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AnLnquiryConccrningthclrinciplcsofMorals
Da:id Hamr [
G

CnthcConncctionbctwccnusticcand !tility
S
Mi// +
G. istributivcjusticc
ja/a Kau/s
3
7

istributivcjusticc
Ka/rrt Nazic/
@
8. ' Social`oristributivcusticc
! A. :aa Hayr/ I I
7
9
CritiqucofthcGothalrogrammc
Kar/ Marx +@
+o. justiccand Kights
S/r:ra La/rs +G
vi
lotcsonContributors
lurthcrKcading
ndcx
CCNTNTS
DbI1\L ID
ALAN RYAN
jLSTI CE I N GENERAL
Mankindhasalwaysargucdabout j usticcandinjusticc,whilcsocial
scicntists and politicians havc cndlcssly discusscd thc conditions
which makcjusticc morc or lcss attainablc. Jhcsc cssays discuss a
morc philosophical issuc-what justicc is and why it mattcrs.
Although thcir authors wcrc philosophcrs, fcw of thcm wcrc
profcssional' philosophcrs, llatomayhavcplaycd anactivc partin
Athcnian politics, Ciccro was ccrtainly an important Koman
politician, avid Humc was a partisan historian, somctimc
diplomat, and man of lcttcrs, whilc john Stuart Mill carncd his
living by managing thc Last ndia Companys political rclations
withthcndianprincclystatcs.
Jhis is appropriatc.justicc is thc most political` or institutional
ofthc virtucs . Jhc lcgitimacyofa statc rcsts upon its claim to do
justicc. ' Jakcawayjusticc` , said St Augustinc, 'and what is a statc
but a largc robbcr band!' All cntcrpriscs ought to bc conductcd
justly, but thc statc cspccially must policc othcr institutions and
itscl oingjusticc is not thc primary purposc of thc family, thc
classroom, thc small busincss, cvcn though a fathcr, tcachcr, or
cmploycr ought to bchavc justly towards childrcn, pupils, or
cmployccs whcn rcaring thcm, tcaching thcm, and cmploying
thcm. Jhis introduction discusscs scvcral dilIcrcnccs in thc ways
thc authors ofthc cssays collcctcd hcrc undcrstoodjusticc and its
dcmands, but bcgin with thc pcculiarly institutional or political
qualityofjusticc,andwhatfollowsfromthat.
justicc ispcculiarlystringcnt . ts dcmands maynot bc modincd.
judgcs and rulcrs must ' do justicc though thc hcavcns fall` , not
allowfamilyconncctions,fricndship, orcvcnpcrsonalworthto turn
thcm asidc. Jhc court in Shakcspcarcs cnicc could havc turncd
Sccavidumc,bc|ow,pp. gjo]ohnKaw|s,A 7hcccjasticc Clarcndon
rcss.Cford, t g;z) ,h.
StAugustinc,7hcCic6cd,k. cnguin.armondsworth, g8) , g
` Though do not mcan to dcny Susan Ckin' s c|aim that rcccnt writcrs havc
cccssivc|y ncg|cctcdjusticc within thc fami|y, and havc ignorcd thc qucstions that
thc division oflabour in thcfami|y poscs for a thcoryofjusticc. ndccd, takc it for
grantcd that shc isquitc right Scchcrjasticc, 6cadcraadthcIami asicooks. Ncw
York, ggo) .
2 ALANRAN
downShylock`sdcmandfor apoundofhcshifitwassumcicnt that
hcwas illnaturcd, nobody's fricnd, andagraspingjcw. t was not.
Hc dcmandcdjusticc, not fricndship or approval. Hc had a valid
contract,anduntillortiacamcupwithadcviccforinvalidatingit,
hc could stand on his rights, cvcn thc right to a pound ofsomconc
clsc` scsh.
Stringcncy involvcs consistcncy. Shylock insistcd that contracts
must bc kcpt, not to suit thc fricnds of thc rulcrs of cnicc, but
contractsassuch.hcrcstof lifci smorccxiblc. Amanwhodrinks
tca atbrcakfastis notcondcmncdfordrinkingcocc at dinncrorat
brcakfast thc following day.

hc j udgc who givcs onc burglar

cightccn months attcninthcmorningandan idcnticalburglarnvc
ycarsatfourinthcaftcrnoonwillhavcthclongcrscntcnccappcalcd.
justpunishmcntcannotbcbothcightccnmonthsandnvcycars, thc
samcocncc mustattractthcsamctrcatmcnt.his has tobctakcn
with qualincations. thc judgc might havc found mitigating
circumstanccs in thc nrst casc. ualincations thcmsclvcs must bc
qualincd, mcrcy must not bc capricious . mmanucl ant, indccd,
claimcd that courts could notlct criminals othcfull rigourofthc
law` s dcmands, an opinion summarizcd in thc chilling vicw that a
socictywhichkncw itwas topcrishfromthc faccofthc carthin thc
morning must lcavc nonc ofits condcmncd murdcrcrs unhangcd.'
lcwwritcrsgoso far. Mostthinkjusticcsctsalimittowhatthclaw
candcmand,notthatthclawmustdcmandallitcan.
justicc isclosclyconncctcdto rcspcct for rights. Modcrn writcrs
discuss both subjccts togcthcr with no suggcstion that onc might
discuss onc with thc othcr.

t was not always so Grcck political

thcoryand Komanaw had sophisticatcd idcas aboutjusticcinits
various aspccts, but did not cmbracc car conccption ofindividual
rights . his may sccm countcr-intuitivc. How could a socicty
rccognizc somconc as thc owncr of a piccc of propcrty without
acknowlcdging an individualrightHow docs lcgitimatc onc-man-
rulc, monarchy, diIcr from its illcgitimatcparody, tyranny, unlcss
thc lawful king has a right to thc authority hc cxcrciscs that thc
tyrantdocsnot
hc answcr is that propcrty and authority wcrc dcncd by law
rathcr thanournotionofindividual rights.oownpropcrtywas to
!n act, thc Eng|ish ommon |aw wou|d havc Inva|Idatcd it as onc which It
wou|dbccontrarytothcpub|IcIntcrcsttocnorcc.
' 7hcMcr:haatcIcai:c,. i .
C. thcp|cao t hcdccndantInGI|bcrtandSu||Ivan's 7rial/ja,whoobscrvcs
thatItIsnocrImctoturnromroastbcctomutton.
' H. B. KcIss cd. ) Kaat's Icliti:al hritias Cambridgc \nIvcrsity Prcss
CambrIdgc, t ggz) , t jG.
Kaw|s,A 7hcccjasti:c,IsthcparadIgm.
INTRCDLCTI CN
J
bc thc pcrson to whom thc law accordcd thc privilcgcs and
immunitics that locally dcnncdowncrship. Jo bc a lcgitimatc rulcr
wastobcthcpcrsonthclawdcsignatcd to rulc. tisacommonplacc
thatancicntnotionsoflawaccordcdfarmorcpowcrovcrpropcrtyto
thcfamilyandothcrgroupsthanmodcrn notionsofprivatcpropcrty
do. Lvcn undcr thc Koman Law, whcrc owncrship had an
'absolutc` and sovcrcign charactcr, propcrty was not undcrstood in
thc modcrn way, whcn thc lawtoldthcjudgc togivca man his ias,
this primarily mcant that hc should bc trcatcd as thclawrcquircd.
Jhc subjcctivc` undcrstanding ofrights, whcrcby thc right-holdcr
may stand on his rights or not as hc chooscs, was not a Koman
notion.

lcithcr llato nor Aristotlc hcld that justicc was a mattcr of

ndividual rights. llato s connding powcr to thc Guardians and
Auxiliarics, andhisinsistcncconanaristocraticformofgovcrnmcnt
maysccmtoimplythatonlyphilosophcrsarcra/i//rd torulc,orhavc
a ri/t to govcrn. But thisisnotthcargumcnt. Jhc scttingi sthatof
building a statcon rational principlcs, thc standpointis not that of
individuals claiming rights, but that of a buildcr placing human
matcrial in its propcr placc in thc fabric. Statcs nccd good rulcrs,
and thatis what thc Guardians arc. Aristotlc`sdiscussionofa statc
that achicvcs frccdom andjusticc in a stablc sctting docs not trcat
thisas a qucstion ofrights-unlikc Lockcs trcatmcnt ofthc samc
qucstion. Lockc`sstatcisthcrcsultofacontractbctwccnthcholdcrs
of prior rights, Aristotlc

s allocatcs authority to classcs and

individuals according to a rational and morally acccptablc
schcmc-according to justicc-but not to protcct or rccognizc
individual rights

Jhcrc is a last point to bc madc about thc conncction bctwccn

justiccandrights. HumcandMilldiscuss thcmtogcthcr, notraising
thc qucstion whcthcr onc is logically or morally prior to thc othcr.
Jhcywritcasnaturalists,cxplainingmoralityas asystcmofrulcsof
cnduct acccptcd to promotc human wclfarc. lor anti-utilitarian,
non-naturalistic writcrs such as john Kawls and Kobcrt lozick,
cithcr rights or justicc havc to bcar thc hcavicst argumcntativc
wcight.lorKawls,thcprinciplcsofjusticcarcfundamcntalandthc
rights wc havc arc thoscjusticc dictatcs, for lozick, wc bcgin with
'cntitlcmcnts` that wc arc born with or acquirc, andjusticc cxists
SirA|frcd immcrn, 7hc 6rcck Csmmsaacalth C|arcndon Prcss. Cford, t gj) ,
t
o
Kichard uck, Nataral Laa 7hcsrics Cambridgc \nivcrsity Prcss. Cambridgc,
t g;g) , ;t .
1
Aristotlc, Islitics, trans. andcd. . arkcr C|arcndon Prcss. Cford, t gGg) ,
$$. t z t ,gg. t zgG.
[ ALANRAN
whcn pcoplc havcwhat thcyarc cntitlcd to. !ncrstanding our
basiccntitlcmcntsisthcfoundationofallclsc.
justicc is a virtuc, butnot onc that makcs pcoplc lovablc. ' Hard
butjust' isa commonappraisalof judgcs, cmploycrs tcachcrs, and
othcrs, thoscwho arc 'hard but ust'will notwrong us, butthcyarc
not attractivc gurcs.

lorj usticcis notalways what wc scck. Jhc

visitor to an invalid whocomcsbccausc hc has visitcd six pcrsons
alrcadyandthinksitwouldbcunfairtolcavcoutthcscvcnthislcss
wclcomcthanthcvisitorwhocallsoutofasclshdcsirctocnjoythc
invalid` s company. Jhc parcnt who apportions his acctios so as
not to trcat his childrcn unjustly will bc lcss lovcd than a morc
capricious but morc spontancous parcnt. justicc is a political or
institutionalvirtucmorcaptlypractiscdbypcoplcwho donothavc
warmticstooncanothcr.Wcdonotwantthcjudgctoallownatural
fccling to swamp his dcsirc to dojusticc to thc plaintibcforc him,
butwcdo want intimatc rclationships to bc sustaincd by natural
fccling. A pcrsonwho practiscd only whatjusticc dcmandcd would
bcanoddnshandacoldonc.
Jhcsc considcrations suggcst anothcr fcaturc ofjusticc, which is
its /asicarss. johnKawlssaysthatjusticcisthc 'nrstvirtucofsocial
institutions, mcaning that it is morc fundamcntal than any othcr,
and that wc cannot cxpcct individuals to acccpt social rcgulation,
andcngagcinsocialco-opcrationunlcssthctcrmsonwhichsocty
opcratcs arc sccn as rcasonablyjust. Jo talk as though llato and
Aristotlc sawjusticc as a mattcrofthc tcrms ofsocial and political
copcration may suggcst a modcrn and individualist pcrspcctivc
forcignto both.Yctitisnotwhollymislcading. ` Jhcythoughtthat
justicc was a mattcr of thc allocation of fundamcntal tasks of
puttingpcoplc inthc social rolcs thcyhadto fulnl, and thatcatchcs
thc thought that usticc is conccrncd with thc tcrms ofsocial lifc.
Cvcr thc contcnt of thc tcrms, thcrc is no agrccmcnt. Aristotlc
dcvotcd a lot of spacc to thc principlc of allocating advantagcs
according to dcscrt or mcrit, whilcjohn Kawls lcavcs out dcscrt
cntircly.

usticc stands in an awkward rclationship with utility. Jhc

gcncral practicc ofjusticc conduccs to human wclfarc probably
morc than anything clsc. Jhc old tag sums upj usticc as ' honcstc
vivcrc, ncmincm lacdcrc suum cuiquc tribucrc' , thc uscfulncss of
'

c|ow,pp. g6-1.
' Humc,bc|ow, p.q,
' A 7hcccjasticc,j-1 q
~ spccia||y in thc |ight ofKca/lic, ss. j8 , which comcs vcry c|osc to a
thcoryofsocia|contract,asCornfordpointsoutinhiscditionpp. jq.
1b
Cf.A 7hcccjasticc,j11withAristot|c, bc|ow,pp.j6-g.
I NTRCDLCTI CN
a
rulcs which cnforcc honcsty, prcvcnt harm, and sccurc cach pcrson
his own is too obvious to bcar mcntioning. indncss wc can do
without, ifwcarcfortunatc, wccanlookaftcroursclvcsonourown
rcsourccs. But wc cannot survivc without thc sccurity that comcs
fromothcrpcoplcncithcrlyingto us, injuringus, norstcalingfrom
us. Such considcrations gurc largcly injusticc as cxplaincd by
HumcandMill .
Yct, justicc sccms also to conhict with utility and cvcn with thc
rarra/ wclfarc, lct alonc thc wclfarc ofparticular pcoplc. Considcr
thcrchcctionsofafcwparagraphsback,a judgchaspunishcd haf a
dozcn ocndcrs with thc full rigour of thc law. Hc now thinks
cnoughhasbccndonctodctcrfuturcocndcrsandcnsurc thclawis
takcn scriously, so givcs vcry light scntcnccs to thc ncxt thrcc
ocndcrs. nutilitariantcrms, thisisagoodidca,hchasdoncallhc
can do for public sccuity, and furthcr pcnaltics would bc unkind.
Hashc actcdjustly Cannot thcrst halfdozcn ocndcrs askwhy
thcyhavc bccnpunishcdand thc cquallywickcd lctolightly Has
thcjudgc not actcd capriciously by punishing somc and cxcusing
othcrs Hc may havc incrcascd thc sum ofhumanwclfarc, but has
hcnotactcdlcssthanjustly
Many contcxts provokc thc samc qucstion. lcnd you twcnty
pounds, thc timc comcs to rcpay, and you rchcct that am
miscrablc, a pcrson ofbad tastc, and havc lcss usc for thc moncy
thanmanyothcrpcoplctowhomyoumightgivcit. insistonlythat
thc moncyismiar. Again, wc scck to appoint a ncw profcssor. My
brothcr is an adcquatc tcachcr and scholar and thc studcnts hc
tcachcswillnotknowthcrcwcrcbcttcrcandidatcs.willbchappyif
hc is appointcd, hc will bc happy, thc wholc ofmy family will bc
happy. Butallthisis nothing atallinfacc ofthcprinciplc thatwc
act unjustlyifwc do not appointthc bcstcandidatc.Wc shallsoon
sccsomc answcrs to thcqucstion,whatgoodisjusticcifitdocs not
advanccthcgcncralwclfarc Hcrcitiscnoughtonoticcthatitisas
hard to bclicvc thatjusticc iswhollycxplaincd by utility as that it
hasnothingtodowithutilityatall.
ACCCLNTS CFjLSTI C
llato` sKra//ic isatrcatisconjusticc,writtcnasadialogucbctwccn
Socratcsandsomcofhisuppcr-classAthcnianfricnds. Socratcswas
imprcsscdbythcway dcccntand uprightfathcrswcrcdisgraccd by
thc pridc and ambition ofthcir sons. hcfathcrs must havc known
' clow,pp. 6j.
G ALANRAN
whatjusticc is-thcy had practiscd it in thcirown livcs and had
tricdto bringupthcirsons tolovcjusticc andpractiscitalso. Why
had thcy bccn unsucccssful! Socratcs thought that contrary to
appcaranccs, thcy did not know whatj usticc was, that ignorancc
cxplaincd thcirfailurc to tcach thcir childrcnjusticc. Kcal tcaching
dcmandcd rcal knowlcdgc. Jhat mcantknowlcdgcofthccsscncc of
justicc,thcabilitytogivcitsdqai/iaa.
Socratcs`fricndsarcnotunablctobchavcdcccntlyandj ustly. But
thcy sucrfrom an inability to asccnd from particular cascs of j ust
bchaviour to a dcnnition that will pick outwhat it is that makcs
thcm just. Watching Socratcs tormcnting his fricnds, twcnticth
ccntury rcadcrs oftcn fccl that hc takcs advantagc of his
intcrlocutors`lackofphilosophicalskill. Yctthisisbcsidcthcpoint.
Socratcssccksananswcrtotwoqucstions. Cnci sthcplaccof justicc
in thc panthcon ofvirtucs. Jhc othcr, and morc striking, is, what
good docs it do us to bcjust! Many rcadcrs think this a curious
qucstion. Jhcy think thatjusticc oftcn rcquircs us to sacrincc our
ownintcrcsts. Howcanthisbcgoodforus!
Socratcs starts from a commonplacc ofGrcck cthical thinking.
Lthicswasaboutlivingwcll, andathcoryofj usticcthatrcprcscntcd
itas a bad bargain would havc bccn unacccptablc. Amonghisnrst
intcrlocutors, Jhrasymachus takcs thclincthatjusticcisnotagood
at all, it is a bad bccausc it docs its posscssors no good.
Jhrasymachus` vicwwas thatthcgoodlifc mcantgctting our way
whcncvcr and howcvcr possiblc. Kcstraint and sclf-abncgation
bcyond a limitcd amount of tactical sclf-control-is absurd.
Socratcsocrstoshow that it isalwaysbcttcrtopractiscjusticcthan
injusticc, bcttcr to sucr injusticc than to practisc it. Socratc`
argumcnt with Jhrasymachus is not printcd hcrc, but Glaucon
takcs up Jhrasymachus` cascinmorcmodcratctcrmsandprovidcs
Socratcs` targct in thc rcmaindcr ofthc Kra//ic Glaucon ocrs a
social contract thcory. Wcwould likc todowrong, butnot tosucr
it. Sowc agrcc toforgo injusticcsolongas othcrs do so, backcd up
byhisbrothcrAdcimantus,hcclaimsthatifwccouldbchavcbadly
withimpunity, wcwouldbcfoolishnotto. Socratcssctsouttoshow
howj usticcisgoodinitsclf,andthatdoingcvilisabadbargain.
Jo scc howhc docs this,wcmust turn to his othcrqucstion. llato
wishcs to discovcr thc placc ofjusticc among thc othcr virtucs of
individuals and socictics. Socratcspcrsuadcs his hcarcrs thatjusticc
ismorcvisiblcinlargccntiticsthansmalloncs,andmorccasilysccn
inthccity ora/is) than inthcindividual. Hcconstructsamodclof
an idcal city, composcd of thrcc social classcs, thc plcbcian
produccrs cngagcd in cconomic lifc whosc spccinc virtuc is
tcmpcrancc, thc couragcous 'auxiliarics`

and thclitc 'guardians`

INTRCDLCTICN

or philosophcr-kings. Socratcs announccs that sincc thc virtucs of
sclf-control, couragc, and wisdom havc bccn appropriatcd,justicc
must bc inhcrcnt in thc organization of thc wholc. t consists in
cvcryoncdoinghispropcrtask,thcwiscrulc,thccouragcouscnforcc
what thc wisc dccrcc, and thc produccrs conccntratc on cconomic
activitywithoutsuccumbingtoovcr-indulgcncc.
n thc ncxt passagc printcd hcrc, hc concludcs that thc soul
mirrors thc socicty, and thcjust man's charactcrdisplays thc samc
ordcras thcjustcity. Joactunjustlyistoactinadisturbcdfashion.
lcwrcadcrs havc bccn pcrsuadcd. Jhc pcrsonwho sccks to bchavc
badlyoncvcryoccasionwillnndhimsclf lcadingavcryoddlifc, but
thisisfarfromshowingthatitncvcrprontshim to bchavc badly. t
isoncthingtoshowthatacompulsivcthicfwilldobadly,anothcrto
show that somconc whostcalsonlywhcnitisscnsiblcwilldoworsc
thanif hcncvcrstolcatall . t is hardcr still toargucthatthcpcrson
who is robbcdis bcttcroIthan thc robbcr. llato latcrsupports his
casc bytwodubiousargumcnts.Jhcnrstinvokcs thcphilosophcr's
unconccrn with thc things ofthis world, thc philosophcrhas sccn
throughcarthlyillusionandhascontcmplatcdthcrcalmofthctruc,
thcgoodandthc cautiful,andtakcsnointcrcstinworldlymattcrs.
f his contcmplation of thcsc absolutcs is not touchcd, no carthly
misfortunc can damagc him. A fcw pagcs of this argumcnt arc
printcdhcrc.
!
Jhisargumcntcan bcapt. Somcpcoplcs intcrcsts licsomuchin
thcthings ofthcmindthatwc nnd itplausiblc tosaythatthcyarc
undamagcd by carthly ill-trcatmcnt. But such pcoplc arc fcw in
numbcr, andcvcn thcy would in thcordinary scnsc ' do bcttcr' by
bcing thc bcncnciarics of injusticc rathcr than its victims . As for
cvcryonc clsc, whosc worldly intcrcsts cxhaust thcir wclfarc, thc
argumcntcannot touch thcm. llatowasconsciousofthis his sccond
linc ofdcfcncc rcsorts to thc myth ofan aftcr lifc in which wc gct
whatwc dcscrvc, andthc imbalancc bctwccndcscrtandoutcomcso
visiblcinthislifcisnnallyrcctincd.
llato ccrtainlyshows somcthingsignincant. t isca a:rrar bcttcr
tobcjust. Jhcunjustmanmustalwaysfcarthatothcrswilldiscovcr
his njusccs and dcfcndthcmsclvcsagansthim, and is cxposcd to
anxictics thc just man cscapcs . llatos picturc of thc man who
climbstopowcrovcrthcwrcckagcofhisrclationshipswithhoschc
has bctraycd is a powcrful onc. His 'succcss is bough at an
appallingpricc,forhcwillhavcncvcrancasy momcnt. StalinoIcrs
astrikingcxamplcofthctruthof this,whcnhcdicd, itcmcrgcdthat
hchadspcnthislastycarsinastatcoftcrror,livinginasctofrooms
c|ow,gg. zg.
8 ALANRYAN
dccp in thc rcmlin, as much a prisoncr ofhis fcars as his victims
wrcofhissccrctpolicc.
Socratcs and llato had no timc for Athcnian dcmocracy, and
wantcd a rcvivcd aristocratic govcrnmcnt for thcir city. But both
wcrc moral radicals, thcy thought ordinary morality was radically
misguidcd,andthatpublicopinionshouldbcignorcdwhcnitwasat
odds with onc`s conscicncc or rcason. Things arc vcrydihcrcnt in
Aristotlc. llatos conccrn for thcbalancc ofthcsoulwassharcd by
Aristotlc, butnothiscthicalradicalism. Aristotlchcldthatincthics
mankind kncw what was to bc known, and thc imprccision ofits
knowlcdgc rchcctcd an imprccisc subjcct-mattcr. ln any casc, thc
pointofcthicalcnquirywasgood bchaviour, for that,good training
in morally upright habits will do morc than any amount of
philosophy.
Aristotlc did not tryto show thatj usticcisinvariablybcttcrforus
thaninjusticc.Hcwasanxiousonlytoprovidcanordcrlyaccountof
thcvaricticsof justiccthatwc infacttryto practisc. Sowclldid hc
pcrform this task thatwritcrs still start from his framcwork. lonc
thc lcss, thc modcrn rcadcr may hnd somc ofAristotlc` s conccrns
baing. Thisistobccxpcctcdfromawritcrwhoscaimwastospcll
out thc assumptions about 'living wcll that all wcll-brought-up
Grccks would acccpt. Thus, it sccms odd to say that a man who
dcmandslcssthanhisductrcatshimsclfunj ustly. Wcsomctimcssay
thatsomconchasbccn'lcssthanfairtohimscl,wcdonotthinkthis
is an act ofinjusticc. Aristotlc trcats it as onc ofthc qucstions in
doubt`whcthcra man cantrcathimsclfunjustly,whcnhccomcsto
dccidc thc issuchcncvcr rclics on thc modcrn idcathatwchavca
pcrcct right toforgoj usttrcatmcnt. Thc modcrnrcadcr is likcly to
hold thatwchavc a right to acccpt lcss than ourduc,and that that
cndsthcmattcr.
ThcNiccmachtaa L/hics spcllsoutthcvirtucsamannccdstolcada
good lifc. A good lifc is happy or fulhllcd) , and fulhllcd by doing
good things-displaying virtuc. Aristotlc frcqucntly associatcs thc
virtucswithhndingamcanbctwccncxtrcmcs,forcxamplc,couragc
is thc mcan bctwccn thc viccs ofrashncss and cowardicc. lot all
virtucs can bc sotrcatcd, a murdcrcr cannot say thathchas killcd
ncithcr too many victims nor too fcw. Considcrcd as a virtuc of
charactcr, howcvcr,j usticc is rathcr plausibly rcprcscntcd as thc
disposition to givc and rcccivc ncithcr too much nor too littlc.
Aristotlc hrst distinguishcsjusticc as a spccial virtuc fromj usticc
considcrcd as thc sum of all virtucs. Aristotlc sccs wc somctimcs
ArIstotlc, N::as:/:ss E//::s, trans. and cd. W. D Koss Cord nicrsIty
Prcss t gz ,M ss.I-ii,gg. z8-.
I NTRCDLCTI CN

