitionsofnoiseanddisturbanceinlectureroomsaboundinall statutes.AtVienna,studentsinArtsareexhortedtobehavelike youngladies(morevirginum)andtorefrainfromlaughter,murmurs, andhisses,andfromtearingdowntheschedulesinwhichthemasters givenoticeoftheirlectures.AtPrague,also,theconductofyoung ladieswasheldupasamodelforthestudentatlecture,and,at Angers,studentswhohissedincontemptofadoctorweretobe expelled. Thecareerofastudentwasdividedintotwopartsbyhis(p.148) "Determination,"aceremonywhichistheoriginoftheBachelor's degree.AtParis,where,atalleventsintheearlierperiodofits history,examinationswerereal,the"Determination"wasprecededby "Responsions,"andnocandidatewasadmittedtodetermineuntilhehad satisfiedaRegentMasterintheSchools,inpublic,"deQuestione respondens."Thedeterminationitselfwasapublicdisputation,after whichthedeterminermightwearthebachelor's"cappa"andlectureon theOrganon.Hecontinuedhisattendanceonthelecturesinthe Schoolsuptothetimeofhis"Inception"asamaster.TheInception wasprecededbyanexaminationforlicenceandbyadisputationknown astheQuodlibetica,atwhichthesubjectwaschosenbythecandidate. ThebachelorwhowassuccessfulinobtainingtheChancellor'slicence proceededtotheceremonyofInception,andreceivedhismaster's _biretta_. Thestringencyofexaminationsvariedindifferentuniversitiesandat differenttimes.Theproportionofsuccessfulcandidatesseemstohave beeneverywhereverylarge,andinsomeuniversitiesrejectionmust havebeenalmostunknown.Wedofindreferencestodisappointed candidates,_e.g._atCaen,wheremedicalstudentswhohavebeen "ploughed"havetotakeanoathnottobring"malumveldamnum"upon theexaminers.ButevenatLouvain,wheretheexaminationsystem(p.149) wasfullydevelopedintheMiddleAges,andwheretherewereclass listsinthefifteenthcentury(theclassesbeingdistinguishedas _Rigorosi_,_Transibiles_,and_Gratiosi_),failurewasregardedasan exceptionalevent("siautem,quodabsit,aliquiinveniantur simplicitergratiosiseurefutabiles,eruntdequartoordine").The regulationsforexaminationsatLouvainprescribethattheexaminers arenottoaskdisturbingquestions("animoturbandiautconfundendi promovendos")andforbidunfairtreatmentofpupilsofparticular mastersandfrivolousoruselessquestions;althoughathis Quodlibeticum,thebachelormightindulgein"jocosasquestionesad auditoriirecreationem."Theelementofdisplayimpliedinthelast quotationwasneverabsentfrommedievalexaminations,andatOxford, thereseemstohavebeenlittlebesidesthisceremonialelement.A candidatehadtoprovethathehadcompliedwiththeregulationsabout attendanceatlectures,etc.,andtoobtainevidenceoffitnessfroma numberofmasters.Abachelorhadtodisputeseveraltimeswitha master,andthesedisputations,whichwereheldattheAugustinian Convent,cametobeknownas"doingAustins."Themedievalsystem,as itlingeredatOxfordinthecloseoftheeighteenthcentury,isthus describedbyVicesimusKnox. "TheyouthwhoseheartpantsforthehonourofaBachelorof(p.150) Artsdegreemustwaitpatientlytillnearfouryearshave revolved....Heisobligedduringthisperiod,oncetoopposeand oncetorespond....Thisopposingandrespondingistermed,in thecantoftheplace,_doinggenerals_.Twoboysormen,asthey

