Section 3.

4 Newtonian Mechanics
Objectives:
Determine the equation of motion of a body given its initial position and initial
velocity.
Newtonian mechanics, or classical mechanics is the study of large, slow-moving bodies
and the eect of the forces acting on those bodies. By large, we mean large compared to an
atom. By slow-moving, we mean slow compared to the speed of light. Newtonian mechanics
is based on Newtons laws of motion.
Newtons Laws of Motion
(1) When a body is subject to no external forces, it moves with a constant velocity.
(2) When a body is subject to one or more external forces, the time rate of change of
the bodys momentum is equal to the vector sum of the external forces acting on it.
(3) When one body interacts with a second body, the force of the rst body on the second
body is equal in magnitude, but opposite in direction, to the force of the second body
on the rst.
Newtons laws of motion have been veried for large, slow objects by more than two centuries
of experimental results.
We study the motion of these bodies using an inertial reference frame. This is a reference
frame in which an undisturbed body moves with a constant velocity. Newtons Second Law
applies to inertial reference frames. We shall use Newtons second law to derive the equations
of motion for a moving body.
Motion Equations
Let F(t, x, v) be the resultant force on a body at time t, location x, and velocity v. Let
p(t) be the momentum of the body. Momentum is the product of the bodys mass times its
velocity. That is,
p(t) = mv(t).
From Newtons Second Law we get
dp
dt
= F(t, x, v).
Since p(t) = mv(t), and m is constant,
dp
dt
= m
dv
dt
= ma
where a is the acceleration of the body. In this section, we shall only consider problems in
which the resultant force F does not depend on the bodys location x. Thus, we can express
1
Newtons Second Law with the rst order dierential equation
m
dv
dt
= F(t, v).
Procedure For Newtonian Models
(1) Determine all relevant forces acting on the body being studied. Draw a diagram that
depicts these forces.
(2) Choose an appropriate axis or coordinate system in which to represent the motion
of the body and the forces acting on it. This coordinate system must be an inertial
reference frame.
(3) Apply Newtons second law to determine the equation of motion for the body.
Mechanical Units
We use two system of units, the U.S. Customary System, and the meter-kilogram-second
(MKS) system. These systems, along with approximate values for gravitational acceleration
on earth, are summarized in the following table.
Unit U.S. Customary MKS System
Distance feet (ft) meters (m)
Mass slugs kilograms (kg)
Time seconds (sec) seconds (sec)
Force pounds (lb) newtons (N)
g 32ft/sec
2
9.81m/sec
2
Example (Generalized Motion Equation).
A body of mass m is given an initial downward velocity of v
0
and allowed to fall under the
inuence of gravity. Assuming the gravitational force is constant and the force due to air
resistance is proportional to the velocity of the body, determine the equation of motion of
the body.
Solution.
Two forces are acting on the body, the force of gravity, and the force of air resistance. The
force of air resistance is proportional to the velocity of the body and acts in opposition to
the motion of the body. The motion of the body will take place on a vertical axis. Choose
the origin to be the initial position of the body. That is, the point from which the body was
dropped. Let x(t) be the distance the body has fallen in time t.
The force of gravity is
F
1
= mg.
The force due to air resistance is
F
2
= bv(t),
2
where b > 0 is the constant of proportionality.
x(t)
t = 0
t
F
2
= -bv(t)
F
1
= mg
Forces on a falling body
The net force acting on the body is
F = F
1
+ F
2
= mg bv(t).
Apply Newtons Second Law to F, and the initial condition v(0) = v
0
, to get the initial value
problem
m
dv
dt
= mg bv, v(0) = v
0
.
This equation is separable and linear. We shall separate the variables and nd the velocity
function v.
m
dv
dt
= mg bv mdv = (mg bv) dt
_
dv
mg bv
=
_
1
m
dt
We shall use u-substitution on the left side, noting that m, g, and b are constants.
u = mg bv du = b dv
1
b
du = dv
Hence,
_
dv
mg bv
=
1
b
ln(mg bv)
Notice that mg bv > 0. Air resistance will not stop a falling body. Integrating the right
side we get

1
b
ln(mg bv) =
1
m
t + C.
Now, solve for v.