thinka 'justman' docs cvcrythinghcoughtwhilcatothcrtimcs wc
distinguishbcingjustfrombcingmcrciful,couragcous,prudcnt,and
so on. Aristotlc` s contribution is thc analysis ofjusticc as a spccinc
virtuc, hcrc havcsclcctcd somcportions ofBook livcofthcL/hics
thatfurthcrthisanalysis.
justicc is of two kinds, justicc in distribution and justicc in
rcctincation. 'Kcctincatory` justicc marks a contrast bctwccn our
world and Aristotlc' s. Modcrn writcrs distinguish distributivc
justiccfromcriminaljusticc,orthcdistributivcfromthcrctributivc.
Kcctincationisnotthcmodcrnnotionofrctribution.Aristotlcthinks
primarily of sctting things straight, and dcnics that rcctincatory
justicccontainsanclcmcntof titfor tat` . Jhccriminalwhowounds
anothcrshouldnotcaj) bcwoundcdhimsclf, somcthingmorcshould
bcdonctohimbywayofpunishmcnt, towipcoutanygainfromhis
crimc. Jhc notion of wiping out thc advantagc gaincd by thc
wrongdocrismorcsalicntthanrcquitingcvilwithcvil.
Jhough Aristotlc discusscs distributivc justicc with his
charactcristicpassionfordctailcddistinctionsandnncshadings,thc
fundamcntal thought is that justicc is proportionatc cquality.
lcrsons ought to rcccivc goods in proportion to thcir mcrits. Ajust
worldisoncinwhichthcbcstdobcst,andthclcssgooddolcsswcll .
t is what Kobcrt lozick calls a ' pattcrncd' conccption ofjusticc,
distributing bcncnts according to a dimcnsion along which
individuals canbcrankcd. nthcMaaa mcra/ia and thcLadrmiaa
L//ics, Aristotlc cxplains furthcr what aspccts of a man-hc is
almost cxclusivcly conccrncd with mcn-constitutc thc mcrits
accordingtowhichhcoughttodowcll.tisstrikinghowmanyarcnot
within our control. Wc associatc dcscrving with doing, in a way
Aristotlcdid not.Aristotclianjusticc allocatcsgoodrcsults togood
pcrsons without cnquiring how much thcy can do about thcir
goodncss. Wc do not always dicrfrom Aristotlc.justicc is donc if
thcbcstrunncrwinsthcracc,cvcnifthcbcstrunncrhasspcctacular
naturalcapaciticsandtrainsrathcrlittlc.
Ciccro' sDr c{ciis, or Jhcutics' , iswrittcnasalcttcrtohisson,
and its tonc is that of a man of practical wisdom and somc
philosophical crudition cxplaining thc moraldcccncics to a young
man. Ciccro discusscs justicc as thc sccond of thc four cardinal
virtucs wisdom,justicc, couragc, and tcmpcrancc) whosc prcscncc
constitutcs moral goodncss justicc is thc virtuc that holds socicty
togcthcr and allows us to pursuc thc common good for whosc sakc
socicty cxists. Ciccro` sdiscussion is so ordcrly and straightforward
that it nccds no summary. Cnc intcrcsting fcaturc is his conccrn
V
clowpp. moz.
I O ALANRAN
withjusticc. Jhcpractical bcntofDr cvcn morc apparcnt
inBooks ll and l l l ) lcads Ciccro to cmphasizc thc ways inwhich
grccd, and thc lust for powcr lcad to inj usticc. His political rival
julius Cacsarwas thc spccihctargctofthc discussionofambition`s
rolc in unjust action, but thc argumcnt is univcrsal. Ciccro also
wants to show what virtucs justicc nccds to complcmcnt
it-cspccially gcncrosity, bccauscwithout itjusticc would bc cold
and limitcd. Socicty must bc pcrmcatcd by kindcr and warmcr
virtucs,althoughjusticcrctainsitspriority.wcmaynotbcgcncrous
withwhatisnotours.
Ciccroholdsthatwcmusttrcatothcrsjustlycvcn ifthcy havc not
sotrcatcdus. Wcoftcnthinkof justiccastit-for-tat` , rcturninggood
forgoodandcvilforcvil,and oftcnthinkapcrsonwhohasbchavcd
unjustly toushas forfcitcd thcrighttojusttrcatmcnt. 'Youchcatcd
hrst` is hcard as commonly around thc intcrnational ncgotiating
tablc as in thc nurscry Jhc Stoicvicw that morality promotcs thc
common good implics that wc must try to rcstorc thc social
rclationship thathas bccn violatcd. ictors inwar must bring thcir
opponcnts round to thcir way of thinking, not wrcak whatcvcr
vcngcancc thcy could colourably takc. lt is no wondcr that Ciccro
wasoncofthcpaganauthorspopularwithChristianphlosophcrs .
Humc`saccountofjusticc is part ofa largcraccountofthc moral
and political virtucs gcncrally. Humc wrotc as a philosophical
anthropologist,notasarcformcr, unlikcBcnthamand Millwhosct
outtorcformourmoraloutlookrathcrthanmcrclytocxplain it. Hc
starts from thc thought that moral judgcmcnts arc ogicaly
istinctivc. Jhcy arc ncithcr statcmcnts offact nor statcmcnts of
logical conncction. lor Humc, this mcans thcy must cxprcss a
ccrtain kind of scntimcnt, and it is always possiblc though vcry
unlikcly) thatpcoplc` s scntimcntswill bc dihcrcntly arouscd by thc
samc statcs ofahairs. Humc summarizcd this vicw in two famous
rcmarks,thchrstthat'rcasonisandoughtonlytobcthcslavcofthc
passions` , thc othcr that tis not contrary to rcason to prcfcr thc
dcstruction of thc wholc world to thc scratching of my hngcr` .
?1
Actionrcquircsamotivc, and this mustinthclastrcsortbcsupplicd
byourwantingornotwantingthcstatcsofahairsthcactionrcalizcs
orprcvcnts.Jhcmanwhoprcfcrsthcdcstructionofthcwholcworld
to thc scratching ofhis littlc hngcris dcfcctivc inhis dcsircs, not in
hispcrccptualorlogicalskills.
oralasscssmcntconsidcrsthccharactcrdispaycdinaction,wc
disapprovc thc crucl charactcr displaycd in crucl action, and thc
unjust charactcr displaycd in unjust action. Somc rcactions arc

David Humc, A 7rcatisc ca Hamaa Natarc Clarcndon Frcss. Cxford, nd cdn. ,
:g,8),k. ::, gg. q:6.
I NTRCDLCTI CN I I
naturaland simplc,wcnaturally nnd somc aspcctsofhumannaturc
agrccablc and attractivc, and our moralj udgcmcnts cxprcss this
fccling. justicc is dicrcnt. Wc may approvc of thc hard butjust
judgc, but wc do not nnd his charactcr likcablc.justicc draws our
approval by a morc claboratc routc. Wc pcrccivc that rulcs that
confcr rights, and protcctpropcrtyarc indispcnsablc to thc gcncral
wclfarc, and bccomc attachcd to thcm. Humc linkcd justicc to
propcrty,whcrcthcrcisnopropcrty,thcrcisnojusticc.Criticshavc
thought this farfctchcd, thcrc arc ways ofbchaving unjustly that
havc nothing to do with propcrty. l promisc to takc you and your
brothcr to thc cincma, thcn rat on you, and still takc him. Jhis is
unfair,andiflmakcahabitofit, ltrcatyouunjustly.Yctthcrcisno
violationofpropcrtyrights,propcrtyhasnothingtodowithit.
Jworcsponscsmayrcduccthcoddncssofthcclaim.Jhcnrstisto
placc Humc` s claim in contcxt. Humc hcld that only whcn human
cxistcncc bccamc morc than a scarch for food and drink, scxual
plcasurc, and shcltcr did mankind nccdjusticc. All human socicty
nccdsrulcsagainstviolcnccandscxualviolation,rulcsagainstthcft,
andinfavourofthcsanctityofcontracthavcnoplaccbcforcthcrcis
somcthing to stcal and somcthing to cxchangc. Cncc this stagc is
rcachcd, thc rulcs ofjusticc arc morc important than any othcrs.
Wi thoutpropcrty, thcy havc noplacc. Jhcsccondistoobscrvc that
allrightshavc clcmcnts ofproprictorshipin thcm. Whcn l promisc
to takc you to thc cincma, l givcyou somcthing-my claim to my
timc-andmakcityours.
Mill` sdiscussionofj usti ccislikcand unlikcHumcsLikcHumc,
Millwasancthicalnaturalist,lookingto thcfunctionofthc rulcsof
justiccinsociallifc. !nlikc Humc, Millwcntbcyondananalysisof
thc cmotions cxprcsscd in judgcmcnts of justicc. Critics of
utilitarianism had argucd that utility was not a stringcnt moral
guidc. Wouldnotpcoplcbctcmptcdtomakccxccptions inthcnamc
ofutility,wouldthcynotmakccxccptionsinthcirownfavour,could
thcy trcat rulcs as obligatory ifrulcs wcrc onlymcans to utilitarian
goals! Mill tricd to show how a utilitarian account ofj usticc dcalt
with cvcry considcration his critics camc up with. justicc was
univcrsallyacknowlcdgcdtomakcthcmoststringcntdcmandsofall
thcmoralvirtucs,itsobscrvanccwasagrccdtobcbasictosociallifc,
Millhad toshow howutilitarianismcouldincorporatcthcscpoints.
Jhcimportancchcattachcdtothis isrcvcalcdbythcfact that this
lastchaptcrof|ti/itariaaism ismuchthclongcstofthccssay.Yct,thc
basic argumcnt is simplc. justicc is distinguishcd from thc rcst of
morality by its stringcncy. lt is good to bc charitablc, but wc can
drmaad thc paymcnt of a dcbt. Mill cxplicatcsj usticc in tcrms of
doing what pcoplc havc a right to. Kights hc cxplains, not vcry
I 2 ALANRAN
satisfactorily, in tcrmsofthcwayrights-violations involvc harm to
'assignablc` individuals. ltis simplc to constructcountcr-cxamplcs .
lfl amabcggar, and you donot givcmcfood,l shallsucr,l aman
assignablc individual, and thc conncction bctwccnyour action and
mysucringis dircct. Still, l hadnorih/ tothcfood,youhavcbccn
unkindbutyoudidnotviolatcmyrights .
lonc thclcss, thc mainoutlincsofMill`sclaims arc plausiblc. Wc
havc rulcs confcrringrights, and trcatthcm with pcculiarstrictncss
bccauscthcygivcus sccurity. Sccurity mattcrs morcthan anything
clsc,wccandowithoutmostgoods, orcanhndsubstitutcsfor thcm,
butsccurity nobody can dowithout. lt has a pcculiarly urgcnt and
important utility that cxplains thc strictncss withwhich wc rcgard
thc rulcs ofj usticc. Whcthcr this docsj usticc to such conccpts as
fairncss or dcscrt may bc doubtcd, that it docs a good job of
accountingforthcimportanccofrightsislcsscasilydcnicd.
Mill`s attcmpt t ocxplainjusticc i nutilitarian tcrms confronts a
problcm that twcnticth-ccntury writcrs havc madc much of
although it sccms to havc attractcd littlc attcntion carlicr.
!tilitarianism is a maximizing doctrinc, that is, it holds that thc
justihcationofrights and ofthc rulcs ofjusticc has tolicinthcway
thcy promotc thc grcatcst possiblc quantity ofhappincss or wcll-
bcing) . justicc, on thc othcr hand, is distributivc and
individualizing, itdcnics thatwc may maximizc wcll-bcing ifin thc
proccss wc violatc somconc` s rights . Wc may not sacrihcc
individuals to thcgcncralwclfarc. MillandHumc bothhcldthatin
cxtrcmc cascs wc rightly makc such sacrihccs, that 'hatj ustitia ct
pcrcatmundus` isnotamaximwcfollowwhcnthcworldrcallywill
pcrish. Whcnstarvationthrcatcns,wcbrcakopcnthcgranarics,and
thcpropcrtyrightsofthcowncrsgofornothing. Lvcnthcn,wctryto
papcr ovcr thc conhict bctwccn utility andj usticc, saying that in a
casc likc this itisjusttoovcrridcthc rights ofthc grain owncrs .
Thc most famous modcrn asscrtion of thc conhict bctwccn
utilitarian and justicc-bascd considcrations is containcd in ohn
Kawls` s mastcrpiccc,A 7hrc) cjas/icr. Kawls builds hisaccountof
j usticc around thc principlc of thc ' scparatcncss ofpcrsons` , cach
individual is a scparatc lifc, and a scparatc ccntrc ofmoral valuc.
Thc apparcnt rationality of aggrcgating thc wclfarc of cach
individualinordcrtodchncthcsocialwclfarcisillusory. Thcrcisno
suchcntityassocictytocxpcricnccthiswcll-bcing.Thchappincssof
two pcoplc is simply two pcoplc bcing happy, and thc
compcllingncss ofutilitarian calculation thcrcforc much lcss grcat
thanitlooksathrstsight.
Kawls` sork has bccn thcsubjcctofso muchcommcntary thatit
is otiosctodo morc than skctch thcbasicstructurc thatcmcrgcs in
I NTRCDLCTI CN
thc cssay bclow. Kawls bcgins from Humc` sandill` s prcmisscs,
butrcachcsvcrydicrcnt conclusions. Likc thcm, hcsccsjusticc as
rcgulating thc rcsults ofsocial co-opcration, unlikc llato, hc docs
not think of justicc as opcrating 'within thc soul` . justicc is
institutionalandpolitical,wccoopcratcwithocanothcrwithinan
institutional framcwork, and that framcwork dictatcs thc broad
outlincs ofthc rcsults. His largc book, as wcll as his shortcr cssays,
considcrsj usticc in thccontcxtofcstablishing thc constitution ofa
socictyits abstract political and cconomic framcwork. Hc is
thcrcforc not conccrncd with thc justicc and inj usticc of cvcry
particularoutcomc, but ofthc mcchanisms through which thcy arc
achicvcd.
Thcthcoryaimstorationalizcourcxistingthoughtsaboutjusticc,
so that whcn wc havcbrought our idcas into ordcr, wc can rcjcct
vicws thatwconcchcldbutnowsccm inconsistcnt with thcrcstof
thcfabricofouridcas,andcanmorcconhdcntlyholdidcasthatarc
now sccn to bc dccply cntrcnchcd. As to thc fundamcntals ofour
conccptionof justiccKawlssuggcsts two principlcs. Thchrstis that
cachpcrsoniscntitlcdtothcmaximumlibcrtyconsistcntwithalikc
libcrtyforall, thcsccond thatthc bcnchtsofco-opcrationshould bc
distibutcd insuch a way that thc lcast advantagcd pcrson docs as
wcll as thc lcastadvantagcd pcrson can do. n ccct cquality is a
basclinc, and dcparturcs from cqualityjustihcd to thc cxtcnt that
thcybcnchtthclcastfavourcd. lccdlcsstosay,thcscprinciplcshavc
bccndisputcd. tismorcintcrcstingthatthcyhavcbccndisputcdin
toncsthatsuggcstthatthcydocatchsomcthingimportantaboutour
currcntnotionsof justicccvcnifitishardtosaywhatthatis.
Kawls` s thcory bclongs to a classofthcorics thatcxplain 'social
justicc` , that is, thcjusticc of thc way thc bcnchts of social and
cconomic co-opcration arc allocatcd. Cncpopularobjcction to this
wholc class ofthcorics is that thcrc can bc no such thing as social
justicc. Thisvicwis rcprcscntcd by twoofthc chaptcrs thatfollow.
lrofcssor von Hayck` s account of' thc myth` ofsocialjusticc is so
limpidly formulatcd that it nccds only sumcicnt introduction to
distinguish it from lrofcssor lozick` s. Brichy, Hayck and lozick
both think that talk ofdistributivcjusticc is mislcading, bccausc it
suggcsts thc prcscncc ofa distributing pcrson or mcchanism, in a
dcvclopcdcconomy thcrc is nosuch thing, and ina frcc socicty, thc
attcmpttoinstitutc sucha thingwoulddcstroy all frccdom. Hayck,
howcvcr, supports this vicw with an account ofthc computational
impossibilityofdccidingwhat toproduccand distributc inordcrto
achicvcjusticc, whilc lozick is morc conccrncd to cmphasizc that
thc statc has uc rih/ to scizc thc rcsourccs ofindividualsinordcr to
distributc thcm according to any principlc whatcvcr. t is worth
ALANRYAN
noticing,howcvcr, thatHayckdocs notdcnythatthc statcoughtto
do somcthing to assurc thc lcast favourcd of an adcquatc living,
Kawls`sprinciplcsarcpcrsuasivcbutnotasprinciplcsof asticr.
Kawls` s thcory starts from a world in which thcrc arc no rights.
Kawlstrcatsrcsourccsas ' commonasscts` , whoscalocationitisthc
task of thc thcory ofjusticc to dccidc. ln so doing it rulcs ou
altcrnativcs, but not always cxplicitly. istribution according to
dcscrt, ormoralmcrit,iscxplicityrulcdou. laturalaristocracy ,
which is what Aristotlc favourcd, i s cxplicitly rulcd out, too. Thc
thoughtthatwccomcintothcworldwithnaturalrightsinoursclvcs
andourcapaciticsisnotargucdagainst,somuchasrulcdoutbythc
starting-point. But natural proprictorship ofoncsclfiswhat lozick
favours as thc foundation ofany thcory ofjusticc. As thc cxtract
fromAaarc, Statr aad Utcia bclow uggcsts, itisnotcntirclyclcar,
tolozickhimsclfortohisrcadcrs,whcthcrthisstarting-pointyiclds
a thcoryofdistributivcjusticc ornot. lnonc scnsc, it must. lcoplc
should havc what thcy havc a titlc to, pcoplcwho takc what othcrs
havc a titlc to, without thcir pcrmission, mut bc madc to givc it
back, pcoplcwho do not havc a titc o somcthing can acquircitin
onclcgitimatcway,andthatisbyfrcctransfcrfromitslawfulowncr,
gratuitousyorincxchangcfor somcthingofvaluc. Astatccxistsin
ordcrtocnsurcthatthcscarcthconlytransfcrsthattakcplacc,and
to makcsurcthatnobodyviolatcs anyonc clsc sowncrship ofthcir
pcrsonandposscssions.
Butthisthcoryissilcntonthcformofthcrcsultingdistribution. lf
athcoryofdistributivcjusticcismcanttopronouncconthcmcritsof
somc distributions as agains othcrs, or to advisc somc pcrson or
organwhosc task it is to makc such distributions, lozick docs not
ohcr a thcory of distributivc j usticc at all. Any distribution that
comcs aboutthroughthcrightproccurcsishnc,andanythatdocs
notisunjust. Similarly,ifcach pcrsonis sovcrcignovcrhimsclfand
his posscssions, thcrc can bc nobody and no institution which is
cntitlcd to bring about distributions that owncrs do not asscnt to,
and thcrcforc thcrc is no nccd for a thcory advising thcm what
principlcstoopcratcby.
DCLBTSABCLTjLSTI C
Wchavcsccnthatjusticcisnotalovabcvirtuc ltisalso adcfcnsivc
onc, wc arc conccrncd to bcsccurcagainstthcft and fraud, wc havc
rightsinordcrnottodcpcnd onthc unprcdictablcgoodorillwillof