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callthemselves,agreeto_dogenerals_together.Thefirststep inthismightyworkistoprocurearguments.Thesearealways handeddown,fromgenerationtogeneration,onlongslipsof paper,andconsistoffoolishsyllogismsonfoolishsubjects,of thefoundationorsignificanceofwhichtherespondentand opponentseldomknowmorethananinfantinswaddlingcloaths. Thenextstepistogofora_liceat_tooneofthepetty officers,calledtheRegentMasteroftheSchools,whosubscribes hisnametothequestionsandreceivessixpenceashisfee.When theimportantdayarrives,thetwodoughtydisputantsgointoa largedustyroom,fullofdirtandcobwebs....Heretheysitin meandesks,oppositetoeachotherfromoneo'clocktillthree. Notonceinahundredtimesdoesanyofficerenter;and,ifhe does,hehearsasyllogismortwo,andthenmakesabow,and departs,ashecameandremained,insolemnsilence.The disputantsthenreturntotheamusementofcuttingthedesks, carvingtheirnames,orreadingSterne'sSentimentalJourney,or someotheredifyingnovel.Whentheexerciseisdulyperformedby bothparties,theyhavearighttothetitleandinsigniaof _Sophs_:butnotbeforetheyhavebeenformally_created_(p.151) byoneoftheregentmasters,beforewhomtheykneel,whilehe laysavolumeofAristotle'sworksontheirheads,andputsona hood,apieceofblackcrape,hangingfromtheirnecks,anddown totheirheels....Thereremainonlyoneortwotriflingforms, andanotherdisputationalmostexactlysimilarto_doing generals_,butcalled_answeringunderbachelor_previoustothe awfulexamination.Everycandidateisobligedtobeexaminedin thewholecircleofthesciencesbythreemastersofarts_ofhis ownchoice_...._Schemes_,astheyarecalled,orlittlebooks containingfortyorfiftyquestionsoneachscience,arehanded downfromagetoage,fromonetoanother.Thecandidateemploys threeorfourdaysinlearningthesebyheart,andtheexaminers, havingdonethesamebeforehim,knowwhatquestionstoask,and soallgoesonsmoothly.Whenthecandidatehasdisplayedhis universalknowledgeofthesciences,heistodisplayhisskill inphilology.Oneofthemastersthereforeaskshimtoconstruea passageinsomeGreekorLatinclassic,whichhedoeswithno interruption,justashepleases,andaswellashecan.The statutesnextrequirethatheshouldtranslatefamiliarEnglish phrasesintoLatin.Andnowisthetimewhenthemastersshow theirwitandjocularity....Thisfamiliarity,however,only takesplacewhentheexaminersarepotcompanionsofthe candidate,whichindeedisusuallythecase;foritisreckoned goodmanagementtogetacquaintedwithtwoorthreejolly(p.152) youngmastersofarts,andsupplythemwellwithportpreviously totheexamination.Ifthevicechancellorandproctorshappento entertheschool,averyuncommonevent,thenalittlesolemnity isputon....Asneithertheofficer,noranyoneelse,usually enterstheroom(foritisreckonedvery_ungenteel_),the examinersandthecandidatesoftenconverseonthelast drinkingbout,oronhorses,orreadthenewspapersoranovel." Thesupplyofportwastheeighteenthcenturyrelicofthefeasts whichusedtoaccompanyDeterminationandInception,andwithwhichso manysumptuaryregulationsofcollegesanduniversitiesareconcerned. ThereisareferencetoaDeterminingFeastinthePastonLetters,in whichtheillfatedWalterPaston,writinginthesummerof1479,a fewweeksbeforehisprematuredeath,saystohisbrother:"Andyfye wylknowwhatdayIwasmeadBaschyler,IwasmaadonFrydaywas sevynyth,andImadmyfestontheMundayafter.Iwaspromysyd venysonageynmyfestofmyLadyHarcort,andofanodermanto,butI wasdesevydofboth;butmygesteshewldthemplesydwithsuchmeteas theyhad,blyssydbeGod.HoohaveyeoinHyskeeping.WretynatOxon, ontheWedenysdaynextafterSeyntPeter." AfewglimpsesofthelifeofthisfifteenthcenturyOxonianmay(p.153) concludeoursurvey.WalterPastonhadbeensenttoOxfordin1473, underthechargeofapriestcalledJamesGloys.Hismotherdidnot wishhimtoassociatetoocloselywiththesonoftheirneighbour, ThomasHoller."Iwold,"shesays,"Walterschuldbecopiletwitha betterthanHollersonis...howebeitIwoldnotthatheschuld makeneverthelesseofhym,bycauseheishiscontremanand neghbour."Theboywasinstructedto"doowelle,lernewell,andbeof goodrewleanddisposycion,"andGloyswasaskedto"byddehymthathe benottohastyoftakyngoforderesthatschuldbyndhim."Totake Ordersundertwentythreeyearsofagemightlead,inMargaret Paston'sopinion,torepentanceatleisure,and"Iwilllovehym bettertobeagoodsecularmanthantobealewitpriest."Wenext hearofWalterinMay1478whenhewritestohismotherrecommending himselftoher"goodmoderchypp,"andaskingformoney.Hehas received5,16s.6d.,andhisexpensesamountto6,5s.5d."That