1
b
ln(mg bv) =
1
m
t ln(mg bv) =
b
m
t bC mg bv = e
(b/m)tbC

mg bv = e
bC
e
(b/m)t
Let A = e
bC
to get
mg bv = Ae
(b/m)t
.
3
Solving for v we get
v =
mg
b

A
b
e
(b/m)t
.
Use the initial condition to nd A.
v(0) = v
0
v
0
=
mg
b

A
b

A
b
=
mg
b
v
0
A = mg bv
0
.
Thus,
v =
mg
b

_
mg bv
0
b
e
(b/m)t
_
v =
mg
b
+
_
v
0

mg
b
_
e
(b/m)t
.
We nd the position function, x(t), by integrating v = dx/dt with respect to t and using the
initial condition x(0) = 0.
x(t) =
_
_
mg
b
+
_
v
0

mg
b
_
e
(b/m)t
_
dt =
mg
b
t
m
b
_
v
0

mg
b
_
e
(b/m)t
+ C.
x(0) = 0
m
b
_
v
0

mg
b
_
+ C = 0 C =
m
b
_
v
0

mg
b
_
.
The position function of the body is given by
x(t) =
mg
b
t
m
b
_
v
0

mg
b
_
e
(b/m)t
+
m
b
_
v
0

mg
b
_

x(t) =
mg
b
t +
m
b
_
v
0

mg
b
_
_
1 e
(b/m)t
_
.
Terminal Velocity
From the previous example, examine the velocity function as t .
lim
t
_
mg
b
+
_
v
0

mg
b
_
e
(b/m)t
_
=
mg
b
.
The value mg/b is called the terminal velocity of the body. We see that heavier (more
massive) bodies fall at a faster rate than lighter (less massive) bodies. However, the terminal
velocity is not dependent on the initial velocity. It doesnt matter if the body is thrown up,
thrown down, or allowed to drop, the terminal velocity is the same.
Example.
A body of mass 5 kg is released from rest 1,000 m above the ground and allowed to fall
under the inuence of gravity. Assume the force due to air resistance is proportional to the
velocity of the body with proportionality constant b = 50 N-sec/m. Determine the equation
of motion and determine when the body will strike the ground.
Solution.
The mass of the body is m = 5kg. The initial position of the body is
x(0) = 0m.
The initial velocity of the body is
v(0) = 0
m
sec
.
4
x(t)
t = 0
t
F
2
= -50v(t)
F
1
= (5)(9.81)=49.05 m/sec
m
dv
dt
= mg bv
5
dv
dt
= (5)(9.81) 50v
dv
dt
= 9.81 10v
_
dv
9.81 10v
=
_
dt

1
10
ln(9.81 10v) = t + C
ln(9.81 10v) = 10t + C
9.81 10v = Ce
10t

10v = 9.81 + Ce
10t

v = 0.981 + Ce
10t
.
Now, use the initial velocity to nd C.
v(0) = 0 0 = 0.981 + C C = 0.981
So, the velocity function is
v = 0.981 0.981e
10t
.
To nd the position function, we use the equation
dx
dt
= v.
5
dx
dt
= v
_
dx =
_
v dt
x =
_
_
0.981 0.981e
10t
_
dt
x = 0.981
_
_
1 e
10t
_
dt
x = 0.981
_
t +
1
10
e
10t
_
+ C.
Use the initial position to nd C.
x(0) = 0 0 = 0.981
1
10
+ C C = 0.0981.
The position function of the body is
x(t) = 0.981 + 0.0981e
10t
0.0981.
The body will strike the ground when x = 1, 000.
x(t) = 1, 000 1, 000 = 0.0981t + 0.0981e
10t
0.0981
1000.0981 = 0.981
_
t + 10e
10t
_
1019.47 = t + 10e
10t
This equation can not be solved explicitly for t. We can use our graphing calculator to
approximate the solution. I got t 1019.47 on the TI-83. We should observe that 10e
10t
approaches zero very rapidly. Thus, 10e
10t
is negligible and can be disregarded. So it will
take approximately 1019.47 seconds for the body to hit the ground.
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