A 7hcccjticc, o .
I NTRCD!CTI CN
othcrs. Jhcsc considcrations raisc thcqucstion whcthcrwccannot
crcatcaworldinwhichjusticcwouldhavcnoplacc. Suchaqucstion
makcs no scnsc addrcsscd to llato or Aristotlc, llato s vision of
justicc as what hcld all thcothcrvirtucs in placc makcsj usticc and
rcason mirror imagcs ofcach othcr, whilc Aristotlc s discussion of
thc way thc bcttcr sort ofpcrson mcrits a bcttcr sort oflifc could
hardlybc translatcd to a dicrcnt contcxt. But Humcand Miland
Kawlsagrccthatjusticcisavirtuconlybccauscourwantscannotall
bcsatishcd,andbccauscwchavconlylimitcdbcncvolcnccWcrcwc
wholly altruistic and scarcity noncxistcnt, justicc would not bc
nccdcd.Wccouldrclyonthclovablcvirtucs .
Marxists havc always trcatcdjusticc with somc disdain. Bccausc
thcy havc thought that most accounts ofwhat is ' natural` mcrcly
rchcct thc political prcjudiccs and thc cconomic nccds of ruling
classcs intcnt on prcscrving thcir social and political position, thcy
havc rcfuscd to scc cithcr scarcity or limitcd altruism as dictatcs of
naturc. Altruismislimitcdincapitalistsocictics bccauscthcaltruist
makcshimsclfthcprcyofhis compctitors, andscarcityis a cultural
construct cqually dcpcndcnt on thc kind of socicty onc livcs in.
Compctitivcsocicticsfccl thc pinchofscarcity bccauscwhatpcoplc
arc aftcr is not ' cnough but 'morc than cvcryonc clsc` . Jhcrc
logically cannot bc morc than onc pcrson at thc pcak of thc
compctition to do bcttcr than cvcryonc clsc, and thc morc
compctitivcthcsocictythcmorcintcnsc thc scnsc ofscarcity. Jhcrc
is plainly a good dcal to this obscrvation. lt is ccrtainly truc that
tcrcislittlccorrclationbctwccnhighincomcsanda scnscofhaving
cnough.
Stcvcn Lukcs` scssayispartofancnquiryintoMarx` scomplaints
against capitalism and thc valucs that undcrlic his socialism.
Lukcss qucstion is whcthcr Marx thought capitalist cxploitation
wasdcplorablcwhichhcplainlydidthink-bccauscitwasunjust,
or for somc othcr rcason. Lukcs` sanswcr is dimcult to summarizc,
but amounts to thc claim that Marx did not conccrn himsclfwith
rightsandjusticc, butwith an cthics ofcmancipation. nthislight,
capitalist cxploitation, likc thc cxpoitation ofothcr cpochs, is not
intcrcstinginvirtucofbcingunjustbutinvirtucofbcingyctanothcr
form ofscrvitudc that awaits thc hnal libcration ofmankind for its
dcstruction.
Marxobjcctcdtotwofcaturcsoftalkaboutjusticc,oncthatitwas
associatcd with a rhctoric of 'ctcrnal` principlcs, thc othcr that
'cqualrightmustinpracticcmcanuncqualrcsults,thcsmallfarmcr
andohn . Kockcfcllcrhavc ' cqual right` to thcirpropcrty,butthc
small farmcr owns hvc acrcs and Kockcfcllcr Standard Cil. As thc
short passagc from thc Critiar c t/r ct/a Ircrammr illustratcs,
i
ALANRAN
Marx thought a conccrn with rights and with distributivcjusticc
mightlcadustoalowcr` formofsocialism, but thatbcyonditthcrc
lay a highcr form ofsocicty whcrc such notions wcrc obsolctc, and
that in gcncral a conccrn with forms of distribution was
unscicntihc , sincc what dctcrmincd possiblc forms ofdistribution
wasthcmodcofproduction.
Although not rcprcscntcd hcrc, thc Marxist criticisms oflibcral
accounts of justicc havc thcir non-Marxist countcrparts in
communitarianism.justicc is a chilly virtuc, appropriatc to thc
dcalingsofthoscwho arcstrangcrsto cach othcr, and who look to
cach othcr ncithcr for intimacy nor for unrcquitcd assistancc. Can
justicc rcally bcthc hrstvirtuc` ofsocialinstitutionsCana socicty
survivconjusticcalonc, woulditnotnccdwarmcrandcloscrvirtucs
to ccmcnt it lt is not surprising that Marxist and communitarian
critics convcrgc, and that thcir targc is libcral thcorics ofjusticc.
Marxism is a communitarian crccd, dihcring from most forms of
communitarianism in bcing rcsolutcly unnostalgic and hard-noscd
about thc matcrial undcrpinnings of community and its loss.
Libcrals dctcrmincd to makc thc bcst ofthc hcrc and now, and to
takc individuals as thcy hnd thcm n thc modcrn Wcstcrn world,
arc undauntcd. Socicty would bc impossiblc ifit rclicd onjusticc
alonc,and intolcrably blcakif tr imcssi/i/t ittricdtorclyonjusticc
alonc.loncthclcss,justiccisthcfoundationofcvcrythingclsc.Thc
qucstion turns onhow important andjusticc is inwhat rcspccts as
comparcd with thc warmcr and morc pcrsonal, natural virtucs
dcscribcdbyHumc,andadmitsofnosimplcanswcr.
CCNCLLSI CN
Thc bibliography at thc cnd ofthis collcction lists a good dcal of
work that has not bccn mntioncd hcrc at all. n particular, thcrc
has grown up an intriguing scmi-tcchnical litcraturc tying thcorics
ofjusticc tosuchdisciplincsasgamc thcory andthcoricsofrational
choicc. Cf thcoris mcntioncd hcrc, john awlss has obvious
connctions with wclfarc cconomcs, and many writcrs havc
discusscdhisminimaxargumcntsforthcdihcrcnccprinciplcinthc
contcxt of traditional wclfarc cconomics. laradoxically, awls
himsclfhas movcd away from such argumcnts in thc past dccadc
and has strcsscd thc cxtcnt to which his account ofjusticc aims to
mirroran cxistingpublicoutlook, and to bc politicallyrathcr than