Pgina 44
comthoverthereseytysinmyexspensesIhaveborrowedofMaster Edmundandytdrawethto8shillings."Hemighthaveappliedfora loantooneofthe"chests"whichbenevolentdonorshadfoundedfor suchemergencies,depositingsomearticleofvalue,andreceivinga temporaryloan:buthepreferredtoborrowfromhisnewtutor,(p.154) EdmundAlyard.ByMarch1479,Alyardwasabletoreassuretheanxious motheraboutherboy'schoiceofacareer;hewastogotolaw,taking hisBachelor'sdegreeinArtsatMidsummer.Hisbrother,SirJohn,who wasstayingattheGeorgeatPaul'sWharfinLondon,intendedtobe presentattheceremony,buthislettermiscarried:"MartinBrownhad thatsametymemyschmonyinabage,sothathedurstnotbryngyt withhym,andthatsameletterwasinthatsamebage,andhehad forgetetotakeowttheletter,andhesentalltogederbyLondon,so thatytwasthenextdayafterthatIwasmaadBachylerorthanthe lettercam,andsothefawtwasnotinme."Thisisthelastwehear ofWalterPaston.Onhiswayhome,onthe18thAugust1479,hediedat Norwich,afterashortillness.Heleftanumberof"togae"tohis Oxfordfriends,includingRobertHoller,thesonofhisNorfolk neighbour,towhomhealsobequeathed"unumpulvinarvocatum_le bolstar_."TherestofhisOxfordgoodshelefttoAlyard,buthis sheepandhislandstohisownfamily.Thecostofhisillnessand funeralamountedtoaboutthirtyshillings.Nobooksarementionedin thewill;possiblytheyweresoldforhisinceptionfeast,orhemay neverhavepossessedany.Asajuniorstudent,hewouldnothavebeen allowedtousethegreatlibrarywhichHumphreyofGloucesterhad(p.155) presentedtotheUniversity;butthereweresmallerlibrariestowhich hemighthaveaccess,forbooksweresometimeschainedupinStMary's Churchthatscholarsmightreadthem.

APPENDIX (p.157) Myattentionhasbeencalled(toolateforareferenceinthetext)to amedievalLatinpoemgivingagloomyaccountofstudentlifeinParis inthetwelfthcentury.Theverses,whichhavebeenprintedinthe _AmericanJournalofPhilology_(vol.xi.p.80),insistuponthe hardshipsofthestudent'slife,andcontrasthismiserablecondition withthehappierlotofthecitizensofParis.Forhimthereisno rejoicinginthedaysofhisyouth,andnohopeevenofacompetence inthefuture.Hislodgingsarewretchedandneglected;hisdressis miserable,andhisappearanceslovenly.Hisfoodconsistsofpeas, beans,andcabbage,and "libido Mensnullavenitnisiquodsalesparsarigorem Escaparumflectit." Hisbedisahardmattressstretchedonthefloor,andsleepbrings himonlyameagrerespitefromthetoilsoftheday: "Sedinillapacesoporis Pacisegetstudiilaborinsopitus,etipso Curavigilsomno,librosoperamqueministrat Excitsomnusanim,necprimasopori Anxietascedit,sedquvigilaveratante Sollicitudoredit,etmajorsummalaboris CurarumstudiisinsomnibusobicitHydram." Intheearlyhoursofthemorninghegoestohislectures,andthe(p.158) wholeofhisdayisgiventostudy.Thedescriptionofthestudentat lectureisinteresting: "Aureetmentebibitetverbacadentiapromo Promptusutroquelevat,oculiqueetmentisinillo Fixavigilquemanetaciesaurisquemaritat PronubadilectamcupidacummeuteMinervam."

SELECTEDBIBLIOGRAPHY(p.159) Savigny:GeschichtederrmischenRechtsimMittelalter.(Heidelberg, 1834.) SirWilliamHamilton:DiscussionsonPhilosophyandLiterature, Education,andUniversityReform.(London,1852.)