MichaclSandc|,L:t:rs|:s sse t/: L::u o] jsst::: ambridgcnicrsiyrcss

Cambridgc, t g8z) .
INTRCD!CTI CN
tcchnically acccptablc. Thc onc thingwccan sayi sthatifSocatcs
cally cxpcctcd to gct a dcnnitivc answc to his qucstion, 'What is
justicc`whcntalkingtohisficndsonthciwaybacktothcliacus,
hc has bccn disappointcd. lt rcmains a contcntious and disputcd
subjcct .
11 b1\L L
PLATO
l thoughtthat, withthcscwords, l wasquitofthc discussion, butit
sccmsthiswasonlyaprcludc.Glaucon,undauntcdascvcr,wasnot
contcnttolctThrasymachusabandonthchcld.
Socratcs, hc brokc out, you havc madc a show ofproving that
justicc is bcttcr than injusticc in cvcry way. ls that cnough, or do
youwantustobcrcallyconvinccd
Ccrtainlyldo,ifitrcstswithmc.
Thcn you arc not going thc right way about it. l want to know
how you classify thc things wccall good. Arc thcrc not somc which
wcshouldwishtohavc, notforthcirconscqucnccs,butj ustforthcir
own sakc, such as harmlcss plcasurcs and cnjoymcnts that havc no
furthcrrcsultbcyondthcsatisfactionofthcmomcnt
Ycs, l thinkthcrcarcgoodthingsofthatdcscription.
And also somcthatwcvalucbothforthcirownsakcand forthcir
conscqucnccs-thingslikcknowlcdgcandhcalth and thcuscofour
cycs
Ycs.
Anda third classwhichwould includcphysicaltraining, mcdical
trcatmcnt,carningonc` sbrcadasadoctororothcrwiscuscful,but
burdcnsomcthings,whichwcwantonlyforthcsakcofthcprohtor
othcrbcncntthcybring.
Ycs,thcrcisthatthirdclassWhatthcn
lnwhichclassdoyouplaccjusticc
l should say, in thc highcst, as a thing which anyonc who is to
gainhappincssmustvalucbothforitsclfandforitsrcsults.
Wcl, that is notthccommonopinion. Mostpcopc woud say it
was onc ofthosc things, tircsomc and disagrccablc in thcmsclvcs,
which wc cannot avoid practisingfor thc sakc ofrcward ora good
rcputation.
l know, said l, thatiswhyThrasymachus has bccnhnding fault
romF|ato, 7htKtu/li:,ksII ss.j-G, IN ss. ,I7 ss. 88z,trans. l. M.
Cornford g ) . KprIntdbyprmIssIonofCxford\nIvrsItyFrss.
THEREPLBLI C
withi t all thistimc andpraisinginjusticc. But l sccmt obcslowin
sccinghispoint.
Listcn to mc, thcn, and sccifyouagrccwith minc. Jhcrcwas no
nccd, l think,forJhrasymachustoyicldsorcadily,likcasnakcyou
had charmcd into submission, andnothingsofarsaid aboutjusticc
and injusticc has bccn cstablishcd to my satisfaction. l want to bc
told what cach ofthcm rcally is, and what chcct cach has, initsclf,
onthc soul that harboursit,whcn allrcwards and conscqucnccs arc
lc out ofaccount. So hcrc is myplan, ifyou approvc. l shallrcvivc
Jhrasymachus' thcory. irst, l will statc what is commonly hcld
about thc naturc of justiccandits origin, sccondly, l shallmaintain
that itisalwayspractiscdwithrcluctancc, notasgoodin itsclf, but
asathingonccannotdowithout,andthirdly,thatthisrcluctanccis
rcasonablc, bccauscthc lifcofinjusticcis much thcbcttcrlifc ofthc
two-sopcoplsay.Jhatisnotwhatl thinkmysclf, Socratcs,onlyl
am bcwildcrcd by all that Jhrasymachus and cvcr so many othcrs
havc dinncd into my cars, and l havc ncvcr yct hcard thc casc for
justicc statcd as l wish to hcar it. You, l bclicvc, ifanyonc, can tcll
mcwhatistobcsaidinpraiscof justiccinandforitsclf, thatiswhat
l want. Accordingly, l shallsctyouancxamplcbyglorifyingthclifc
ofinjusticc with all thc cncrgy that l hopc you will show latcr in
dcnouncing it and cxaltingjusticc in its stcad. Will that plan suit
you!
lothing could bc bcttcr, l rcplicd. Cf al subjccts this is
onc on which a scnsiblc man must always bc glad to cxchangc
idcas.
Good, said Glaucon. Listcn thcn, and l will bcgin with my hrst
point.thcnaturcandoriginof justicc.
Whatpcoplcsayisthattodowrongis, initscf, adcsirablcthing,
on thc othcrhand, itisnotatalldcsirablcto suhcrwrong, and thc
harm to thc suhcrcr outwcighs thc advantagc to thc docr.
Conscqucntly, whcn mcn havc had a tastc ofboth, thoscwhohavc
not thc powcr to scizc thc advantagc and cscapc thc harm dccidc
that thcy would bc bcttcr ohifthcy madc a compact ncithcr to do
wrongnortosuhcrit. Hcnccthcybcgantomakclawsandcovcnants
with onc anothcr, and whatcvcr thc law prcscribcd thcy callcd
lawful andright.Jhatiswhatrightorj usticcisandhowitcamcinto
cxistcncc, it stands halfway bctwccn thc bcst thing ofall-to do
wrong with impunity-and thc worst, which is to sucr wrong
without thc powcr to rctaliatc. So justicc is acccptcd as a
compromisc, and valucd, not asgood initsclf, but for lack ofpowcr
to do wrong, no man worthy of thc namc, who had that powcr,
wouldcvcrcntcrintosuchacompactwithanyonc,hcwouldbcmad
2O PLATC
ifhc did. That, Socratcs, is thc naturc ofjusticc according to this
accountandsuchthccircumstanccsinwhichitarosc.
Thcncxtpointisthatmcnpractiscitagainstthcgrain, forlackof
powcrtodowrong.Howtructhatis, wcshallbcstsccifwcimaginc
twomcn,oncjust,thcothcrunjust, givcnfullliccncctodowhatcvcr
thcylikc, andthcnfollowthcmtoobscrvcwhcrccachwillbclcdby
hisdcsircs. Wcshallcatch thcj ustmantakingthcsamc road as thc
unj ust,hcwill bcmovcd bysclf-intcrcst, thccndwhich itisnatural
to cvcry crcaturc to pursuc as good, until forcibly turncd asidc by
lawandcustomtorcspcctthcprinciplcofcquality.
low, thc casicst waytogivc thcm thatcomplctclibcrtyofaction
wouldbctoimagincthcmposscsscdofthctalismanfoundbyGygcs,
thc anccstor ofthc famous Lydian. Thc story tclls how hc was a
shcphcrd in thc ing`s scrvicc. Cnc day thcrc was a grcat storm,
and thc ground whcrc his hock was fccding was rcnt by an
carthquakc. Astonishc at thc sight, hc wcnt down into thc chasm
and saw, among othcr wondcrs ofwhich thc story tclls, a brazcn
horsc, hollow, withwindows inits sidcs. lccring in, hcsaw a dcad
body, which sccmcd to bc ofmorc than human sizc. lt was nakcd
savcforagoldring,whichhctookfromthchngcrandmadchisway
out. Whcn thc shcphcrds mct as thcy didcvcry month, to scnd an
accountto thc ing ofthc statc ofhis hocks, Gygcs camc wcaring
thcring. As hcwas sittingwiththcothcrs, hchappcncd to turn thc
bczcl ofthc ring insidc his hand. At oncc hc bccamc invisiblc, and
his companions, to his surprisc, bcgan to spcak ofhimasifhc had
lcft thcm. Thcn, as c was hngcring thc ring, hc turncd thc bczcl
outwards and bccamc visiblc again. With that, hc sct about tcsting
thcringto sccifitrcallyhad thispowcr, andalwayswiththc samc
rcsult. according as hc turncd thc bczcl insidc or out hc vanishcd
and rcappcarcd. Aftcr this discovcry hc contrivcd to bc onc ofthc
mcsscngcrsscnttothccourt Thcrchcscduccdthcuccn,andwith
hcrhclpmurdcrcdthcingandscizcdthcthronc.
low supposc thcrc wcrc two such magic rings, and onc wcrc
givcntothcjustman,thcothcrtothcunjust. loonc,itiscommonly
bclicvcd, would havc such iron strcngthofmind asto stand fastin
doingright or kccphishandsohothcrmcn` sgoods,whcnhc could
go to thc markct-placc and fcarlcssly hclp himsclfto anything hc
wantcd, cntcr houscs and slccp with any woman hc chosc, sct
prisoncrs frccandkillmcn at his plcasurc, andin awordgo about
amongmcn with thc powcrs ofa god. Hcwould bchavc no bcttcr
tan tc othcr, bothwouldtakc thcsamccoursc Surclythiswould
bc strong proof that mcn do right only undcr compulsion, no
individual thinks ofit as good for him pcrsonally, sincc hc docs
THEREP!BLI C 2 !
wrongwhcncvcrhchndshchas thcpowcr. Lvcrymanbclicvcs that
wrongdoingpayshimpcrsonallymuchbcttcr,and,accordingtothis
thcory,thatisthctruthGrantcdfullliccncctodoashclikcdpcoplc
wouldthinkhimamiscrablcfoolifthcyfoundhimrcfusingtowrong
his ncighbours or to touch thcir bclongings, though in public thcy
would kccp up a prctcncc ofpraising his conduct, for fcar ofbcing
wrongcdthcmsclvcs.Somuchforthat.
linally, ifwc arc rcally tojudgc bctwccn thc twolivcs, thc only
wayistocontrastthc cxtrcmcs of justicc and injusticc. Wccan bcst
dothatbyimaginingourtwomcn tobcpcrfccttypcs, and crcditing
bothtothcfullwiththcqualiticsthcynccdfor thcirrcspcctivcways
of lifc To bcgin with thc unjust man. hc must bc likc any
consummatc mastcr of a craft, a physician or a captain who,
knowingjust what his art can do, ncvcr trics to do morc, and can
always rctricvc a falsc stcp. Thc unjust man, if hc is to rcach
pcrfcction,must bccquallydiscrcctinhiscriminalattcmpts, andhc
must not bc found out, or wc shall think him a bunglcr, for thc
highcst pitch ofinj usticc is to sccmjust whcn you arc not. So wc
must cndowourmanwiththcfullcomplcmcntofinjusticc,wcmust
allow him to havc sccurcd a spotlcss rcputation for virtuc whilc
committing thc blackcst crimcs, hc must bc ablc to rctricvc any
mistakc, todcfcndhimsclfwithconvincingcloqucnccifhismisdccds
arc dcnounccd, and, whcn forcc is rcquircd, to bcar down all
opposition by his couragc and strcngth and by his command of
fricndsand moncy.
low sct bcsidc this paragon thc just man in his simplicity and
noblcncss, onc who, inAcschylus` words, 'would bc, not sccm, thc
bcst` . Thcrc must, indccd, bc so such sccming, for ifhis charactcr
wcrc apparcnt his rcputation would bring him honours and
rcwards,and thcnwc shouldnotknowwhcthcritwasfor thcirsakc
that hc wasjustor forjusticcs sakc alonc. Hc must bc strippcd of
cvcrything but j usticc, and dcnicd cvcry advantagc thc othcr
cnjoycd. oing no wrong, hc must havc thc worst rcputation for
wrongdoing,totcstwhcthcrhis virtucisproofagainstallthatcomcs
of having a bad namc, and undcr this lifclong imputation of
wickcdncss, lcthim hold on his coursc ofjusticcunwavcringto thc
pointofdcath. Andso, whcn thc twomcnhavccarricdthcirjusticc
andinjusticctothclastcxtrcmc,wcmayjudgcwhichisthchappicr.
My dcar Glaucon, l cxclaimcd, howvigorously you scour thcsc
two charactcrs clcan for inspcction, as ifyou wcrc burnishing a
couplcofstatucs
l am doing my bcst, hc answcrcd. Wcll, givcn two such
charactcrs,itisnothard, l fancy,todcscribcthcsortoflifc thatcach
ofthcmmaycxpcct,andifthcdcscriptionsoundsrathcrcoarsc,takc
22 PLATC
it as coming from thosc whocry up thc mcrits ofinjusticc rathcr
than from mc. Thcy will tcll you that ourjustman will bc thrown
into prison, scourgcd and rackcd, will havc his cycs burnt out, and
aftcr cvcry kind oftormcnt, bc impalcd. That will tcach him how
much bcttcritistosccmvirtuousthantobcso. n factthosc lincs of
Acschylus quotcd arc morc htly applicd to thc unjust man who,
thcysay, isarcalistanddocsnotlivcforappcaranccs. hcwouldbc,
notsccm`unjust,
rcapingthcharvcstsown
nthoscdccpfurrowsofthcthoughtfulhcart
Whcnccwisdomsprings.
With his rcputation for virtuc, hc will hold omccs of statc, ally
himsclfbymarriagctoanyfamilyhcmay choosc, bccomcapartncr
inany busincss, and,havingnoscruplcsaboutbcingdishoncst, turn
allthcscadvantagcstoproht. fhcisinvolvcdinalawsuit,publicor
privatc, hc will gct thc bcttcr ofhis opponcnts, grow rich on thc
procccds, and bc ablc to hclp his fricnds and harm his cncmics.
linally, hc can makc sacrihccs to thc gods and dcdicatc ohcrings
with duc magninccncc, and, bcing in a much bcttcr position than
thcjustman toscrvc thcgods as wcll ashis choscn fricnds, hcmay
rcasonably hopc to stand highcr in thc favour ofhcavcn. So much
bcttcr thcy say Socratcsis thc lifc prcparcdfor thc unjustbygods
andmcn.
Hcrc Glaucon cndcd, and was mcditating a rcply, whcn his
brothcrAdcimantuscxclaimcd.
Surcly, Socratcs, you cannotsupposcthatthatis all thcrcistobc
said.
Why isn` tit!said
Thc most csscntial partofthccaschas not bccn mcntioncd, hc
rcplicd.
Wcll, answcrcd, thcrc is a provcrb about a brothcr`s aid. f
Glaucon has failcd, i is for you to makc good his shortcomings
thoughsofaras amconccrncd,hchassaidquitccnoughtoputmc
out ofthc running and lcavc mc powcrlcss to rcscuc thc causc of
justicc.
lonscnsc, said Adcmantus thcrc is morc to bc said, and you
must listcn to mc. fwc want a clcar vicw ofwhat takc to bc
Glaucon` smcaning,wcmuststudy thcoppositcsidcofthccasc,thc
argumcnts uscd whcnjusicc is praiscd and injusticc condcmncd.
Whcn childrcn arc told by thcir fathcrs and all thcir pastors and
mastcrsthatitisagoodthingtobcj ust,whatiscommcndcdisnot
justicc in itsclfbut hc rcspcctabilityitbrings. Thcy arc tolct mcn
scchowjustthcyarc, inordcrtogainhighpositionsandmarrywcll
THEREPLBLI C
and win all thc othcr advantagcs which Glaucon mcntioncd, sincc
thcjustmanowcsallthcsctohisgoodrcputation.
ln this mattcr ofhaving a good namc, thcygo farthcr still . thcy
throwin thcfavourablc opinion ofhcavcn, andcantcll usofnocnd
ofgood things withwhich thcy say thc godsrcward picty. Thcrc is
thc good old Hcsiod, who says thcgods makc thcjust man`s oak
trccs ' bcar acorns at thc top and bccs in thc middlc, and thcir
shccp` s hccccs arc hcavy with wool, ' and a grcat many othcr
blcssingsofthatsort.AndHomcrspcaksinthcsamcstrain.
D8 WDCD 3 Dl3UClC88 kDg C3t8 lDC gOU8 3DU uQDOlU8 tgDl ]uUgCUCDl lDCD
lDC U3IK C3IlD CU8 WDC3l 3DU D3IC, 3DU lDC lICC8 3IC 3UCD WlD Iul
lDC jOuDg O D8 UOCk8 3IC 8lIODg, 3DU lDC 8C3 gVC8 3DuDU3DCC OD 8D.
Musacus andhis son Lumolpuscnlargcin still morc spiritcd tcrms
upon thcrcwards from hcavcn thcy promisc to thc rightcous. Thcy
takcthcmtothcothcrworldandprovidcthcmwitha banquctofthc
Blcst, whcrc thcy sit for all timc carousing with garlands on thcir
hcads,asifvirtuccould notbcmorcnoblyrccompcnscdthanby an
ctcrnity ofintoxication. Cthcrs, again, carry thc rcwards ofhcavcn
yct a stagc farthcr. thc pious man who kccps his oaths is to havc
childrcns childrcn and to lcavc a postcrity aftcr him. Whcn thcy
havc sung thc praiscs ofjusticc in that strain with morc to samc
ccct, thcyprocccd to plungcthcsinncrsandunrightcous mcn into
a pool ofmud in thcworld bclow, and sctthcm to fctch watcrin a
sicvc. Lvcn in this lifc, too, thcy givc thcm a bad namc, and makc
out that thc unjust sucr all thosc pcnaltics which Glaucon
dcscribcd as falling upon thc good man who has a bad rcputation.
thcy canthinkofnoothcrs . That ishowjusticcisrccommcndcdand
injusticcdcnounccd.
Bcsidcsallthis, thinkofthcwayinwhichjusticcandinjusticcarc
spokcn of, not only in ordinary lifc, but by thc pocts . All with onc
voicc rcitcratc that sclf-control andjusticc, admirablc as thcy may
bc, arcdimcultandirksomc,whcrcasviccandinjusticcarcplcasant
and vcrycasily to bc had, it is mcrc convcntion to rcgard thcm as
discrcditablc.Thcytcllusthatdishoncstygcncrallypaysbcttcrthan
honcsty. Thcywillchccrfullyspcakofa badmanashappyandload
him with honours and social cstccm, providcd hc bc rich and
othcrwisc powcrful, whilc thcy dcspisc and disrcgard onc who has
ncithcr powcr nor wcalth, though all thc whilc thcy acknowlcdgc
thathcisthcbcttcrmanofthctwo.
Most surprising ofall iswhatthcysay about thcgods andvirtuc.
thathcavcnitsclfoftcnallotsmisfortuncsandahardlifc tothcgood
man, and givcs prospcrity to thc wickcd. Mcndicant pricsts and
soothsaycrscomctothcr|chman`s doorwithastoryofapowcrthcy
PLATC
posscss by thcgift ofhcavcn toatoncfor anyohcnccthathc orhis
anccstors havc committcdwithincantations and sacrihcc agrccably
accompanicdbyfcasting. fhcwishcstoinjurcancncmy, hccan, at
a trihing cxpcnsc, dohi ma hurtwith cqual casc, whcthcrhcbcan
honcstmanornot, bymcansofccrtaininvocationsandspcllswhich,
asthcyprofcss,prcvailuponthcgodstodothcirbidding. nsupport
ofall thcsc claims thcy call thc pocts to witncss. Somc, by way of
advcrtisingthccasincss ofvicc, quotc thcwords ' !ntowickcdncss
mcn attain casily and in multitudcs, smooth is thc way and hcr
dwclling is vcry ncar at hand. But thc gods havc ordaincd much
swcat upon thc path to virtuc` and a long road that is rough and
stccp
Cthcrs, to show that mcncan turn thcgods from thcir purposc,
citc Homcr. ' Lvcn thc gods thcmsclvcs listcn to cntrcaty. Thcir
hcartsarcturncdbythccntrcaticsofmcnwithsacrihccandhumblc
praycrs and libation and burnt ohcring, whcnsocvcr anyonc
transgrcsscsanddocsamiss. ` Thcyproduccawholcfarragoofbooks
in which Musacus and Crphcus, dcscribcd as dcsccndants ofthc
Muscs and thc Moon, prcscribc thcir ritual, and thcy pcrsuadc
cntirccommunitics, aswcllasindividuals,that,bothinthislifcand
aftcr dcath, wrongdoing may bc absolvcd and purgcd away by
mcans of sacrihccs and agrccablc pcrformanccs which thcy arc
plcascd to call ritcs ofinitiation. Thcscdclivcrusfrompunishmcnt
inthcothcrworld,whcrcawful thingsarcinstorcforallwhoncglcct
tosacrihcc.
low, my dcar Socratcs, whcn all this stuhis talkcd about thc
cstimation in which virtuc and vicc arc hcld by hcavcn and by
mankind, what chcct can wc supposc it has upon thc mind ofa
young man quickwittcd cnough to gathcr honcy from all thcsc
howcrsofpopularwisdomandtodrawhisownconclusionsastothc
sortofpcrsonhcshouldbcandthcwayhcshouldgoinordcrtolcad
thc bcst possiblc lifc n all likclihood hc would ask himsclf, in
lindar's words ' Will thcwayofrightorthcby-pathsofdcccitlcad
mc to thc highcrfortrcss, ` whcrc may cntrcnch mysclffor thcrcst
ofmy lifc! lor, according to what thcy tcll mc, havc nothing to
gain buttroublc and manifcst loss from bcing honcst, unlcss also
gct a namc for bcing so, whcrcas, if am dishoncst and providc
mysclfwitha rcputationfor honcsty, thcypromiscmca marvcllous
carccr.crywcll,thcn,sinccoutwardsccming` , aswiscmcninform
mc, 'ovcrpowcrs thctruth` anddccidcsthcqucstionofhappincss,
hd bcttcr go in for appcaranccs wholchcartcdly. must cnsconcc
mysclfbchind an imposingfaadc dcsigncd to look likc virtuc, and
trail thcfox bchindmc, ' thccunningshiftyfox`-Archilochuskncw
thc word as wcll as any man. You may say it is not so casy to bc
THEREP!BLI C
wickcd without cvcr bcingfound out lcrhaps not,butgrcatthings
arcncvcrcasy. Anyhow, ifwcarctorcachhappincss,cvcrythingwc
havcbccntoldpoints tothisasthcroadtobcfollowcd.Wcwillform
sccrctsocicticstosavcusfromcxposurc, bcsidcs,thcrcarcmcnwho
tcachthcartofwinningovcrpopularasscmblics and courtsoflaw,
so that, oncwayoranothcr, by pcrsuasion orviolcncc,wc shallgct
thc bcttcr of our ncighbours without bcing punishcd. You might
objcctthatthcgodsarcnottobcdcccivcdandarcbcyondthcrcach
ofviolcncc But supposcthatthcrc arc nogods, orthatthcy do not
conccrn thcmsclvcswiththcdoingsofmcn,whcnshouldwcconccrn
oursclvcs to dcccivc thcm Cr, if thc gods do cxist and carc for
mankind, all wc know or havc cvcr hcard about thcm comcs from
currcnt tradition and from thc pocts who rccount thcir family
history, and thcsc samc authoritics also assurc us that thcy can bc
won ovcr and turncd from thcir purposc ' by sacricc and humblc
praycrs and votivc ohcrings. Wc must cithcr acccpt both thcsc
statcmcnts or ncithcr. fwc arc to acccpt both, wc had bcttcr do
wrong and usc part ofthcprocccds to ohcr sacrincc. By bcingjust
wc may cscapc thc punishmcnt of hcavcn, but wc shall bc
rcnouncingthcprohtsofinjusticc,whcrcasbydoingwrongwcshall
makc ourprohtand cscapcpunishmcntintothc bargain, by mcans
ofthosccntrcaticswhichwinovcr thcgodswhcnwc transgrcss and
do amiss. But thcn, youwill say, in thc othcrworld thc pcnaltyfor
ourmisdccdsoncarthwillfallcithcr upon usorupon our childrcn s
childrcn. Wccan countcr that objcction byrcckoning onthc grcat
cmcacyofmysticritcs and thc divinitics ofabsolution, vouchcd for
by thc most advanccd socictics and by thc dcsccndants ofthc gods
whohavcappcarcdaspoctsandspokcsmcnofhcavcnlyinspiration
Whatrcason,thcn,rcmainsforprcfcrringjusticctothccxtrcmcof
injusticc, whcn common bclicfand thc bcst authoritics promisc us
thc fulhlmcnt of our dcsircs in this lifc and thc ncxt, ifonly wc
conccal our illdoing undcr a vcnccr of dcccnt bchaviour Thc
upshot is, Socratcs, that no man posscsscd of supcrior powcrs of
mind or pcrson orrankorwcalth will sctanyvaluconjusticc, hcis
morc likcly to laugh whcn hc hcars it praiscd. So, cvcn onc who
couldprovcmycascfalscandwcrcquitcsurcthatjusticcis bcst far
from bcing indignant with thc unjust, will bc vcry rcady to cxcusc
thcm. Hc will know that, hcrc and thcrc, a man may rcfrain from
wrong bccauscitrcvolts somc instinct hcis graccd with orbccausc
hchascomctoknowthctruth, nooncclscisvirtuousofhisownwill,
itisonlylackofspiritorthcinrmityofagcorsomcothcrwcakncss
thatmakcsmcncondcmnthciniquiticsthcyhavcnotthcstrcngthto
practisc. Thisis casilysccn. givc such a man thcpowcr, and hcwill
bcthcnrsttouscittothcutmost.
PLATC
Whatlics at thc bottom ofallthis is nothing but thc fact from
which Glaucon, as wcll as l, startcd upon this long discoursc. Wc
put it to you, Socratcs, with all rcspcct, in this way. All you who
profcss to singthcpraiscs ofright conduct, fromthc ancicnthcrocs
whosc lcgcnds havc survivcd down to thc mcn ofthc prcscnt day,
havc ncvcr dcnounccd injusticc or praiscdj usticc apart from thc
rcputation, honours, and rcwards thcy bring, butwhatccctcithcr
ofthcm in itsclfhas upon its posscssor whcn it dwclls in his soul
unsccn of gods or mcn, no poct or ordinary man has cvcr yct
cxplaincd. loonchasprovcdthata soulcanharbournoworsccvil
thaninjusticc, nogrcatcrgood thanjusticc.Hadallofyousaidthat
from thchrstand tricdtoconvinccusfromouryouthup,wcshould
not bc kccping watch upon our ncighbours to prcvcnt thcm from
doing wrong to us, but cvcryonc would kccp a far morc chcctual
watchovcr himsclf, for fcarlcstbywrongingothcrshcshould opcn
hisdoorstothcworstofallcvils .
Jhat, Socratcs, is thc vicw of justicc and injusticc which
Jhrasymachus and, no doubt othcrs would statc, pcrhaps in cvcn
strongcrwords. lor mysclf, l bclicvc it to bc a gross pcrvcrsion of
thcirtruc worth and ccct,but,asl mustfranklyconfcss, l havc put
thccascwithallthcforccl couldmustcrbccauscl wanttohcarthc
othcr sidc from you. You must not bc contcnt with proving that
justicc is supcrior to injusticc, you must makc clcar what good or
whatharmcach ofthcmdocs to its posscssor, taking it simply in
itsclf and, as Glaucon rcquircd, lcaving out of account thc
rcputationitbcars. orunlcssyoudcprivccachofitstrucrcputation
and attach to it thc falsc onc, wc shall say thatyou arc praisingor
dcnouncingnothing morc than thc appcaranccs in cithcr casc, and
rccommcnding us to do wrong without bcing found out, and that
you hold with Jhrasymachus that right mcans what is good for
somconc clsc, bcing thc intcrcstofthc strongcr, and wrong iswhat
rcallypays, scrvingonc' s own intcrcstatthccxpcnscofthcwcakcr.
You havc agrccd thatjusticc bclongs to that highcst class ofgood
thingswhich arcworthhaving notonlyfor thcirconscqucnccs, but
much morc for thcir own sakcsthings likc sight and hcaring,
knowlcdgc, and hcalth whosc valuc is gcnuinc and intrinsic, not
dcpcndcnt on opinion. So l want you, in commcndingjusticc, to
considcronlyhowjusticc,initsclf, bcnchts a manwhohasitinhim,
andhowinjusticcharmshim,lcavingrcwardsandrcputationoutof
account. l might put up with othcrs dwclling on thosc outward
chccts as a rcason for praising thc onc and condcmning thc othcr,
butfromyou,whohavc spcntyourlifc inthcstudyofthisqucstion,
l must bcg lcavc to dcmand somcthing bcttcr. You must not bc
contcnt mcrcly to provc that justicc is supcrior to injusticc, but
THEREPLBLI C
cxplainhowonci sgood,thcothcrcvil,i nvirtucof thcintrinsicccct
cachhasonitsposscssor,whcthcrgodsormcnsccitornot . .
And so, aftcr a stormy passagc, wc havc rcachcd thc land Wc arc
fairlyagrccd thatthcsamc thrccclcmcnts cxistalikcinthcstatcand
inthcindividualsoul .
Jhatisso.
ocsitnotfollowatonccthatstatcandindividualwillbcwiscor
bravc by virtuc ofthc samc clcmcnt incach and in thc samc way!
Both will posscss in thc samc manncr any quality that makcs for
cxccllcncc.
Jhatmustbctruc.
Jhcn itapplics tojusticc wc shall concludc that a manisjustin
thcsamcwaythatastatcwasjust. Andwchavcsurclynotforgottcn
thatjusticcin thc statc mcant thatcachofthc thrccordcrsinitwas
doingitsownpropcrwork. Sowcmayhcnccforth bcarinmind that
cach onc of us likcwisc will bc a just pcrson, fulnlling his propcr
function,onlyifthcscvcralpartsofournaturcfulnlthcirs.
crtainly.
And it will bc thc busincss ofrcason to rulc with wisdom and
forcthought on bchalfofthc cntirc soul, whilc thc spiritcd clcmcnt
oughttoactasitssubordinatcandally.Jhctwowillbcbroughtinto
accord, aswcsaid carlcr, bythatcombinationofmcntal and bodily
training which will tunc up onc string ofthc instrumcnt and rclax
thc othcr, nourshing thc rcasoning part on thc study of noblc
litcraturcandallayingthcothcr` swildncss byharmonyandrhythm.
Whcn both havc bccn thus nurturcd and traincd to know thcirown
truc functions, thcy must bc sct in command ovcr thc appctitcs,
which form thc grcatcr part ofcach man` s soul and arc by naturc
insatiably covctous . Jhcy must kccp watch lcst this part, by
battcning on thc plcasurcs that arc callcd bodly, should grow so
grcat and powcrful that itwill no longcrkccp to its ownwork, but
willtryto cnslavc thcothcrs and usurp a dominion to which it has
no right, thus turning thc wholc of lifc upsidc down. At thc samc
timc, thosctwotogcthcrwillbc thc bcstofguardians for thc cntirc
souland for thc bodyagainstallcncmicsfromwithout thc oncwill
takc counscl, whilc thc othcr will do battlc, following its rulcr`s
commands and by its own bravcry giving ccct to thc rulcr` s
dcsigns.
cs,thatisalltruc.
Andsowccallanindividualbravcinvirtucofthisspiritcdpartof
his naturc, whcn, in spitc ofpain or plcasurc, it holds fast to thc
PLATC
injunctionsofrcasonaboutwhathc oughtoroughtnottobcafraid
o
Jruc.
Andwiscinvirtucofthatsmallpartwhichrulcsandissucsthcsc
injunctions, posscssingas it docs thcknowlcdgcofwhatisgood for
cachofthcthrccclcmcntsandforallofthcm in common.
Ccrtainly.
And,again, tcmpcratcbyrcasonofthcunanimityandconcordof
all thrcc, whcn thcrc is no intcrnal conhict bctwccn thc ruling
clcmcnt and its two subjccts, but all arc agrccd that rcason should
bcrulcr.
Ycs, thatis an cxact account oftcmpcrancc, whcthcr inthc statc
orinthcindividual.
linally, a manwillbcjust by obscrvingthcprinciplcwchavcso
oftcnstatcd.
lcccssarily
lowisthcrcanyindistinctncssinourvisionofjusticc, thatmight
makc it sccm somchowdicrcntfromwhatwc found it to bc inthc
statc!
l don` tthinkso.
Bccausc, ifwchavcanylingcringdoubt, wcmight makc surc by
comparing it with somc commonplacc notions Supposc, for
instancc, that a sum ofmoncy wcrc cntrustcd to our statc o to an
individual ofcorrcsponding charactcr and training, would anyonc
imagincthatsuchapcrsonwouldbcspcciallylikclytocmbczzlcit!
lo.
And would hc not bc incapablc of sacrilcgc and thcft, or of
trcachcry to fricnd or country, ncvcr falsc to an oath or any othcr
compact, thclasttobcguilty ofadultcyorofncglcctingparcnts or
thcducscrviccofthcgods!
Ycs.
And thc rcason fo all this is that cach part of his naturc s
cxcrcisingi spropcrfunction,of rulingorofbcingrulcd.
Ycs,cxactly.
Arc you satisncd, thcn, thatjusticc is thc powcr which produccs
statcsorndividualsofwhomthatistruc,ormustwclookfurthcr!
Jhcrcisnonccd, ! amquitcsatisncd.
And so ou drcam has comc truc-l mcan thc inkling wc had
that, by somc happy chancc, wc had lightcd upon a rudimcntary
form ofjusticc from thc vcry momcnt whcn wc sct about founding
our commonwcalth. Cur principlc that thc born shocmakcr or
carpcntcr had bcttcr stick to his tradc turns out to havc bccn an
adumbration ofjusticc, and that it why i has hclpcd us . But in
rcalityj usticc, though cvidcntlyanalogous othisprinciplc, is nota
THEREP!BLI C
mattcro ctcrnalbchaviour, butothcinwardsclandoattcnding
to all that is, inthc ullcst scnsc, a man` s propcr conccrn. Jhcjust
man docs not allow thc scvcral clcmcnts in his soul to usurp onc
anothcr` sunctions, hcisindccdoncwhosctshishouscinordcr, by
sclmastcry and disciplinc coming to bc at pcacc with himscl, and
bringing into tunc thosc thrcc parts,likc thc tcrms inthcproportion
o a musical scalc, thc highcst and lowcst notcs and thc mcan
bctwccnthcm,withallthcintcrmcdiatcintcrvals. Cnlywhcnhchas
linkcdthcscpartstogcthcrinwclltcmpcrcd harmonyandhasmadc
himscl onc man instcad o many, will hc bc rcady to go about
whatcvcr hc may havc to do, whcthcr it bc making moncy and
satisying bodily wants, or busincss transactions, or thc aairs o
statc. ln all thcsc hclds whcn hc spcaks ojust and honourablc
conduct, hc will mcan thc bchaviour that hclps to producc and to
prcscrvc this habit o mind, and by wisdom hc will mcan thc
knowlcdgc which prcsidcs ovcr such conduct Any action which
tcnds to brcak down this habit will bc or him unjust, and thc
notionsgovcrningithcwillcallignoranccandolly.
Jhatispcrcctlytruc,Socratcs.
Good, said ! l bclicvc wc should not bc thought altogcthcr
mistakcn,i wc claimcd tohavcdiscovcrcdthc justmanandthcjust
statc,andwhcrcinthcirjusticcconsists.
!ndccdwcshouldnot.
Shallwcmakcthatclaim, thcn
Ycs,wcwill.
Sobcit, said!. cxt,! supposc,wchavctoconsidcrinjusticc.
Lvidcntly.
Jhismustsurclybcasortocivilstricamongthcthrccclcmcnts,
whcrcbythcyusurpand cncroach upononc anothcr sunctionsand
somc onc part o thc soul riscs up in rcbcllion against thc wholc,
claimingasuprcmacytowhichithasnorightbccauscitsnaturchts
itonly to bc thc scrvant othc ruling principlc. Such turmoiland
abcrration wc shall, l think, idcntiy with injusticc, intcmpcancc,
cowardicc,ignorancc,andinawrdwithallwickcdncss .
Lxactly.
And nowthatwcknowthcnaturco justiccand injusticc,wccan
bc cqually clcar about what i smcant by actingjustly and again by
unjustactionandwrongdoing.
Howdoyoumcan
llainly, thcy ac cxactly analogous to thosc wholcsomc and
unwholcsomc activitics which rcspcctivcly producc a hcalthy or
PLATC
unhcalthy condition in thc body, in thc samcwayjust and unjust
conductproducc ajust or unjust charactcr.justicc isproduccd in
thc soul, likc hcalth in thc body, by cstablishing thc clcmcnts
conccrncd in thcir natural rclations ocontrol and subordination,
whcrcasinjusticcislikcdiscascandmcans thatthisnaturalordcris
invcrtcd.
uitcso.
t appcars,thcn,thatvirtucisasitwcrcthchcalthandcomclincss
and wcll-bcingofthc soul, as wickcdncss is discasc, dcormity, and
wcakncss.
Jruc.
Andalso thatvirtucandwickcdncssarcbrought about byonc` s
wayolic,honourablcordisgraccul.
Jhatollows.
So now itonly rcmains to considcr which is thc morc prohtablc
coursc. to do right and livchonourablyand bcjust, whcthcrornot
anyoncknowswhatmanncromanyou arc, ortodowrongand bc
unjust,providcdthatyou can cscapc thc chastiscmcntwhichmight
makcyouabcttcrman.
Butrcally,Socratcs,itsccmstomcridiculoustoaskthatqucstion
now that thc naturc ojusticc and injusticc has bccn brought to
light. lcoplc think that all thc luxury and wcalth and powcr in thc
world cannotmakclifcworth livingwhcnthc bodily constitution is
going to rack and ruin, and arc wc to bclicvc that, whcn thc vcry
principlc whcrcby wc livc is dcrangcd and corruptcd, lic will bc
worth living so long as a man can do as hc will , and wills to do
anythingrathcr than torcc himsclromvicc and wrongdoing and
towinj usticcandvirtuc
Ycs,rcplicd,itisaridiculousqucstion. . . .
Good, said . And now that thc argumcnt has brought us to this
point,lctusrccallsomcthingthatwassaidatthcoutsct, namcly,i
rcmcmbcr aright, that wrongdoing is prohtablc whcn a man is
complctclyunj ustbuthasarcputationorj usticc.
Ycs,thatpositionwasstatcd.
Wcll, wc arc now agrccd about thc rcal mcaning and
conscqucnccsodoingwrongas wcllasodoingright, and thc timc
has comc to point out to anyonc who maintains that position what
his statcmcnt implics Wc may do so by likcning thc soul to onc o
thoscmanyfabulous monstcrs said tohavc cxistcdlongago,suchas
thc Chimacra or Scylla or Ccrbcrus, which combincd thc orms o
scvcral crcaturcs in onc. maginc, to bcgin with, thc hgurc o a
THEREPLBLI C
multiarious and many-hcadcd bcast, girt round with hcads o
animals, tamc and wild, which it can grow out o itscl and
transormatwill.
Jhat would tax thc skill o a sculptor, but luckily thc stulI o
imaginationiscasicrtomouldthanwax.
ow add two othcr orms, a lion and a man. Jhc many-hcadcd
bcastistobcthclargcst byar, and thc lion ncxt to itin sizc. Jhcn
join thcm in such awaythatthc thrcc somchowgrowtogcthcrinto
onc. Lastly, mould thc outsidc into thc likcncss oonc othcm, thc
man, so that, to cycswhich cannot scc insidc thc outward shcath,
thcwholcmaylooklikcasinglccrcaturc,ahumanbcing.
crywcll. Whatthcn
Wc can now rcply to anyonc who says that or this human
crcaturcwrongdoingpaysandthcrcisnothingtobcgaincdbydoing
right Jhis simply mcans, wc shall tcll him, that it pays to ccd up
andstrcngthcnthccompositcbcastand all thatbclongsto thclion,
and to starvc thcman tillhc is so cnccblcd thatthcothcrtwocan
drag him whithcr thcy will, and hc cannot bring thcm to livc
togcthcr in pcacc, but must lcavc thcm to bitc and strugglc and
dcvouroncanothcr. Cn thc othcr hand, todcclarc thatjusticcpays
istoasscrtthatallourwordsandactionsshouldtcndtowardsgiving
thcmanwithinuscomplctcmastcryovcrthcwholchumancrcaturc,
andlcttinghimtakcthcmanyhcadcdbcastundcrhiscarcandtamc
itswildncss, likc thcgardcncrwho trainshischcrishcdplants whilc
hc chccks thcgrowthowccds. Hcshouldcnlistthclion as his al ly,
andcaringorallalikc,shouldostcrthcirgrowthbyhrstrcconciling
thcmtooncanothcrandtohimscl.
Ycs, such arc thc implications whcn j usticc or injusticc is
commcndcd.
lromcvcrypointovicw, thcn, whcthcroplcasurcorrcputation
or advantagc, onc who praiscs justicc spcaks thc truth, hc who
disparagcsitdocsnotknowwhatitisthathcidlycondcmns .
agrcc, hchas noconccption.
But his crror is notwilul, so lctus rcason withhim gcntly. c
willask him on whatgrounds conducthas comcto bc approvcd or
disapprovcdbylawandcustom. lsitnotaccordingasconducttcnds
to subduc thc brutishpartsoournaturc to thc humanpcrhapl
shouldrathcrsay to thc divincinusortocnslavcour humanity to
thcsavagcryothcbcast!Willhcagrcc
Ycs, ihchasanyrcgardormyopinion.
Cn that showing,thcn,can itprohta mantotakc moncyunjustly,
ihcis thcrcbycnslavingthcbcstpartohisnaturctothcvilcsto
amount omoncy could makc it worth his whilc to scll a son or
daughtcrasslavcsintothchandsocruclandcvilmcn,andwhcnit
PLATC
is a mattcr of ruthlcssly subjugating all that is most godlikc in
himsclfto whatsocvcr is most ungodly and dcspicablc, is not thc
wrctchtakingabribcfarmorcdisastrousthanthcnccklaccLriphylc
tookasthcpriccofhcrhusband` slifc!
larmorc,saidGlaucon,ifmayanswcronhisbchalf
You will agrcc, too, with thc rcasons why ccrtain faults havc
always bccn condcmncd. prohigacy, bccausc it givcs too much
liccncc to thcmultiform monstcr, sclfwill and ill tcmpcr, whcn thc
lion and scrpcnt part of us is strcngthcncd till its sincws arc
ovcrstrung. luxuryand ccminacy, bccausc thy rclax thoscsincws
till thchcartgrowsfaint, attcry and mcanncss, in that thchcart` s
highspiritissubordinatcdtothcturbulcntbcast,andforthcsakcof
moncy to gratify thc crcaturc`s insatiablc grccd thc lion is brow
bcatcnand schoolcd fromyouth uptobccomcanapc. Why, again,
is mcchanicaltoildiscrcditcdas dcbasing! s itnotsimplywhcnthc
highcst thing in a man`s naturc is naturally sowcak that it cannot
controlthcanimalpartsbutcanonlylcarnhowtopampcrthcm!
lsupposcso.
Jhcn, i fwcsay thatpcoplcofthis sortoughttobcsubjccttothc
highcsttypcofman,wcintcndthatthcsubjcctshould bcgovcrncd,
not, as Jhrasymachus thought, to his own dctrimcnt, but on thc
samcprinciplcashissupcrior, whoishimsclfgovcrncdbythcdivinc
clcmcnt within him. lt is bcttcr for cvcryonc, wc bclicvc, to bc
subjcct to a powcr ofgodlikc wisdom rcsiding within himsclf, or,
failing that, imposcd from without, in ordcr that all of us, bcing
undcr onc guidancc, may bc so far as possiblc cqual and unitcd.
Jhis, morcovcr, is plainly thc intcntion of thc law in lcnding its
support to cvcry mcmbcr of thc community, and also of thc
govcrnmcnt ofchildrcn, for wc allow thcm to go frcconlywhcnwc
havccstablishcdincachoncofthcmasitwcrcaconstitutionalrulcr,
whomwc havc traincd totakcovcrthcguardianship fromthcsamc
principlcinoursclvcs.
Truc.
Cnwhatground,thcn,canwcsaythatitsprohtablcforamanto
bc uust or sclf-indulgcnt or to do any disgraccful act which will
makc him aworsc man, thoughhcmay gain moncyandpowcr!Cr
how can it proht thc wrongdocr to cscapc dctcction and
punishmcnt! Hc will only grow still worsc, whcrcas ifhc is found
out, chastiscmcntwilltamcthcbrutcinhimandlayittorcst,whilc
thc gcntlcr part is sct frcc, and thus thc cntirc soul, rcstorcd to its
nativc soundncss, will gain, in thc tcmpcrancc and rightcousncss
which wisdom brings, a condition morc prccious than thc strcngth
and bcauty which hcalth brings to thc body, in proportion as thc
soul itsclf surpasscs thc body in worth. Jo this cnd thc man of
THEREP!BLI C
JJ
undcrstanding will bcnd allhispowcrs through lic, prizing in thc
hrstplacc thoscstudicsonlywhichwillashionthcscqualiticsinhis
soul, and,soarromabandoningthccarcohisbodilyconditionto
thc irrational plcasurcs o thc brutc and sctting his acc in that
dircction, hc will not cvcn makc hcalth his chic objcct . Hcalth,
strcngth, and bcauty hc will valuc only in so ar as thcy bring
soundncssomind,andyouwill ndhimkccpinghisbodilyramcin
tuncalwaysorthcsakcothcrcsultingconcordinthcsoul .
Ycs,ihcistohavc trucmusicinhim.
And i n thc mattcr oacquiring wcalth hc will ordcr his lic i n
harmonywiththcsamcpurposc. Hcwillnotbccarricdawaybythc
vulgar notion o happincss into hcaping up an unboundcd storc
which would bring him cndlcss troublcs. Kathcr, in adding to or
spcnding his substancc, hcwill, to thc bcstohis powcr, bc guidcd
bywatchul carc thatncithcrwantnorabundanccmayunscttlcthc
constitution sct up in his soul. Again, in acccpting powcr and
honours hc will kccp thc samc cnd in vicw, rcady to cnjoy any
position in public or privatc lic which hc thinks will makc him a
bcttcr man, and avoiding any that would brcak down thc
cstablishcdordcrwithinhim.
Jhcn,ithatishischicconccrn, hcwillhavcnowishtotakcpart
inpolitics.
!ndccd hcwill, in thc politics ohis own commonwcalth, though
not pcrhaps in thoscohis country, unlcss somcmiraculous chancc
shouldcomcabout.
! undcrstand, said Glaucon. you mcan this commonwcalth wc
havc bccnoundingin thcrcalmodiscoursc, or ! thinkitnowhcrc
cxistsoncarth.
o, rcplicd, but pcrhaps thcrcisapattcrn sct up inthchcavcns
or oncwho dcsircs to scc itand, sccingit, to ound onc in himscl.
Butwhcthcritcxistsanywhcrcorcvcr will cxist isnomattcr,orthis
isthconlycommonwcalthinwhoscpoliticshccancvcrtakcpart.
suspcctyouarcright.
<
D LIPL11PD 111 Lb
ARISTOTLE
2
. . . whatwcarcinvcstigatingis thcjusticcwhichisar/ ofvirtuc,for
thcrc is ajusticc of this kind, as wc maintain. Similarly it is with
injusticcinthcparticularscnscthatwcarcconccrncd.
That thcrc is such a thingisindicatcd by thcfact that whilc thc
man who cxhibits in action thc othcr forms of wickcdncss acts
wronglyindccd, butnotgraspingly c. g. thc manwhothrowsaway
his shicld through cowardiccorspcaks harshly through bad tcmpcr
orfailstohclpafricndwithmoncythroughmcanncss) , whcna man
acts graspingly hc oftcn cxhibits nonc ofthcsc viccs-no, nor all
togcthcr, butccrtainlywickcdncssofsomckind for wcblamchim)
andinjusticc.Thcrcis,thcn,anothcrkindofinj usticcwhichisapart
ofinjusticc in thcwidcscnsc, and a usc ofthcword' unjust which
answcrs toa partofwhat is unjustin thcwidcscnscof'contrary to
thclaw` . Again, ifoncmancommitsadultcryforthcsakcofgainand
makcsmoncybyit, whilcanothcrdocssoatthcbiddingofappctitc
though hc loscs moncy and is pcnalizcd for it, thc lattcrwould bc
hcld to bc sclf-indulgcnt rathcr than grasping, but thc formcr is
unjust, but not sclf-indulgcnt, cvidcntly, thcrcforc, hc is unj ust by
rcasonofhismakinggainbyhisact. Again,allothcrunjustactsarc
ascribcd invariably to somc particular kind of wickcdncss, c. g.
adultcry to sclfindulgcncc, thcdcscrtion ofa comradc in battlc to
cowardicc, physical violcncc to angcr, but ifa manmakcsgain, his
action s ascribcd to noformofwickcdncss but injustcc. Lvidcntly,
thcrcforc, thcrc s apart from injusticc in thc widc scnsc anothcr,
' particular` , inj usticcwhich sharcs thc namcandnaturcofthchrst,
bccauscits dchnitionfallswithinthcsamcgcnus, forthcsignihcancc
of both consists in a rclation to oncs ncighbour, but thc onc is
conccrncdwithhonourormoncyorsafcty-orthatwhchincludcs
lromArstot|c, Niccmachtaa thics, . ss. z-;, omttng parto tt o, parto
t t zb, a, , part o a, and thc cnd o s. ; trans. W. D. Koss [ t gzj .
KcprntcdbpcrmssionoCordncrstFrcss.
NI CCMACHEANETHI C5
Ja
plcasurc thatariscsromgain, whilc thcothcris conccrncd with all
thcobjcctswithwhichthcgoodmanisconccrncd.
t is clcar, thcn, that thcrc is morc than onc kind oj usticc, and
that thcrci soncwhichisdistinctrom virtuc cntirc, wc must try to
graspitsgcnusanddicrcntia. . . .
Cparticularjusticc and that which isjustin thc corrcsponding
scnsc, ) onc kind is that which is manicstcd in distributions o
honour or moncy or thc othcr things that all to bc dividcd among
thosc who havc a sharcinthcconstitution orinthcscitispossiblc
or onc man to havc a sharc cithcr uncqual or cqual to that o
anothcr) , and u) onc is that which plays a rcctiying part in
transactionsbctwccnmanand man. Cthis thcrc arc twodivisions,
o transactions I ) somc arc voluntary and ) othcrs involun-
tary-voluntary such transactions as salc, purchasc, loan or
consumption, plcdging, loan or usc, dcpositing, lctting thcy arc
callcd voluntary bccausc thc origin othcsc transactions is volun-
tary) , whilc o thc involuntary a) somc arc clandcstinc, such as
thct, adultcry, poisoning, procuring, cnticcmcnt o slavcs, assas-
sination, alsc witncss, and /) othcrs arc violcnt, such as assault,
imprisonmcnt, murdcr, robbcry with violcncc, mutilation, abusc,
insult
J
A) Wchavcshownthat both thc unjustmanand thcunjustac arc
unairor uncqual, now itis clcar that thcrc is also an intcrmcdiatc
bctwccn thc two uncquals involvcd in cithcr casc. And this is thc
cqual , or in any kind oaction i nwhich thcrc is a morc and a lcss
thcrcisalsowhatiscqual. , thcn, thc unjustisuncqual, thcjustis
cqual , as all mcn supposc it to bc, cvcn apartrom argumcnt. And
sinccthccqualisintcrmcdiatc,thcj ustwillbcanintcrmcdiatc. ow
cquality implics at lcast two things. Jhcjust, thcn, must bc both
intcrmcdiatc and cqual and rclativc i . c. or ccrtain pcrsons) And
aa intcrmcdiatc it must bc bctwccn ccrtain things which arc
rcspcctivcly grcatcr and lcss) , aa cqual, it involvcs tuc things aa
just,itisorccrtainpcoplc. Jhcjust, thcrcorc,involvcsatlcastour
tcrms, or thc pcrsons or whom i t is in actjustarc two, and thc
things in which it is manicstcd, thc objccts distributcd, arc two.
And thc samc cquality will cxist bctwccn thc pcrsons and bctwccn
thc things conccrncd, or as thc lattcr-thc things conccrncd-arc
rclatcd, so arc thc ormcr, ithcy arc not cqual, thcy will not havc
what is cqual , but this is thc origin o quarrcls and com-
plaints-whcn cithcr cquals havc and arc awardcd uncqual sharcs,
ARI 5TCTLE
or uncquals cqual sharcs. lurthcr, this is plain from thcfact that
awardsshouldbcaccordingtomcrit , forallmcnagrccthatwhatis
justindistributionmustbcaccordingtomcritinsomcscnsc,though
thcydonotallspccify thc samc sortofmcrit, butdcmocrats idcntify
itwith thcstatusoffrccman,supportcrsofoligarchywith wcalth or
withnoblcbirth) ,andsupportcrsofaristocracywithcxccllcncc.
Jhcjust, thcn,isaspccicsofthcproportionatc proportionbcing
notapropcrtyonlyofthckindofnumbcrwhichconsistsofabstract
units,butofnumbcringcncral) . lorproportioniscqualityofratios,
and involvcs fourtcrms at lcast that discrctc proportion involvcs
fourtcrmsisplain, butsodocs continuous proportion, forituscsonc
tcrmas twoandmcntionsittwicc,c. g. as thclincA isto thclincB,
sois thc linc B to thc linc C` , thc linc B, thcn, has bccn mcntioncd
twicc, sothatifthclinc B bcassumcd twicc, thcproportionaltcrms
will bcfour) , and thcj ust, too, involvcs at lcastfourtcrms, and thc
ratiobctwccnoncpairisthcsamcasthatbctwccnthcothcrpair,for
thcrc is a similar distinction bctwccn thc pcrsons and bctwccn thc
things.As thc tcrm A, thcn,isto B, sowill C bc to , and thcrcforc,
a/trmaadc, asAisto C B will bc to . Jhcrcforcalsothcwholcisin
thc samc ratio to thc wholc, and this coupling thc distribution
cccts, and, if thc tcrms arc so combincd, chccts j ustly. Jhc
conjunction, thcn, ofthc tcrm A with C and ofB with iswhatis
justindistribution, and this spccicsofthcj ust isintcrmcdiatc, and
thc unjust is what violatcs thc proportion, for thc proportional is
intcrmcdiatc,andthcjustisproportional. Mathcmaticianscallthis
kind ofproportion gcomctrical, for it is in gcomctrical proportion
thatitfollowsthatthcwholcistobcthcwholcascithcrpartistothc
corrcsponding part. ) Jhis proportion is not continuous, for wc
cannotgctasinglctcrmstandingforapcrsonandathing.
Jhis, thcn, is what thc just is-thc proportional, thc unjust is
whatviolatcsthcproportion.Hcncconctcrmbccomcstoogrcat,thc
othcrtoosmall, asindccdhappcnsinpracticc,for thcmanwhoacts
unj ustly has too much, and thc man who is unj ustly trcatcd too
littlc, ofwhat isgood. nthc casc ofcvilthc rcvcrsc is truc, for thc
lcsscr cvil is rcckoncd a good in comparison with thc grcatcr cvil
sinccthclcsscrcvilisrathcrtobcchoscnthanthcgrcatcr,andwhat
isworthyofchoiccisgood, and whatisworthicrofchoiccagrcatcr
good.
Jhis,thcn,isoncspccicsofthcjust.
1
n) Jhc rcmaining onc is thc rcctihcatory, which ariscs in conncc-
ionwihtransactions bohvoluntaryandinvoluntary.Jhisformof
NI CCMACHEANETHI C5
J
7
thcjust has a dicrcnt spccihc charactcr rom thc ormcr. lor thc
justicc which distributcs common posscssions is always in accord-
ancc with thc kind oproportion mcntioncd abovc or in thc casc
alsoin which thc distribution is madcrom thc common unds oa
partncrship it will bc according to thc samc ratio which thc unds
putinto thc busincss by thcpartncrs bcartooncanothcr) , and thc
inj usticc opposcd to this kind ojusticc is that which violatcs thc
proportion. Butthcj usticcin transactionsbctwccnman andmanis
a sortocqualityindccd,andthcinjusticc a sortoincquality, not
according to that kind o proportion, howcvcr, but according to
arithmcticalproportion lor i tmakcs nodicrcnccwhcthcr agood
man has dcraudcd a bad man or a bad man a good onc, nor
whcthcritisa good ora bad man thathas committcdadultcry, thc
law looks only to thc distinctivc charactcr ofthc i ury, and trcats
thc partics as cqual, ionc is in thc wrong and thc othcr is bcing
wrongcd, and ionc inictcd injury and thc othcr has rcccivcd it.
Jhcrcorc, thiskind oinjusticc bcingan incquality, thcjudgctrics
to cqualizcit, or in thccascalsoinwhichonchas rcccivcd and thc
othcr has inhictcd a wound, or onc has slain and thc othcr bccn
slain, thc sucring and thc action havc bccn uncquallydistri butcd,
but thcjudgc trics tocqualizcthingsbymcansothcpcnalty,taking
away rom thc gain othc assailant. lor thc tcrm 'gain is applicd
gcncrallytosuchcascs,cvcniitbcnotatcrmappropriatctoccrtain
cascs, c. g. to thc pcrson who inhicts a wound-and loss` to thc
sucrcr, atallcvcntswhcnthcsucringhasbccncstimatcd, thconc
iscallcdlossand thcothcrgain. Jhcrcorcthccqualis intcrmcdiatc
bctwccn thc grcatcr and thc lcss, but thc gain and thc loss arc
rcspcctivclygrcatcrandlcssincontraryways,morcothcgoodand
lcss o thc cvil arc gain, and thc contrary is loss, intcrmcdiatc
bctwccnthcmis, aswcsaw,thccqual,whichwcsayisjust,thcrcorc
corrcctivc justicc will bc thc intcrmcdiatc bctwccn loss and gain.
Jhis iswhy, whcn pcoplcdisputc, thcy takc rcugcin thcjudgc, and
togo tothcjudgc istogo tojusticc,or thcnaturcothcjudgc isto
bc a sort o animatc j usticc, and thcy scck thc judgc as an
intcrmcdiatc, and in somc statcs thcy calljudgcs mcdiators, on thc
assumptionthatithcygctwhatisintcrmcdiatcthcywillgctwhatis
j ust. Jhcjust,thcn,isanintcrmcdiatc,sinccthcjudgcisso. owthc
judgcrcstorcs cquality,itisas thoughthcrcwcrcalincdividcdinto
uncqual parts, and hctookawaythatbywhichthcgrcatcrscgmcnt
cxcccdsthchal, andaddcdittothcsmallcrscgmcnt.Andwhcnthc
wholc has bccn cqually dividcd, thcn thcy say thcy havc ' thcir
own` i . c. whcn thcy havc got what is cqual. Jhc cqual is
intcrmcdiatc bctwccn thc grcatcr and thc lcsscr linc according to
arithmcticalproportion. t isor this rcason also thatitiscallcdjust
ARISTCTLE
so:ov) , bccausc it is a division into two cqual parts o) ,
just as if onc wcrc to call it otov, and thc judgc
tsoovq[) is onc who bisccts toovq[) . lor whcn
somcthing is subtractcd rom onc oftwo cquals and addcd to thc
othcr, thc othcr is in cxccss by thcsc two, sincc ifwhat was takcn
fromthconchad notbccnaddcd to thcothcr, thclattcrwouldhavc
bccn in cxccss byonconly. lt thcrcforccxcccds thcintcrmcdiatcby
onc,andthcintcrmcdiatccxcccdsbyoncthatfromwhichsomcthing
was takcn. By this, thcn, wc shall rccognizc both what wc must
subtract from thatwhichhas morc, andwhatwc must addto that
which has lcss, wc must add to thc lattcr that by which thc
intcrmcdiatc cxcccds it, and subtract from thc grcatcst that by
which it cxcccds thc intcrmcdiatc. Lct thc lincs AA , BB , CC bc
cqual to onc anothcr, from thc linc AA lct thc scgmcnt AL havc
bccn subtractcd, and to thclincCC lctthc scgmcntChavc bccn
addcd, so that thc wholc linc CC cxcccds hc linc LA by thc
scgmcnt C and thc scgmcntCl, thcrcforc itcxcccds thc linc BB
bythcscgmcntC.
!