Pgina 45

Denifle:DieEntstehungderUniversittendesMittelaltersbis1400. (Berlin,1885.) Rashdall:TheUniversitiesofEuropeintheMiddleAges.(Oxford, 1895.) Kaufmann:GeschichtederDeutschenUniversitten.(Stuttgart,1888.) ArticleonUniversitiesinthe_EncyclopdiaBritannica_. ArchivfrLit.u.KirchengeschichtedesMittelalters.JuristStatutes ofPadua(1331)invol.vi.;Salamancadocumentsinvol.v. Malagola:Statutidellauniversitedeicollegidellostudio bolognese.(Bologna,1888.) DenifleandChatelain:ChartulariumUniversitatisParisiensis.(Paris, 18891897.) (ManyofthestatutesoftheCollegesofPariswillbefoundscattered throughFelibien:HistoiredelaVilledeParis.Paris,1725.) AntonyWood:HistoryandAntiquitiesoftheUniversityofOxford.(Ed. Gutch.Oxford,17926.) HistoryandAntiquitiesoftheCollegesandHallsinthe UniversityofOxford.(Ed.Gutch.Oxford,1786.) Anstey:MunimentaAcademica.(RollsSeries,1868.) StatutesoftheCollegesofOxford.(London,1853.) Clark:TheCollegesofOxford.(London,1892.) (ThebestaccountofOxfordwillbefoundinvol.ii.,Partii.,ofDr Rashdall's"UniversitiesofEurope."Therearetwoshorthistories (p.160)oftheUniversitybyMaxwellLyte(London,1886)andBrodrick (London,1886.).) DocumentsrelatingtotheUniversityandCollegesofCambridge. (London,1852.) Mullinger:TheUniversityofCambridgefromtheEarliestTimestothe RoyalInjunctionsof1535.(Cambridge,1873.) IntwosubsequentvolumesMrMullingerhascontinuedthenarrativeto thelatterhalfoftheseventeenthcentury,andhehasalsowrittena short"HistoryoftheUniversityofCambridge."(EpochsofChurch History.London,1888.) Gherardi:StatutidellauniversitestudioFiorentino.(Florence, 1881.) Villanueva:StatutesoftheUniversityofLeridain"ViageLiterario lasIglesiasdeEspaa."T.xvi.(Madrid,1851.) MarcelFournier:LesStatutsetPrivilgesdesUniversitsfranaises depuisleurfondationjusqu'en1789.(Paris,189092.) DittrichundSpirk:MonumentaHistoricaUniversitatisPragensis. (Prague,1830.) Kink:GeschichtederKaiserl.Univ.zuWien.(Vienna,1854.) Hautz:GeschichtederUniversittHeidelberg.(Mannheim,1862.) Vernulus:AcademiaLovaniensis.(Louvain,1667.) Molanus:HistoriLovaniensium,ed.DeRam.(Brussels,1861.) Zarncke:DieStatutenbcherderUniv.Leipzig.(Leipzig,1861.) ActaRectorumUniv.Lipsiensis.(Leipzig,1858.) EvidencetakenandreceivedbytheScottishUniversitiesCommissioners of1826.(London,1837.) Innes:FastiAberdonenses.SpaldingClub.(Aberdeen,1854.)

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INDEX (p.163) Abelard,6. Aberdeen,Univ.of,105,106,107,1223. liusDonatus,138. Aix,Univ.of,39,112,114. AlexanderdeVillaDei,138. AlfonsotheWise,9. Alyard,Edmund,1534. Angers,Univ.of,7,147. Coll.ofBreuilat,90. Anselm,St,6. Arezzo,Studiumat,7. Aristotle,138143. Arts,TheSevenLiberal,1379. Avignon,Univ.of,88,112. CollegeofAnnecyat,113. CollegeofNotreDamedePitiat,88,90. ConfraternityofStSebastianat,112. BagleyWood,97. Bateman,Bishop,70. Boethius,139. Bologna,SpanishCollegeat,19,34,93. StudiumGeneraleat,6,8,9. Universitiesof,1134,44,467,48,140. Caen,Univ.of,148. Cahors,CollegeofStNicholasdePelegryat,89,91. Caius,Dr,61,68. Cambridge,Univ.of,3,7,10,120,1367,1467. Collegedisciplineat,4978. Collegesof Caius,61,68,70; Christ's,66,69,71; Clare,59; Jesus,67; King's,62,64,66; Peterhouse,58,62,63,69,72; Trinity,68; TrinityHall,70. Chaucer,ProloguetoCanterburyTales,13,73,74,75. Chichele,Archbishop,73. Cicero,138,139. College,meaningofword,5.

Pgina 47
Cologne,Univ.of,48. Dle,Univ.of,39. Eberhard,139. Ely,Bishopof,47. Erfurt,Univ.of,48. Estoutville,Cardinal,945,1434. Euclid,139. Farleigh,51,52. Florence,Univ.of,347. France,Universitiesof,12. FrederickBarbarossa,245. FrederickII.,8. Germany,Universitiesof,478,142. GilbertdelaPorre,139. Glasgow,Univ.of,105,106,140. Gloys,James,153. GregoryIX.,9. Hearne,Thomas,122. Heidelberg,Univ.of,48,1078,117,141. HenryII.,6. HenryVI.,58,61,63,66. HenryVIII.,58. Holler,Thomas,153. Robert,154. Holywood,John,139. Ingolstadt,Univ.of,105. InnocentIII.,42,43. IV.,7,9. JohnXXI.,139. XXII.,10. King,7,45. Knox,Vicesimus,149. Leipsic,Univ.of,48. CollegiumMaiusat,89. CollegiumMinusat,90. Universitydisciplineat,1025,108.

Pgina 48
"TownandGown"at,128131. Lerida,Univ.of,378. Lincoln,Seeof,45,46. Louvain,Univ.of,48,1456,149. University,disciplineat,1012,116. Lyons,Studiumat,7,9. Lyra,Nicolausde,139. Maldon,51,52,54. Marsilius,139. Melville,Andrew,140. Modena,Studiumat,7,9. Merton,Walterde,506,134. Montpellier,Univ.of,7. CollegeofDouzeMedecinsat,89. CollegeofStBenedictat,913. CollegeofSaintRufat,89,90. Naples,Univ.of,8. "Nations,"14,15,18,19,20,43,44,46,78,79,131. NicholasIV.,9,10. Orleans,Univ.of,7,115,128. Ovid,139. Oxford,Univ.of,6,10,39,45,47,49,120,133142,146, 147,149155. Collegedisciplineat,4978. Universitydisciplineat,95101. "TownandGown"at,124128. Oxford,Collegesof Balliol,71,122; Brasenose,66,67,122; ChristChurch,68; CorpusChristi,60,67,68,72,105; Jesus,59; Lincoln,77; Magdalen,62,66,134; Merton,506,60,67,120,121,122,134; NewCollege,57,58,59,60,61,62,63,64,66,67,71,76,77, 120,133,147; Pembroke,68; Queen's,59,61,63,74,77; Worcester,68. Oxford,Hallsof HaburdayshHall,98; PaulineHall,97; PeckwaterInn,97. Padua,Univ.of,7,10,34. Palencia,Studiumat,7. Paris,Univ.of,6,7,9,11,40,415,49,128,133,134,139, 141,1426,148,1578.

Pgina 49

Collegedisciplineat,7888. "JocundAdvent"at,109112. Univ.disciplineat,945. Paris,Collegesof Cambray,111; Clugny,88; Cornouaille,83,84,85,86,111,133; Dainville,87,111,1446; LeMans,79,84; Marmoutier,86; Plessis,82; StBernard,83,85,86,110; Sorbonne,81,85,86,111,112; Tours,83; Treasurer's,79,80,87,111. Paston,John,154. Margaret,153. Walter,1525. Peckham,Archbishop,556. Perpignan,Univ.of,38. PetrusHispanus,139. PhilipAugustus,42. Plessis,Geoffreydu,82. Porphyry,139. Prague,Univ.of,48,116,147. Priscian,139. Ptolemy,139. Reggio,Studiumat,7. Reims,Studiumat,7. Rostock,Univ.of,48. Rouen,79,80,81. RudolfIV.,124. StAndrews,Univ.of,105,106,122. StScholastica'sDay,1256. Salamanca,Studiumat,7,9,39. Salerno,Univ.of,9. Saone,Guillaumede,79. Scayfe,Henry,77. Scotland,Universitiesof,48,105,140,142. Seggefyld,John,77. StudiumGenerale,meaningof,512. Toulouse,Univ.of,7,9,128. CollegedeFoixat,89. CollegedeVerdaleat,91,144.

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Universitas,meaningof,4,5,10,11. Valladolid,Studiumat,7. Vicenza,Studiumat,7. Vienna,Univ.of,48,124,140,141,142,147. Virgil,139. Waynflete,Williamof,66,134. Wingfield,SirE.,57. Wood,Antony,1202,125126. Wolsey,Cardinal,68. Wrzburg,Univ.of,48. Wykeham,Williamof,58,60,62,63,64,67,76,147. Zarncke,Friedrich,102. TURNBULLANDSPEARS,PRINTERS,EDINBURGH

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