D
I





D
L
Jhcsc namcs, both loss and gain, havc comc from voluntary
cxchangc, for to havc morc thanonc` sown is callcdgaining, andto
havclcssthanonc`soriginalsharciscallcdlosing,cg. inbuyingand
scllingand inallothcrmattcrs inwhich thclawhaslcft pcoplcfrcc
to makc thcir own tcrms, but whcn thcy gct ncithcr morc nor lcss
butjust what bclongs to thcmsclvcs, thcy say that thcyhavc thcir
ownandthatthcyncithcrloscnorgain.
Jhcrcforcthcjustisintcrmcdiatcbctwccnasortofgainandasort
ofloss, viz. thosc which arc involuntary, it consists in having an
cqualamountbcforcandaftcrthctransaction. . . .

. . . wc mustnot forgct that what wc arc lookingforisnot only what
isjustwithout qualihcation but also politicaljusticc. Jhis is found
amongmcnwhosharcthcirlifc withavicwto sclfsumcicncy, mcn
who arc frcc and cithcrproportionatcly or arithmctically cqual, so
NI CCMACHEANETHI C5
JJ
that bctwccn thosc who do not ulhl this condition thcrc i s no
political justicc butjusticc in a spccial scnsc and by analogy. lor
justicccxistsonlybctwccnmcnwhoscmutualrclationsarcgovcrncd
by law, and lawcxistsor mcnbctwccnwhom thcrc is injusticc, or
lcgal justicc is thc discrimination o thc just and thc unjust. And
bctwccn mcn bctwccn whom thcrc is injusticc thcrc is also unjust
action though thcrc is not injusticc bctwccn all bctwccn whom
thcrc is unjust action) , and this is assigning too much to oncsclo
things good in thcmsclvcs and too littlc othings cvil inthcmsclvcs .
Jhis is why wc do not allow a maa to rulc, but ratiaaa/ riaci/r,
bccausc a man bchavcs thus in his own intcrcsts and bccomcs a
tyrant. Jhc magistratcon thcothcr hand is thc guardianojusticc,
and, iojusticc, thcn ocqualityalso. And sincc hc is assumcd to
havcno morcthanhissharc, ihc isjust orhc docs notassignto
himscl morc o what is good in itscl, unlcss such a sharc is
proportional to his mcritsso that itis or othcrs that hc labours,
and itis or this rcason thatmcn, as wc statcd prcviously, saythat
justicc is 'anothcr` s good` ) , thcrcorc a rcward must bc givcn him,
andthisishonourandprivilcgc, butthoscorwhomsuch thingsarc
notcnoughbccomctyrants .
Jhcjusticcoamastcrand thatoaathcrarcnot thc samcasthc

justicc o citizcns, though thcy arc likc it, or thcrc can bc no

injusticc inthc unqualihcdscnsctowards thingsthatarconcsown,
but a man s chattcl, and his child until itrcachcs a ccrtainagc and
sctsuporitscl, arcasitwcrcpartohimscl, andnooncchooscsto
hurt himscl or which rcason thcrc can bc no injusticc towards
oncscl . Jhcrcorc thc justicc or injusticc o citizcns is not
manicstcdinthcsc rclations, or itwas aswc saw according tolaw,
and bctwccn pcoplc naturallysubjcct to law, and thcsc as wc saw
arcpcoplcwhohavcancqualsharcinrulingandbcingrulcdHcncc
justicc can morc truly bc manicstcd towards a wic than towards
childrcn and chattcls, or thc ormcr is houscholdjusticc, but cvcn
thisisdicrcntrompoliticaljusticc.

Cpoliticaljusticc part is natural, part lcgalnatural, that which
cvcrywhcrc has thc samc orcc and docs not cxist by pcoplc`s
thinkingthisor that, lcgal, thatwhichis originally ndilIcrcnt, but
whcnit has bccnlaiddownis not indilIcrcnt, c. g that a prisoncr`s
ransomshall bc a mina, or that a goatand not two shccp shall bc
sacrinccd,andagainallthclawsthatarcpasscdorparti cularcascs,
c.g. that sacrihcc shall bc madc in honour o Brasidas, and thc
ARI 5TCTLE
provisionsodccrccs. ow somc thinkthat alljusticcisothis sort,
bccauscthatwhichisbynaturcisunchangcablcandhascvcrywhcrc
thcsamcorcc ashrcburns bothhcrcandinlcrsia) , whilc thcyscc
changcinthcthings rccognizcd asj ust. Jhis, howcvcr, isnottrucin
thisunqualihcdway, butistrucinascnsc,orrathcr,withthcgodsit
ispcrhapsnottrucatall, whilcwithusthcrcissomcthingthatisjust
cvcnbynaturc,yctalloi tischangcablcbutstillsomcisbynaturc,
somc not bynaturc. tiscvidcntwhichsortothing, amongthings
capablcobcingothcrwisc,isbynaturc, andwhichisnotbutislcgal
and convcntional, assuming thatboth arc cqually changcablc. And
in all othcr things thc samc distinction will apply, by naturc thc
righthandis strongcr,ycti t ispossiblcthatall mcnshouldcomcto
bcambidcxtrous. Jhcthingswhich arcjust byvirtucoconvcntion
and cxpcdicncy arc likc mcasurcs, or winc and corn mcasurcs arc
notcvcrywhcrc cqual, but largcr in wholcsalc and smallcrinrctail
markcts. Similarly, thc things which arcjustnot by naturc but by
human cnactmcnt arcnotcvcrywhcrcthc samc, sincc constitutions
also arc not thc samc, though thcrcis butoncwhich is cvcrywhcrc
bynaturcthcbcst.

1 I L b
CI CERO
. jasticr
Cf thc thrcc rcmag divisions, thc most cxtcnsivc in its
applicationis thc principlc bywhichsocictyand what wc may call
its ' common bonds arc maintaincd. Cf this again thcrc arc two
divisions-justicc, inwhich is thc crowninggloryofthcvirtucs and
on thc basis ofwhich mcn arc callcd good mcn , and, closc akin to
justicc, charity, whichmayalsobccallcdkindncssorgcncrosity.
Jhc nrstomcc ofjusticc is to kccp onc man from doing harm to
anothcr, unlcss provokcd by wrong, and thc ncxt is to lcad mcn to
usc common posscssionsfor thc common intcrcsts, privatc propcrty
forthcirown.
Jhcrc is, howcvcr, nosuchthingasprivatcowncrshipcstablishcd
by naturc, but propcty bccomcs privatc cithcr through long
occupancy as in thc casc of thosc who long ago scttlcd in
unoccupicd tcrritory) or through conqucst as in thc casc ofthosc
whotookitinwar)orbyducproccssoflaw,bagain,orpurchasc,or
by allotmcnt Cn this principlc thc lands ofArpinum arc said to
bclong to hc Arpinatcs, thc Jusculan lands to thc Jusculans, and
simila is thc assignmcnt ofprivac propcrty. Jhcrcforc, inasmuch
as in cach casc somc of thosc things which by naturc had bccn
common propcrty bccamc thc propcrty of individuals, cach onc
should rctan posscssion ofthat which has fallcn to his lot, and if
anyonc appropriatcs to himsclf anything bcyond hat, hc will bc
violatingthclawsofhumansocicty
Butsincc, aslatohasadmirablycxprcsscdit,wcarcnotbornfor
oursclvcsalonc, but our countryclaimsasharcofourbcing, and our
fricnds a sharc, and sincc, as thc Stoics hold, cvcrything that thc
carthproduccsis crcatcd for man` s usc, and as mcn, too, arc born
or thc sakc of mcn, that thcy may bc ablc mutually to hclp onc
anothc,in this dircctionwc oughtto followaturcasourguidc, to
romCiccroDtc_ciis, k. ss omittingmattcrsofrcccntKomanhistory
from thc ocb para|lc| tct translation Harard \nivcrsity Frcss Cambridgc
Mass. t go .KcprintcdbypcrmissionofthcpublishcrsandocbClassicalibrary.

CI CERC
contributcto thcgcncralgood byan intcrchangcoacts okindncss,
bygivingandrccciving, andthusbyourskill,ourindustry, andour
talcntstoccmcnthumansocictymorcclosclytogcthcr,mantoman.
Jhcoundationo justicc, morcovcr, isgood aiththat is, truth
and hdclity to promiscs and agrccmcnts. And thcrcorc wc may
ollowthc Stoics,whodiligcntlyinvcstigatcthcctymologyowords,
and c may acccpt thcir statcmcnt that 'good aith` is so callcd
bccausc what is promiscd is ' madc good` , although somc may hnd
thisdcrivationrathcrar-ctchcd.
Jhcrc arc, on thc othcrhand, two kindsoinjusticc-thconc, on
thc part o thosc who inhict wrong, thc othcr on thc part othosc
who,whcnthcycan,donotshicldromwrongthoscuponwhomitis
bcing inhictcd. lor hc who, undcr thc inhucncc oangcr or somc
othcr passion, wrongully assaults anothcr sccms, as it wcrc, to bc
laying violcnt hands upon a comradc, but hcwho docs not prcvcnt
oropposcwrong,ihccan,isjustasguiltowrongasihcdcscrtcd
his parcnts or his ricnds r his country. Jhcn, too, thosc vcry
wrongs which pcoplctryto inhict on purposctoinjurc arcotcn thc
rcsult ocar. thatis, hcwhoprcmcditatcsinjuringanothcrisaraid
that, ihc docs not do so hc may himsclbc madc to sulIcr somc
hurt. But, orthcmostpart,pcoplcarclcdtowrongdoinginordcrto
sccurc somc pcrsonal cnd, in this vicc, avaricc is gcncrally thc
controllingmotivc.
6. 7/r Daarrs cAm/itica
Again, mcn scck richcs partly to supply thc nccds olic, partly to
sccurc thc cnjoymcnt oplcasurc. With thosc who chcrish highcr
ambitions, thc dcsircor wcalth iscntcrtaincdwith a vicw topowcr
andinhucnccandthcmcansobcstowingavours, MarcusCrassus,
or cxamplc, not long sincc dcclarcd thatnoamount owcalthwas
cnough or thc man who aspircd to bc thc orcmost citizcn othc
statc, unlcss wih hc incomc rom it hc could maintain an army.
linc cstablishmcnts and thc comorts o lic in clcgancc and
abundanccalsoaordplcasurc, andthcdcsirctosccurcitgivcsrisc
to thc insatiablc thirstor wcalth. Still, l do not mcan to hndault
with thc accumulation opropcrty, providcd it hurts nobody, but
unjustacquisitionoitisalwaystobcavoidcd. . . .
7/r Mcti:rs tc hrca
Butin any cascoinjusticcit makcsavastdcalodicrcnccwhcthcr
thcwrongis donc s a rcsult osomc impulsc opassion, which is
usuallybricandtransicnt,orwhcthcritis committcdwilully and
DE CFFI CI I S

with prcmcditation, or ocnccs that comc through somc suddcn

impulscarclcssculpablcthanthosccommittcddcsigncdlyandwith
maliccaorcthought.
Butcnoughhasbccnsaidonthcsubjcctoinhictinginjury
_. Ma/i:rs /a Iassi:r laas/icr
Jhcmotivcsorailurctoprcvcntinjury and soorslightingdutyarc
likcly to bc various. pcoplc cithcr arc rcluctant to incur cnmity or
troublc or cxpcnsc, or through indicrcncc, indolcncc, or incom-
pctcncc, or through somc prcoccupation or scl-intcrcst thcy arc so
absorbcdthatthcysucr thosctobcncglcctcdwhomitis thcirduty
to protcct. And so thcrc isrcason to car that what llatodcclarcs o
thcphilosophcrs may bcinadcquatc, whcn hc says thatthcy arcjust
bccauscthcyarc busicdwiththc pursuit otruthand bccauscthcy
dcspisc and count as naught that which mostmcn cagcrly scckand
orwhichthcyarcpronctodobattlcagainstcachothcrtothcdcath.
lor thcy sccurc onc sort ojusticc, to bc surc, in that thcy do no
positivcwrongtoanyonc, butthcyallintothcoppositcinjusticc,or
hampcrcd by thcirpursuitolcarning thcy lcavc to thciratc thosc
whomthcyoughttodccnd. And so, llatothinks, thcywillnotcvcn
assumc thcir civic dutics cxccpt undcr compulsion. But in act it
wcrcbcttcrthatthcyshouldassumc thcmothcirownaccord,oran
actionintrinsicallyrightisjustonlyonconditionthatitisvoluntary.
Jhcrc arc somc also who, cithcr rom zcal in attcnding to thcir
own busincss or through somc sort oavcrsion to thcircllow-mcn,
claimthatthcyarc occupicd solcly with thcir own aairs, without
sccmingtothcmsclvcstobcdoinganyoncanyinjury.Butwhilcthcy
stccr clcar othc onc kind oinjusticc thcy all into thc othcr. thcy
arc traitors to social lic, or thcy contributc to it nonc o thcir
intcrcst,noncothcirclIort,noncothcirmcans. . . .
1L. C/aar aDap ia C/aar aCitcams/aacrs
. . . occasions otcn arisc, whcn thosc dutics which sccm most
bccoming to thcjust man and to thc good man` , as wc call him
undcrgo a changc and takc on a contrary aspcct . !t may, or
cxamplc, not bca duty torcstorcatrustortoulhlapromisc and it
maybccomcrightandpropcrsomctimcstocvadcandnottoobscrvc
what truth and honourwould usuallydcmand. lor wc may wcll bc
guidcd by thoscundamcntalprinciplcsojusticcwhich ! laiddown
atthcoutsct. hrst, thatnoharmbcdonctoanyonc, sccond, thatthc
common intcrcsts bc conscrvcd. Whcn thcsc arc modihcd undcr
changcd circumstanccs, moral duty also undcrgocs a changc, and i t

CI CERC
docsnotalwaysrcmainthcsamc. loragivcnpromiscoragrccmcnt
may turn out in such a way that its pcrormancc will provc
dctrimcntalcithcrtothconctowhomthcpromischasbccnmadcor
to thconcwhohasmadcit. l,or cxamplc, cptunc, inthcdrama,
hadnotcarricdouthispromisctoJhcscus, Jhcscuswouldnothavc
lost his son Hippolytus, or, as thc story runs, o thc thrcc wishcs
thatcptunchadpromiscdtogranthimthcthirdwasthis. inahto
angcrhcpraycdorthcdcatho Hippolytus, andthcgrantingothis
praycrplungcdhiminto unspcakablcgric. lromiscsarc, thcrcorc,
not tobckcpt, ithckccpingothcmis toprovcharmul to thoscto
whom you havc madc thcm, and, i thc ulhlmcnt o a promisc
should do morc harm to you than good to him to whom you havc
madc it, it is no violation omoral duty to givc thc grcatcr good
prcccdcnccovcr thc lcsscrgood lorcxamplc, iyou havc madcan
appointmcntwithanyoncto appcarashis advocatc incourt,andi
in thcmcantimcyoursonshouldalldangcrouslyill,itwouldbcno
brcach o your moral duty to ail in what you agrccd to do, nay,
rathcr, hc to whom your promisc was givcn would havc a alsc
conccption oduty, ihcshouldcomplainthathchadbccndcscrtcd
in his timc o nccd. lurthcr than this, who ails to scc that thosc
promiscs arc not binding which arc cxtortcd by intimidation or
whichwcmakcwhcnmislcdbyalscprctcnccs!Suchobligationsarc
annullcdinmostcascsbythcpractorscdictincquity, insomc cascs
bythclaws. . . .
. 0ar Da() /c 7/csr h/c Hacr hrcard Us
Again, thcrc arc ccrtain dutics thatwc owc cvcn to thoscwho havc
wrongcd us. lorthcrcisalimit torctributionand topunishmcnt,or
rathcr, l am inclincd to think, it is sumcicnt that thc aggrcssor
shouldbcbroughttorcpcntohiswrongdoing, inordcrthathcmay
not rcpcat thc ocncc and that othcrs may bcdctcrrcd rom doing
wrong.
Jhcn, too,inthccascoastatcinitscxtcrnalrclations, thcrights
owar must bc strictly obscrvcd. lor sincc thcrc arc two ways o
scttling adisputc. hrst,bydiscussion,sccond,byphysical orcc, and
sincc thc ormcr is charactcristic oman, thc lattcrothc brutc, wc
must rcsort to orcc only in casc wc may not avail oursclvcs o
discussion. Jhc only cxcusc, thcrcorc, or going to war is that wc
maylivcinpcaccunharmcd,andwhcnthcvictoryiswonwcshould
sparcthoscwhohavcnotbccn blood-thirstyandbarbarousin thcir
wararc.
. . . otonly mustwcshow considcrationorthoscwhom wchavc
conqucrcd by orcc oarms but wc must also cnsurc protcction to
DE CFFI CI I S

thosc who lay down thcir arms and throw thcmsclvcs upon thc
mcrcy o our gcncrals, cvcn though thc battcring-ram has ham-
mcrcd at thcir walls. And among our countrymcnjusticc has bccn
obscrvcd so conscicntiously in this dircction, that thosc who havc
givcn promisc o protcction to statcs or nations subducd in war
bccomc, atcr thc custom o our orcathcrs, thc patrons o thosc
statcs. . . .
:. !idr/ip /c 0 Ircmisr
Again, iundcr strcss ocircumstanccs individuals havc madc any
promiscto thc cncmy, thcy arc boundto kccp thcirword cvcn thcn.
lor instancc, in thc lirst lunic War, whcn Kcgulus was takcn
prisoncr by thc Carthaginians, hc was scnt to Komc on parolc to
ncgotiatcancxchangcoprisoncrs, hccamc and, inthchrstplacc, it
washc thatmadc thc motion inthcScnatcthatthc prisoncrs should
not bc rcstorcd, and in thc sccond placc, whcn his rclativcs and
ricndswould havc kcpt him back, hc chosc to rcturn to a dcathby
torturc rathcr than provc alsc to his promisc, though givcn to an
cncmy.
And again in thc Sccond lunic War, atcr thc Battlc oCannac,
Hannibal scnt to Komc tcn Koman captivcs bound by an oath to
rcturn to him, ithcy did not succccd in ransominghis prisoncrs,
and as long as any onc o thcm livcd, thc ccnsors kcpt thcm all
dcgradcd and disranchiscd, bccauscthcywcrcguiltyopcrjury in
not rcturning. And thcy punishcd in likc manncr thc onc who had
incurrcdguiltbyancvasionohisoath.withHannibal`spcrmission
thismanlct thccampandrcturncdalittlclatcronthcprctcxtthat
hc had orgottcn somcthing or othcr, and thcn, whcn hc lct thc
camp thc sccond timc, hc claimcd that hc was rclcascd rom thc
obligationohisoath,andsohcwas, accordingtothclcttcroit, but
not according to thc spirit. !n thc mattcr oa promisc onc must
alwaysconsidcrthcmcaningandnotthcmcrcwords. . .
. . . Wc must havc rcgard orjusticc cvcn towards thc humblcst.
ow thc humblcst station and thc poorcst ortunc arc thosc o
slavcs, andthcygivcusnobadrulcwhobidustrcatourslavcsaswc
shouldourcmployccs. thcymustbc rcquircd towork,thcymustbc
givcnthcirducs.
Whilcwrongmaybcdonc, thcn, incithcrotwoways,thatis, by
orcc or by raud, both arc bcstial . raud sccms to bclong to thc
cunningox,orcc to thc lion, botharcwhollyunworthyoman, but
raudisthcmorccontcmptiblc.
J
PD D@\ b LIDLbD D\
b DL Lb I IbPLb
DAVI D HLME
. . . Jhc social virtucs o humanity and bcncvolcncc cxcrt thcir
inucnccimmcdiatclybyadirccttcndcncyorinstinct,whichchicy
kccps in vicw thc simplc objcct, moving thc alIcctions, and
comprchcnds not any schcmc or systcm, nor thc conscqucnccs
rcsulting rom thc concurrcncc, imitation, or cxamplc oothcrs. A
parcnt ics to thc rclic o his child, transportcd by that natural
sympathywhichactuatcshim,andwhichalIordsnolcisurctorccct
on thc scntimcnts or conduct o thc rcst o mankind in likc
circumstanccs Agcncrousmanchccrullycmbraccsanopportunity
o scrving his ricnd, bccausc hc thcn ccls himscl undcr thc
dominion othc bcnchccnt alIcctions, nor is hc conccrncd whcthcr
any othcrpcrson in thc univcrscwcrc cvcr bcorc actuatcd by such
noblc motivcs, or will cvcr atcrwards provc thcir inucncc !n all
thcsc cascs thc social passions havc in vicw a singlc individual
objcct andpursucthcsactyorhappincss aloncothc pcrsonlovcd
and cstccmcd. With this thcy arc satishcd. in this thcy acquicscc.
And as thc good, rcsulting rom thcir bcnign inucncc, is in itscl
complctc and cntirc, it also cxcitcs thc moral scntimcnt o
approbation, without any rccction on arthcr conscqucnccs, and
without any morc cnlargcd vicws othc concurrcncc orimitationo
thc othcr mcmbcrs osocicty. Cn thc contrary, wcrc thc gcncrous
ricnd or disintcrcstcd patriot to stand alonc in thc practicc o
bcnchccncc, this would rathcr cnhancc his valuc in our cycs, and
jointhcpraiscorarityandnovcltytohisothcrmorccxaltcdmcrits .
Jhc casc i s not thc samc with thc social virtucs ojusticc and
hdclity.Jhcyarchighlyuscul ,orindccdabsolutclyncccssarytothc
wcll-bcingomankind. butthcbcnchtrcsultingromthcmisnotthc
conscqucnccocvcryindividualsinglcact, butariscsromthcwholc
schcmc orsystcm concurrcd in by thc wholc, or thcgrcatcrpart o
lrom David Humc auirits Cca:tia Humaa /adrtstaadia aad Cca:tia tht
Itiacilrs cMctals, Appcndix , omitting rst paragraph and footnotcs, cd. . A.
Sc|by-iggc,rcviscdbyF. H. Nidditch rdcdn. , t g;j) , @ C\Ft g;j Kcprintcdby
pcrmissionofCxford\nivcrsityFrcss.
PRINCI PLE5CF MCRAL5
[
7
thc socicty. Gcncralpcacc and ordcrarc thc attcndantsojusticcor
agcncral abstincnccrom thcposscssionsoothcrs, but aparticular
rcgard to thc particular right o onc individual citizcn may
rcqucntly, considcrcd in itscl, bc productivc opcrnicious consc-
qucnccs. Jhcrcsultothcindividualactsishcrc,inmanyinstanccs,
dircctly oppositc to that o thc wholc systcm o actions, and thc
ormcr may bc cxtrcmclyhurtul, whilc thc lattcr is, to thc highcst
dcgrcc, advantagcous. Kichcs,inhcritcdroma parcnt,arc,ina bad
man`s hand, thc instrumcnt o mischic. Jhc right o succcssion
may, in onc instancc, bc hurtul . !ts bcncht ariscs only rom thc
obscrvanccothcgcncralrulc,anditissumcicnt,icompcnsationbc
thcrcby madc or all thc ills and inconvcnicnccs which how rom
particularcharactcrsandsituations.
Cyrus, young and incxpcricnccd, considcrcd only thcindividual
casc bcorc him, andrchcctcdona limitcd htncss and convcnicncc,
whcn hc assigncd thclongcoat to thc tall boy, and thcshortcoat to
thcothcrosmallcrsizc. Hisgovcrnorinstructcdhimbcttcr, whilchc
pointcd out morc cnlargcdvicws and conscqucnccs, and inormcd
hispupilothcgcncral, inhcxiblcrulcs,ncccssarytosupportgcncral
pcaccandordcrinsocicty.
Jhchappincss andprospcrityomankind, arisingromthc social
virtuc obcncvolcncc and is subdivisions, may bc comparcd to a
wall, built by many hands, which still riscs by cach stonc that is
hcapcd upon it, and rcccivcs incrcasc proportional to thc diligcncc
andcarcocachworkman. Jhcsamchappincss, raiscdbythcsocial
virtuc oj usticc and its subdivisions, may bc comparcd to thc
building oa vault, whcrc cach individual stoncwould, oitscl, all
tothcground, noristhcwholc abric supportcd butbythcmutual
assistanccand combinationoits corrcspondingparts
All hc laws onaturc, which rcgulatcpropcrty, as wcll as all civil
laws, arc gcncral, andrcgard alonc somc csscntial circumstanccs o
thc casc, without taking into considcration thc charactcrs, situa-
tions, and conncctions othc pcrson conccrncd, or any particular
conscqucnccswhichmayrcsultromthcdctcrminationothcsclaws
inanyparticularcascwhicholcrs. Jhcydcprivc,withoutscruplc, a
bcncccntman oall his posscssions,iacquircdbymistakc,without
a good titlc, in ordcr to bcstow thcm on a sclhsh miscr, who has
alrcady hcapcd up immcnsc storcs o supcrhuous ri chcs. lublic
utility rcquircs that propcrty should bc rcgulatcd by gcncral
incxiblc rulcs, and though suchrulcsarcadoptcdas bcstscrvc thc
samc cnd o public uility, it is impossiblc or thcm to prcvcnt all
particular hardships, or makc bcnchcial conscqucnccs rcsult rom
cvcryindividualcasc. !t issumcicnt,ithcwholcplanorschcmcbc
ncccssarytothcsupportocivilsocicty, andithcbalanccogood,
DAVI D HLME
inthcmain,dothcrcbyprcpondcratcmuchabovcthatofcvi l . Lvcn
thcgcncrallawsofthcunivcrsc,thoughplanncdbyinhnitcwisdom,
cannot cxcludc

all cvil or inconvcnicncc in cvcry particular

opcration.
t has bccn asscrtcd by somc, thatjusticc ariscs from Human
Convcntions, and procccds from thc voluntary choicc, conscnt, or
combinationofmankind. fbycca:ra/ica bcmcantarcmisr whichis
thcmostusualscnscofthcword) nothingcanbcmorcabsurdthan
this position. Jhc obscrvancc ofpromiscs is i tsclfonc ofthc most
considcrablc parts ofjusticc, andwc arc not surcly boundto kccp
our word bccausc wc havc givcn our word to kccp it. But if by
convcntion bcmcant a scnsc ofcommonintcrcst,whichscnsccach
man fccls in his own brcast, which hc rcmarks in his fcllows and
whichcarricshim, inconcurrcnccwithothcrs,intoagcncralplanor
systcm ofactions, which tcnds to public utility, it must bc owncd,
that,in this scnsc,justiccariscsfromhumanconvcntions lorifit bc
allowcd what is,indccd,cvidcnt) thatthcparticularconscqucnccs
ofaparticularactofjusticcmaybchurtfultothcpublicaswcllasto
individuals, it follows that cvcry man, in cmbracing that virtuc,
musthavcan cyc to thcwholcplanorsystcm, and mustcxpcctthc
concurrcncc ofhis fcllows in thc samc conduct and bchaviour. id
allhisvicwstcrminatcinthcconscqucnccsofcachactofhisown,his
bcncvolcncc and humanity, as wcll as his sclf-lovc, might oftcn
prcscribc to him mcasurcs of conduct vcry dicrcnt from thosc
whicharcagrccablctothcstrictrulcsofrightandjusticc.
Jhus,twomcnpullthcoarsofa boatby commonconvcntionfor
common intcrcst, without any promisc or contract. thus gold and
silvcr arc madc thc mcasurcs ofcxchangc, thus spccch and words
and languagc arc hxcd by human convcntion and agrccmcnt.
Whatcvcr is advantagcous to two or morc pcrsons, ifall pcrform
thcirpart,butwhatloscsalladvantagcifonlyoncpcrform,canarisc
fromnoothcrprinciplc. Jhcrcwouldothcrwiscbcnomotivcforany
oncofthcmtocntcrintothatschcmcofconduct.
Jhcwordaa/ara/ iscommonlytakcninsomanyscnscsandisofso
looscasignihcation, thati tsccmsvainto disputcwhcthcrjusticcbc
natural or not. fsclflovc, if bcncvolcncc bc natural to man, if
rcason andforcthought bcalsonatural, thcnmaythcsamccpithct
bc applicd to justicc, ordcr, hdclity, propcrty, socicty. Mcn` s
inclination, thcir ncccssitics, lcad thcm to combinc, thcir undcr-
standing and cxpcricncc tcll thcm that this combination is impos-
siblcwhcrc cachgovcrnshimsclfby no rulc, and pays norcgard to
thc posscssions ofothcrs. and from thcsc passions and rccctions
conjoincd, as soon as wc obscrvc likc passions and rccctions in
othcrs, thc scntimcnt fjusticc, throughout all agcs, has infallibly
PRINCI PLESCF MCRALS

and ccrtainly had placc to somc dcgrcc or othcr incvcry individual

othc human spccics. !n so sagacious an ani mal, what ncccssarily
ariscs rom thc cxcrtion ohis intcllcctual acultics mayjustly bc
cstccmcdnatural.
Among all civilizcdnationsithas bccn thc constantcndcavourto
rcmovc cvcrything arbitrary and partial rom thc dccision o
propcrty, andtoh thc scntcncc ojudgcs bysuchgcncralvicwsand
considcrations as maybccqual to cvcry mcmbcrothc socicty. lor
bcsidcs, thatnothingcouldbcmorcdangcrousthantoaccustomthc
bcnch, cvcnin thc smallcstinstancc, torcgardprivatcricndshipor
cnmity,itisccrtain,thatmcn,whcrcthcyimagincthatthcrcwasno
othcr rcason or thc prccrcncc o thcir advcrsary but pcrsonal
avour, arc apt to cntcrtain thc strongcst ill-will against thc
magistratcs andjudgcs. Whcn natural rcason, thcrcorc, points out
nohcdvicwopublicutilitybywhichacontrovcrsyopropcrtycan
bc dccidcd, positivc laws arc otcn ramcd to supply its placc, and
dircctthcproccdurcoallcourtso judicaturc. Whcrcthcsctooail,
as otcn happcns, prcccdcnts arc callcd or, and a ormcr dccision,
though givcn itsclwithout any sumcicnt rcason,justly bccomcs a
sumcicntrcasonor ancwdccision. !dircctlaws and prcccdcntsbc
wanting, impcrcct and indircct oncs arc brought in aid, and thc
controvcrtcd casc is rangcd undcr thcm by analogical rcasonings
and comparisons, and similitudcs, and corrcspondcncics, which arc
otcn morc anciul than rcal . !n gcncral, it may sacly bc amrmcd
thatjurisprudcncc is, in this rcspcct, dicrcnt romall thc scicnccs,
andthatinmanyoitsniccrqucstions,thcrccannotpropcrlybcsaid
to bctruthor alschood oncithcrsidc. !oncplcadcrbringthc casc
undcr any ormcr law or prcccdcnt, by a rchncd analogy or
comparison, thcoppositc plcadcr is not at a loss tohnd an oppositc
analogy or comparison. and thc prccrcncc givcn by thc judgc is
otcn oundcd morc on tastc and imagination than on any solid
argumcnt. lublic utility is thc gcncral objcct o all courts o
judicaturc, and this utility too rcquircs a stablc rulc in all
controvcrsics . butwhcrc scvcral rulcs, ncarly cqual and indilIcrcnt
prcscntthcmsclvcs, itisavcryslightturnothoughtwhichhxcsthc
dccisioninavourocithcrparty
Wc mayjust obscrvc, bcorc wc concludc this subjcct, that atcr
thclawso justiccarchcdbyvicwsogcncralutility,thcinjury, thc
hardship, thc harm, which rcsult to anyindividual rom a violation
othcm, cntcrvcrymuchinto considcration, and arc agrcat sourcc
othat univcrsal blamc which attcnds cvcry wrong or iniquity. By
thclawsosocicty, this coat, thishorscis minc, andaa/t torcmain
pcrpctuallyinmyposscssion. !rcckononthcsccurccnjoymcntoit.
bydcpriving mc oit, youdisappoint my cpcctations, anddoubly
DAI D HLME
displcascmc, andohcndcvcrybystandcr. t i sapublicwrong,sofar
as thc rulcs ofcquity arc violatcd. it is a privatc harm, sofar as an
individual is inj urcd. And though thc sccond considcration could
havc no placc, wcrc not thc formcr prcviously cstablishcd. for
othcrwisc thc distinction ofmiar and thiar would bc unknown in
socicty. yct thcrc is no qucstion but thc rcgard to gcncral good is
much cnforccd by thc rcspcct to particular. What injurcs thc
community, without hurting any individual, is oftcn morc lightly
thought o But whcrc thc grcatcst public wrong is also conjoincd
withaconsidcrablcprivatconc,nowondcrthchighcstdisapproba
tionattcndssoiniquitousabchaviour.
3
ID LIDDL ID YD
_\b L PD1 \ L A
} . S . MI LL
!n all agcs ospcculation, onc o thc strongcst obstaclcs t o thc
rcccptionothcdoctrincthat!tilityorHappincssis thccritcriono
right and wrong, has bccn drawn rom thc idca ojusticc. Jhc
powcrul scntimcnt, and apparcntly clcar pcrccption, which that
word rccalls with a rapidity and ccrtainty rcscmbling an instinct,
havc sccmcd to thc majority othinkcrs to point to an inhcrcnt
quality in things, to show that thcjust must havc an cxistcncc in
aturc as somcthing absolutc-gcncrically distinct rom cvcry
varicty othc Lxpcdicnt and, in idca, opposcd to it, though as is
commonlyacknowlcdgcd) ncvcr,inthclongrun,disjoincdromitin
act.
!n thc casc othis, as oourothcrmoralscntimcnts, thcrcis no
ncccssaryconncctionbctwccn thc qucstion oitsorigin, and thato
its bindingorcc. Jhat a ccling is bcstowcdon us by aturc, docs
not ncccssarily lcgitimatc all its promptings. Jhc ccling ojusticc
might bc a pcculiar instinct, and might yct rcquirc, likc ourothcr
nstincts, to bccontrollcd andcnlightcncdbyahighcrrcason. !wc
havcintcllcctualinstincts,lcadingustojudgcinaparticularway,as
wcll as animal instincts that prompt us to act in a paricular way,
thcrcisnoncccssitythatthcormcrshouldbcmorcinalli blcinthcir
sphcrc than thc lattcr in thcirs. it may as wcll happcn that wrong
judgcmcntsarcoccasionallysuggcstcdbythosc,aswrongactionsby
thcsc. But though it is onc thing to bclicvc that wc havc natural
cclings ojusticc, and anothcrtoacknowlcdgc thcm as an ultimatc
critcrionoconduct,thcsctwoopinionsarcvcryclosclyconncctcdin
point oact. Mankind arc always prcdisposcd to bclicvc that any
subjcctivc ccling, not othcrwisc accountcd or, is a rcvclation o
]. S. Mill, 'Cn thc Conncction bctwccn ]usticc and \tility' chap _ of
/tilitariaaism, cd. A. Kyan Fcnguin Harmondsworth t g8;) Kcprintcd by pcrmis
sionofthcpub|ishcrs
j . S . MI LL
somc objcctivc rcality. Curprcscnt objcct is t odctcrminc whcthcr
thc rcality, towhich thc cclingojusticc corrcsponds, is oncwhich
nccds anysuch spccial rcvclation, whcthcrthcjusticcorinj usticco
an action is a thing intrinsically pcculiar, and distinct rom all its
othcr qualitics, or only a combination o ccrtain othosc qualitics,
prcscntcdundcrapcculiaraspcct. lorthcpurposcothccnquiry, it
is practically important to considcr whcthcr thc ccling itscl, o
justicc and injusticc, is sai rarris likc our scnsations ocolour and
tastc,oradcrivativcccling,ormcdbyacombinationoothcrs. And
this it is thc morc csscntial to cxaminc, as pcoplc arc in gcncral
willing cnough to allow, that objcctivcly thc dictatcs oj usticc
coincidc with a part o thc hcld o Gcncral Lxpcdicncy, but
inasmuchasthcsubjcctivcmcntalcclingousticcisdicrcntrom
thatwhichcommonlyattachcstosimplccxpcdicncy, and,cxccptin
cxtrcmc cascs othc lattcr, is ar morc impcrativc in its dcmands,
pcoplc hnd it dimcult to scc, injusticc, only a particular kind or
branch ogcncral utility, and think that its supcrior binding orcc
rcquircsatotallydilIcrcntorigin.
Jo throw light upon this qucstion, it is ncccssary to attcmpt to
asccrtain what is thc distinguishing charactcr o justicc, or o
injusticc. what is thc quality, or whcthcr thcrc is any quality,
attributcd incommon to all modcs oconduct dcsignatcd as unj ust
orjusticc, likc many othcr moral attributcs, is bcst dchncdbyits
oppositc) , and distinguishing thcm rom such modcs oconduct as
arc disapprovcd, but without having that particular cpithct o
disapprobation applicd to thcm. , in cvcrything which mcn arc
accustomcd to charactcrizc as just or unjust, somc onc common
attributcorcollcction oattributcs is alwaysprcscnt,wc mayjudgc
whcthcrthisparticularattributcorcombinationoattributcswould
bc capablc o gathcring round it a scntimcnt o that pcculiar
charactcr and intcnsity by virtuc o thc gcncral laws o our
cmotional constitution, or whcthcr thc scntimcnt is incxplicablc,
andrcquircsto bc rcgardcd as a spccial provision oaturc. wc
hnd thc ormcr to bc thc casc, wc shall , in rcsolving this qucstion,
havcrcsolvcd also thc mai nproblcm. ithclattcr,wc shallhavcto
scckorsomcothcrmodcoinvcstigatingit.
Jo hnd thc common attributcs o a varicty o objccts, it is
ncccssary to bcgin by survcying thc objccts thcmsclvcs in thc
concrctc. Lctusthcrcorcadvcrtsucccssivclytothcvariousmodcso
action, and arrangcmcnts ohuman aairs, which arc classcd, by
jLSTI CEANDLTI LIT

univcrsal orwidclysprcadopinion, asjustoras !njust. Jhc things

wcllknowntocxcitcthcscntimcntsassociatcdwiththoscnamcs,arc
oavcrymultiariouscharactcr. shallpassthcmrapidlyinrcvicw,
withoutstudyinganyparticulararrangcmcnt.
nthchrstplacc,itismostlyconsidcrcdunjusttodcprivcanyonc
o his pcrsonal libcrty, his propcrty, or any othcr thing which
bclongs to him by law. Hcrc, thcrcorc, is onc instanc o thc
applicationothctcrmsjust andunjustina pcrcctlydchnitcscnsc,
namcly, that itisjustto rcspcct, unjustto violatc, thc/ra/ ri/ts o
anyonc. But this judgcmcnt admits o scvcral cxccptions, arising
rom thc othcr orms in which thc notions ojusticc and injusticc
prcscnt thcmsclvcs . lor cxamplc, thc pcrson who sucrs thc
dcprivationmay as thcphrascis) havcaqritrd thcrightswhichhc
issodcprivcdo.acasctowhichwcshall rcturnprcscntly. Butalso,
Sccondly, thc lcgalrightsowhichhc is dcprivcd, may bc rights
which aa/t not to havc bclongcd to him, in othcr words, thc law
whichconcrs onhim thcsc rights, maybca badlaw. Whcnitis so,
orwhcn which is thcsamc thingor ourpurposc) itissupposcdto
bcso,opinionswilldicrastothcjusticcorinjusticcoinringingit.
Somcmaintain thatnolaw, howcvcrbad, oughttobcdisobcycdby
anindividualcitizcn, thathisoppositiontoit, ishownatall, should
only bc shown in cndcavouring to gct it altcrcd by compctcnt
authority. Jhis opinion which condcmns many o thc most
illustrious bcncactors omankind, and would otcn protcct pcrni-
cious institutions against thc only wcapons which, in thc statc o
things cxisting at thc timc, havc any chancc osuccccding against
thcm) is dccndcd, by thoscwhoholdit, on grounds ocxpcdicncy,
principally on that o thc importancc, to thc common intcrcst o
mankind, omaintaining inviolatc thc scntimcnt osubmission to
law. Cthcr pcrsons, again, hold thc dircctlycontrary opinion, that
any law, judgcd to bc bad, may blamclcssly bc disobcycd, cvcn
though it bc notjudgcd to bc unjust, but only incxpcdicnt, whilc
othcrswouldconhncthcliccnccodisobcdicncctothccasco unjust
laws. but again, somcsay, thatalllaws which arcincxpcdicnt arc
unjust, sincc cvcry law imposcs somc rcstriction on thc natural
bcrty o mankind, which rcstriction is an injusticc, unlcss
lcgitimatcd by tcnding to thcir good. Among thcsc divcrsitics o
opinion,itsccms tobcunivcrsallyadmittcdthatthcrcmaybcunjust
laws, and that law, conscqucntly, is not thc ultimatc critcrion o
justicc, but may givc to onc pcrson a bcncht, orimposc on anothcr

j . S . MI LL
ancvil, whichjusticccondcmns. Whcn,howcvcr,alawisthoughtto
bc unj ust, it sccms always to bc rcgardcd as bcing so in thc samc
way in which a brcach o law is unjust, namcly, by inringing
somcbody s right, which, as it cannot in this casc bc a lcgal right,
rcccivcs a dicrcntappcllation, and is callcdamoralright. Wcmay
say, thcrcorc, that a sccond casc oinjusticc consists in taking or
withholdingromanypcrsonthattowhichhchasamcra/ ri/t.
Jhirdly, itis univcrsally considcrcdjustthatcachpcrsonshould
obtain that whcthcrgoodorcvil) whichhcdtstrcts, andunjustthat
hc should obtain a good, or bc madc toundcrgo an cvil, which hc
docs not dcscrvc. Jhis is, pcrhaps, thc clcarcst and most cmphatic
orm in which thc idca ojusticc isconccivcd by thcgcncral mind.
As it involvcs thc notion o dcscrt, thc qucstion ariscs, what
constitutcs dcscrt! Spcaking in a gcncral way, a pcrson is
undcrstood to dcscrvcgood ihc docs right, cvil ihc docs wrong
andinamorc particular scnsc, to dcscrvcgoodromthosctowhom
hc docs or has donc good, and cvil rom thosc to whom hc docs or
hasdonccvil. Jhcprcccptorcturninggoodor cvilhasncvcrbccn
rcgardcdasacascothculhlmcnto j usticc,butasoncinwhichthc
claimso justiccarcwaivcd,inobcdicncctoothcrconsidcrations.
lourthly, it is concsscdly unj ust to /rtak ai// with any onc. to
violatc an cngagcmcnt, cithcr cxprcss or implicd, or disappoint
cxpcctations raiscd by our own conduct, at lcast iwc havc raiscd
thosc cxpcctations knowingly and voluntarily Likc thc othcr
obligationsoj usticc alrcadyspokcn o, this oncis notrcgardcd as
absolutc, but as capablc obcing ovcrrulcd by a strongcr obligation
oj usticc on thc othcr sidc or by such conduct on thc part othc
pcrson conccrncd as isdccmcd to absolvc usromourobligation to
him, andtoconstitutcactitart othcbcnchtwhichhchasbccnlcd
tocxpcct.
lithly, it i s, by univcrsal admission, inconsistcntwithjusticc to
bcartia/, to show avourorprccrcncc to onc pcrson ovcr anothcr,
in mattcrs to which avour and prccrcncc do not propcrly apply.
mpartiality, howcvcr, docs not sccm to bc rcgardcd as a duty in
itscl, but rathcr as instrumcntal to somc othcr duty, or i t is
admittcdthatavourandprccrcnccarcnotalways ccnsurablc, and
indccd thc cascs in which thcy arc condcmncd arc rathcr thc
cxccptionthanthcrulc.A pcrsonwouldbcmorclikclytobcblamcd
than applaudcd or giving his amily or ricnds no supcriority in
good omccs ovcr strangcrs, whcn hc could do so without violating
jL5TI CEANDLTI LIT

any othcr duty, and no onc thinks it u ust to scck onc pcrson i n
prccrcncc to anothcr as a ricnd, conncction, or companion.
lmpartialitywhcrcrightsarcconccrncdis ocourscobligatory, but
this is involvcd in thcmorcgcncral obligation ogivingto cvcryonc
his right. A tribunal, or cxamplc, must bc impartial, bccausc itis
bound to award, without rcgard to any othcr considcration, a
disputcd objcct to thc onc o two partics who has thc right to it.
Jhcrc arc othcr cascs in which impartiality mcans bcing solcly
inhucnccd by dcscrt, as with thosc who, in thc capacity ojudgcs,
prcccptors, orparcnts, administcr rcward andpunishmcntas such.
Jhcrc arc cascs,again, in which itmcansbcingsolclyinhucnccd by
considcrationor thcpublicintcrcst,as in makingasclcctionamong
candidatcsor a govcrnmcntcmploymcnt lmpartiality, inshort, as
an obligation ojusticc, may bc said to mcan, bcing cxclusivcly
inhucnccd y thc considcrations which it is supposcd ought to
inhucncc thcparticularcascinhand, andrcsistingthcsolicitationo
any motivcs which prompt to conduct dilIcrcnt rom what thosc
considcrationswoulddictatc.
carlyallicd to thc idca oimpartiality, is that oraa/ip, which
otcn cntcrsas acomponcntpartbothintothcconccptionojusticc
and into thc practicc o it, and, in thc cycs o many pcrsons,
constitutcsi tscsscncc.Butin this,stillmorcthaninanyothcrcasc,
thcnotionojusticcvaricsindilcrcntpcrsons, andalaysconorms
initsvariationstothcirnotionoutility. Lachpcrsonmaintainsthat
cquality is thc dictatc o justicc, cxccpt whcrc hc thinks that
cxpcdicncyrcquircs incquality. Jhcjusticc ogiving cqual protcc-
tiontothcrightsoall, ismaintaincdbythoscwhosupportthcmost
outragcous incquality in thc rights thcmsclvcs. Lvcn in slavc
countricsitisthcorcticallyadmittcdthatthcrightsothcslavc,such
as thcy arc, ought to bcas sacrcd as thosc othc mastcr, and that a
tribunalwhichailsto cnorcc thcm with cqual strictncssis wanting
inj usticc, whilc, at thc samc timc, institutions which lcavc to thc
slavcscarcclyanyrightsto cnorcc, arcnotdccmcdunjust, bccausc
thcy arc not dccmcd incxpcdicnt. Jhosc who think that utility
rcquircs distinctions orank, do not considcr it unj ust that richcs
andsocialprivilcgcsshould bc uncqually dispcnscd, butthoscwho
think this incquality incxpcdicnt think it unjust also. Whocvcr
thinks that govcrnmcnt is ncccssary, sccs no injusticc in as much
incquality as is constitutcd by giving to thc magistratc powcrs not
grantcd to othcr pcoplc. Lvcn among thosc who hold lcvclling
j . 5 . MI LL
doctrincs, thcrc arc as many qucstions ojusticc as thcrc arc
dihcrcnccsoopinion aboutcxpcdicncy. SomcCommunistsconsidcr
itunjustthatthcproduccothclabourothccommunityshould bc
sharcd on any othcr principlc than that ocxact cquality, othcrs
thinkitjustthatthoscshoudrcccivcmostwhoscnccdsarcgrcatcst,
whilcothcrsholdthatthoscwhoworkhardcr,orwhoproduccmorc,
or whosc scrviccs arc morc valuablc to thc community mayj ustly
claim alargcrquotainthcdivisionothc producc. Andthcscnsco
naturaljusticcmaybcplausiblyappcalcd toinbchalocvcryonco
thcscopinions.
Among so many divcrsc applications othc tcrm justicc, which
yctisnotrcgardcd as ambiguous, itis amattcrosomcdimcultyto
scizc thc mcntal link which holds thcm togcthcr and on which thc
moralscntimcntadhcring to thctcrmcsscntiallydcpcnds. lcrhaps,
in this cmbarrassmcnt,somchclpmaybcdcrivcdromthchistoryo
thcword,asindicatcdbyits ctymology.
!n most, inotinall, languagcs, thcctymologyothcwordwhich
corrcsponds to just, points to an origin conncctcd cithcr with
positivclaw,orwiththatwhichwasinmostcascsthcprimitivcorm
olaw-authoritativc custom. jastam is a ormoIassam, thatwhich
has bccn ordcrcd. jas is o thc samc origin. isotov comcs rom
, owhich thc principalmcaning, at lcastin thchistoricalagcs
oGrcccc, was a suit at law. Criginally, indccd, it mcant only thc
modc or maaarr o doing things, but it carly camc to mcan thc
rrscri/rd manncr,thatwhichthcrccognizcdauthoritics,patriarchal,
judicial,orpolitical,wouldcnorccKrc/t, romwhichcamcri/t and
ri/trcas, is synonymous with law. Jhc original mcaning indccd o
rrc// did not point to law, buttophysicalstraightncss, as arca and
its Latin cquivalcnts mcant twistcd or tcrtacas, and rom this it is
argucd that right did not originally mcan law, but on thc contrary
lawmcantrightButhowcvcrthismaybc,thcactthatrrc// anddrci/
bccamc rcstrictcd in thcir mcaning to positivc law, although much
which is not rcquircd by law is cqually ncccssary to moral
straightncssorrcctitudc, isassignihcantothcoriginalcharactcro
moralidcas asithcdcrivationhadbccnthcrcvcrscway.Jhccourts
justicc, thc administration ojusticc, arc thc courts and thc
administration olaw. La as/icr, in lrcnch, is thc cstablishcd tcrm
orjudicaturc. Jhcrccan, ! think, bcnodoubtthatthcidr mirr, thc
primitivc clcmcnt, in thc ormation o thc notion oj usticc, was
conormitytolaw. !tconstitutcdthccntircidcaamongthcHcbrcws,
jLSTI CEANDLTI LI T
a/
upto thc birth oChristianity, as mightbccxpcctcdinthc cascoa
pcoplc whosc laws attcmptcd to cmbracc all subjccts on which
prcccpts wcrc rcquircd, and who bclicvcd thosc laws to bc a dircct
cmanation rom thc Suprcmc Bcing But othcr nations, and in
particular thc Grccks and Komans, who kncw that thcir laws had
bccn madcoriginally, and still continucd to bc madc, by mcn,wcrc
notaraid to admitthat thoscmcnmightmakc badl aws, mightdo,
by law, thc samc things, and rom thcsamc motivcs, which, idonc
by individuals without thc sanction olaw, would bc callcd unjust.
Andhcnccthcscntimcntoinjusticc camc to bc attachcd, nottoall
violationso law, butonlyto violations osuch lawsasaa// tocxist,
includingsuchas ought tocxistbutdonot, and to laws thcmsclvcs,
isupposcd to bc contrary towhatought to bc law. !n thismanncr
thc idca olaw and oits injunctions was still prcdominant in thc
notion ojusticc, cvcn whcn thc laws actually inorcc ccascd to bc
acccptcdasthcstandardoit
lt is truc that mankind considcr thc idca o j usticc and its
obligationsas applicablctomanythingswhichncithcrarc, norisi
dcsircd that thcy should bc, rcgulatcd bylaw. obody dcsircs that
laws should intcrcrc with thc wholc dctail o privatc lic, yct
cvcryonc allows that in all daily conduct a pcrson may and docs
show himsclto bc cithcrjust or unjust. But cvcn hcrc, thc idca o
tc brcachowhatought to bclaw, stilllingcrsinamodihcdshapc.
ltwould always givc us plcasurc, andchimcin with ourcclings o
htncss, that acts which wcdccmunj ustshould bcpunishcd, though
wc donot always thinkit cxpcdicnt that this should bcdonc by thc
tribunals. Wc orgo that gratihcation on account o incidcntal
inconvcnicnccs. Wcshould bcgladtosccjust conductcnorccd and
injusticcrcprcsscd,cvcninthcminutcstdctails,iwcwcrcnot,with
rcason, araid o trusting thc magistratc with so unlimitcd an
amount opowcr ovcr individuals . Whcn wc think that a pcrson is
boundinjusticc to doa thing,itis anordinary orm olanguagc to
say,thathcoughttobccompcllcdtodoit. Wcshouldbcgratihcdto
sccthcobligationcnorccdbyanybodywhohadthcpowcrlwcscc
that its cnorccmcnt by law would bc incxpcdicnt, wc lamcnt thc
impossibility,wcconsidcrthcimpunitygivcntoinjusticcas ancvil,
and strivc tomakcamcndsor it by bringinga strongcxprcssion o
our ownandthcpublic disapprobation tobcarupon thcocndcr.
Jhus thc idca olcgal constraint is still thc gcncrating idca othc
notion ofjusticc, though undcrgoing scvcral transormations bcorc
j . S . MI LL
that notion, as it cxists in an advanccd statc of socicty, bccomcs
complctc.
Jhcabovcis, think,atrucaccount,asfarasitgocs,ofthcorigin
andprogrcssivcgrowthofthc idcaofj usticc. But wc must obscrvc,
that it contains, as yct, nothing to distinguish that obligation from
moral obligation ingcncral. lor thc truth is, that thc idca ofpcnal
sanction, which is thc csscncc of law, cntcrs not only into thc
conccptionofinjusticc,butintothatofanykindofwrong.Wcdonot
callanythingwrong,unlcsswcmcantoimplythatapcrsonoughtto
bc punishcd insomcwayorothcrfordoingit, ifnot bylaw, by thc
opinion ofhis fcllow crcaturcs, ifnot by opinion, by thcrcproachcs
of his own conscicncc. Jhis sccms thc rcal turning point of thc
distinction bctwccn morality and simplc cxpcdicncy. t is a part of
thc notion ofuty in cvcry onc of i ts forms, that a pcrson may
rightfully bc compcllcd to fulhl it. uty is a thing which may bc
rxactrd from a pcrson, as onc cxacts a dcbt. !nlcss wc think that it
might bc cxactcd from him, wc do not call it his duty Kcasons of
prudcncc, or thc intcrcst of othcr pcoplc, may mili tatc against
actuallycxactingit, butthcpcrson himsclf, itisclcarlyundcrstood,
would not bc cntitlcd to complain Jhcrc arc othcr things, on thc
contrary, which wc wish that pcoplc should do, which wc likc or
admirc thcm for doing, pcrhaps dislikc or dcspisc thcm for not
doing,butyctadmitthatthcyarcnotboundtodo,i tisnotacascof
moral obligation, wc do not blamc thcm, that is, wc do not think
thatthcyarcpropcrobjccts ofpunishmcnt. Howwc comc by thcsc
idcas of dcscrving and not dcscrving punishmcnt, will appcar,
pcrhaps, in thc scqucl, but think thcrc is no doubt that this
distinctionlicsatthcbottomofthcnotionsofrightandwrong, that
wccallany conductwrong,orcmploy, instcad, somc othcr tcrm of
dislikc or disparagcmcnt, according as wc think that thc pcrson
ought, orought not, to bcpunishcdfor it, andwcsay thati twould
bc right to do so and so, or mcrcly that i t would bc dcsirablc or
laudablc, according as wc would wish to scc thc pcrson whom it
conccrns, compcllcd, oronlypcrsuadcdandcxhortcd, toactinthat
manncr.
Jhis, thcrcforc, bcing thc charactcristic dicrcncc which marks
olI, not j usticc, but morality in gcncral, from thc rcmaining
provinccs ofLxpcdicncy andWorthincss, thc charactcr isstill to bc
sought which distinguishcsj usticcfrom othcr branchcs ofmorality.
jLSTI CEo LTI LI T
5

ow it is known that cthical writcrs dividc moral dutics into two
classcs, dcnotcd by thc ill-choscn cxprcssions, dutics opcrcct and
oimpcrcct obligation, thc lattcr bcing thosc inwhich, thoughthc
actisobligatory, thcparticularoccasionsopcrormingi tarclct to
our choicc, as in thc casc ocharity or bcnchccncc, which wc arc
indccdboundtopractisc, butnottowardsanydchnitcpcrson, norat
any prcscribcd timc. !n thc morc prccisc languagc ophilosophic
jurists,duticsopcrcctobligationarcthoscduticsinvirtucowhich
a corrclativc rig// rcsidcs in somc pcrson or pcrsons, dutics o
impcrcct obligation arc thosc moral obligations which do not givc
birthtoanyright. ! thinkitwillbcoundthatthisdistinctioncxactly
coincidcs with that which cxists bctwccn justicc and thc othcr
obligations o morality. !n our survcy o thc various popular
acccptations ojusticc, thc tcrm appcarcd gcncrally to involvc thc
idca o a pcrsonal right-a claim on thc part o onc or morc
individuals, likc that which thc law givcs whcn it concrs a
proprictary or othcr lcgal right. Whcthcr thc injusticc consists in
dcprivingapcrsonoaposscssion,orinbrcakingaithwithhim,or
in trcatinghimworsc than hc dcscrvcs, orworsc thanothcrpcoplc
whohavcnogrcatcrclaims,incachcascthcsuppositionimplicstwo
tings-awrongdonc,andsomcassignablcpcrsonwhoiswrongcd.
!njusticc may also bc donc by trcatinga pcrson bcttcr than othcrs,
but thc wrong in this casc is to his compctitors, who arc also
assignablcpcrsons . !t sccms to mc that this caturc in thc casc-a
right in somc pcrson, corrclativc to thc moral obliga
tion-constitutcs thc spccihc dicrcncc bctwccn justicc and
gcncrosityor bcnchccncc.usticc implics somcthingwhich itis not
onlyright to do, and wrong not to do, but which somc individual
pcrson can claim rom us as his moral right. o onc has a moral
right to our gcncrosity or bcnchccncc, bccausc wc arc not morally
boundtopractiscthoscvirtucstowardsanygivcninividual . Andit
will bc ound with rcspcct to this as with rcspcct to cvcry corrcct
dchnition, thatthcinstanccswhichsccmtoconhictwithitarcthosc
which most conhrm it. lor ia moralist attcmpts, as somc havc
donc, to makc out that mankind gcncrally, though not any givcn
individual, havc a right to all thcgood wc can do thcm, hc atoncc,
by that thcsis, includcs gcncrosity and bcnchccncc within thc
catcgory ojusticc. Hc is obligcd tosay, that our utmost cxcrtions
arcder to ourcllow crcaturcs, thus assimilating thcm to a dcbt, or
thatnothinglcsscan bc a sumcicnt rr/em or whatsocicty docsor
us, thus classing thc casc as onc ogratitudc, both owhich arc
acknowlcdgcd cascso justicc. Whcrcvcrthcrcis a right, thc casc is
oncojusticc,andnotothcvirtucobcnchccnccandwhocvcrdocs
o j . 5 . MI LL
not placc thc distinction bctwccn justicc and morality in gcncral
whcrc wc havc now placcd it, will bcfound to makc no distinction
bctwccntcmatall,buttomcrgcallmoralityinjusticc.
Having thus cndcavourcd to dctcrminc thc distinctivc clcmcnts
whichcntcrinto thccompositionofthcidcaofjusticc,wcarcrcady
to cntcr thc cnquiry, whcthcr thc fccling, which accompanics thc
idca,isattachcdtoitbyaspccialdispcnsationofnaturc,orwhcthcr
it could havc grown up, by any known laws, out ofthc idca itsclf,
andin particular,whcthcrit canhavcoriginatcdin considcrationsof
gcncralcxpcdicncy.
conccivc that thc scntimcnt itsclfdocs not ariscfrom anything
which would commonly, or corrcctly, bc tcrmcd an idca of
cxpcdicncy, but that though thc scntimcnt docs not, whatcvcr is
moralinitdocs.
Wchavcsccnthatthctwocsscntialingrcdicntsinthcscntimcntof
justicc arc, thcdcsirc to punish a pcrsonwhohas donc harm, and
thc knowlcdgc or bclicf that thcrc is somc dchnitc individual or
individualstowhomharmhasbccndonc.
owitappcars tomc, thatthcdcsirctopunisha pcrsonwhohas
doncharmtosomcindividual,isaspontancousoutgrowthfromtwo
scntimcnts, bothinthchighcstdcgrccnatural,andwhichcithcrarc
or rcscmblc instincts, thc impulsc ofsclfdcfcncc, and thcfcclingof
sympathy.
tisnatural torcscnt,and torcpcl orrctaliatc,anyharmdoncor
attcmptcd against oursclvcs, or against thosc with whom wc
sympathizc. Jhc origin ofthis scntimcnt itis notncccssary hcrc to
discuss . Whcthcritbcaninstinctora rcsultofintclligcncc, it is, wc
know, common to all animal naturc, for cvcry animal trics tohurt
thoscwhohavchurt, orwhoitthinksarc about tohurt, itsclforits
young. Humanbcings, onthis point, onlydihcrfromothranimals
intwoparticulars. lirst, inbcingcapablcofsympathizing,notsolcly
with thcir olIspring, or, likc somc ofthc morc noblc animals, with
somcsupcrioranimalwhoiskindtothcm, butwithall human, and
cvcnwithallscnticnt, bcings. Sccondly,inhavingamorcdcvclopcd
intclligcncc, which givcs a widcr rangc to thc wholc of thcir
scntimcnts, whcthcr sclfrcgarding orsympathctic. Byvirtuc ofhis
supcrior intclligcncc, cvcn aprt from his supcrior rangc of
sympathy, a human bcingiscapablcofapprchndinga community
ofintcrcstbctwccnhimsclfandthchumansocictyofwhichhcforms
a part, such that any conduct which thrcatcns thc sccurity ofthc
socicty gcncrally, is thrcatcning to his own, and calls forth his
instinct if instinct it bc) ofsclf-dcfcncc. Jhc samc supcriority of
intclligcncc,joincdtothcpowcrofsympathizingwithhumanbcings
jLSTI CE ANDLTI LI T
gcncrally, cnablcs him to attach himsclto thccollcctivc idcaohis
tribc,hiscountry,ormankind,insuchamanncrthatanyacthurtul
tothcmrouscshisinstinctosympathy,andurgcshimtorcsistancc.
Jhcscntimcntojusticc,inthatoncoitsclcmcntswicconsists
o thc dcsirc to punish, is this, conccivc, thc natural ccling o
rctaliation or vcngcancc rcndcrcd by intcllcct and sympathy
applicablc tothoscinjurics, thatis, to thosc hurts, whichwound us
through, or in common with, socicty at largc. Jhis scntimcnt, in
itscl, has nothing moral in it, what is moral is, thc cxclusivc
subordination oit to thc social sympathics, so as to wait on and
obcy thcir call. lor thc natural ccling tcnds to makc us rcscnt
indiscriminatcly whatcvcr any onc docs that is disagrccablc to us,
but whcn moralizcd by thc social ccling, it only acts in thc
dircctionsconormablc tothcgcncralgood.justpcrsons rcscntinga
hurt tosocicty, though not othcrwisc a hurt tothcmsclvcs, and not
rcscnting a hurt tothcmsclvcs, howcvcr painul, unlcss itbcothc
kind which socicty has a common intcrcst with thcm in thc
rcprcssiono.
t is no objcction against this doctrinc to say, that wcn wc ccl
our scntimcnt ojusticc outragcd, wc arc not thinking osocicty at
largc,oroanycollcctivcintcrcst, butonlyothcindividualcasc. t
i s commoncnoughccrtainly,thoughthcrcvcrscocommcndablc,to
ccl rcscntmcnt mcrcly bccauscwc havc sucrcd pain, buta pcrson
whosc rcscntmcnt is rcally a moral ccling, that is, who considcrs
whcthcr an act is blamcablc bcorc hc allows himscl to rcscnt
it-such a pcrson, though hc may not say cxprcssly to himsclthat
hcisstandinguporthcintcrcstosocicty,ccrtainlydocscclthathc
is asscrtinga rulcwichisor thc bcnchtoothcrs aswcll asor his
own. hc is not ccling this-ihc is rcgarding thc act solclyas it
alIccts him individually-hc is not consciously just, hc is not
conccrninghimsclabout thcjusticcohisactions. Jhisisadmittcd
cvcn byantiutilitarianmoralists. Whcn ant as bcorcrcmarkcd)
propounds asthcundamcntalprinciplcomorals, 'Soact, thatthy
rulcoconductmightbcadoptcdasalawbyallrational bcings, ` hc
virtuallyacknowlcdgcs that thc intcrcst omankind collcctivcly, or
at lcast omankind indiscriminatcly, must bc in thc mind o thc
agcnt whcn conscicntiously dccid|ng on thc morality o thc act.
Chcrw|schcuscswordswithouta mcaning.or, thata rulccvcno
uttcr sclnshncss could not cssi/j) bc adoptcd by all rational
bc|ngs-that thcrc is any insupcrablc obstaclc in thc naturc o
things to its adoption-cannot bc cvcn plausibly maintaincd. Jo
givcanymcaningtoant` sprinciplc,thcscnscputuponitmustbc,
that wc ought to shapc our conduct by a rulc which all rat|onal
bcingsmightadoptai// /raq/ /c //rir cc//rc/i:r ia/rrrs/.
j . S . MI LL
Torccapitulatc thcidcaof justiccsupposcs two things, a rulc of
conduct, andascntimcntwhichsanctionsthcrulc. Thchrstmustbc
supposcd common toallmankind, and intcndcdfor thcirgood.Thc
othcr thcscntimcnt)isadcsircthatpunishmcntmaybcsuhcrcdby
thosc who infringc thc rulc. Thcrc is involvcd, in addition, thc
conccption ofsomcdchnitcpcrsonwho suhcrs by thcinfringcmcnt,
whosc rights to usc thc cxprcssion appropriatcd to thc casc) arc
violatcdby it. And thcscntimcntofj usticcappcars to mcto bc thc
animaldcsirc to rcpclor rctaliatca hurtordamagctooncsclf, or to
thosc with whom onc sympathizcs, widcncd so as to includc all
pcrsons, by thc human capacity of cnlargcd sympathy, and thc
human conccption of intclligcnt sclf-intcrcst. lrom thc lattcr
clcmcnts, thc fccling dcrivcs its morality, from thc formcr, its
pcculiarimprcssivcncss,andcncrgyofsclf-asscrtion.
l havc, throughout, tcatcd thc idca of a riht rcsiding in thc
injurcdpcrson,andviolatcdbythcinjury, notasascparatcclcmcnt
inthccompositionofthcidcaandscntimcnt,butasoncofthcforms
in which thcothcr two clcmcnts clothc thcmsclvcs. Thcsc clcmcnts
arc, a hurt to somc assignablc pcrson or pcrsons on thc onc hand,
anda dcmandfor punishmcntonthcothcr. An cxaminationofour
own minds, l think,willshow, thatthcsctwothingsincludcallthat
wc mcan whcn wc spcak of violation of a right Whcn wc call
anything a pcrson` s right, wc mcan that hc has a valid claim on
socicty to protcct him in thc posscssion ofit, cithcr by thc forcc of
law,orbythatofcducationandopinion lfhchaswhatwcconsidcr
a sumcicnt claim, on whatcvcr account, to havc somcthing
guarantccdtohim by socicty,wcsaythathchas a rightto it. lf wc
dcsirc to provc that anything docs not bclong to him by right, wc
think this donc as soon as it is admittcd that socicty ought not to
takcmcasurcsforsccuringittohim,butshouldlcavcittochanccor
to hisowncxcrtions. Thus, a pcrson is said to havc a right to what
hc can carn in fair profcssional compctition, bccausc socicty ought
not to allowany othcr pcrson to hindcr him from cndcavouring to
carn in that manncr as much as hc can. But hc has not a right to
thrcc hundrcd a ycar though hc may happcn to bc carning it,
bccausc socicty is not callcd on to providc that hc shall carn that
sum. Cnthccontrary,ifhcownstcnthousandpoundsthrccpcrccnt
stock, hc has a right to thrcc hundrcd a ycar, bccausc socicty has
comc undcr an obligation to providc him with an incomc ofthat
amount.
To havc a right, thcn, is, l conccivc, to havc somcthing which
socicty ought to dcfcnd mcinthc posscssion of. lfthcobjcctorgocs
on toaskwhyitought, l cangivchimnoothcrrcason than gcncral
utility lfthatcxprcssiondocsnotsccmtoconvcyasumcicntfccling
j!5TI CEo !TI LI T
o thc strcngth o thc obligation, nor to account or thc pcculiar
cncrgy othc ccling, i tis bccausc thcrc gocs to thc composition o
thc scntimcnt, not a rational only but also an animal clcmcnt, thc
thirstorrctaliation,andthisthirstdcrivcsitsintcnsity, aswcllasits
moraljustihcation, rom thc cxtraordinarily important and imprcs-
sivckindoutility which isconccrncd. Jhc intcrcstinvolvcdis that
o sccurity, to cvcry onc` s cclings thc most vital o all intcrcsts.
carly all othcr carthly bcnchts arc nccdcd by onc pcrson, not
nccdcd by anothcr, and many o thcm can, i ncccssary, bc
chccrully orgonc, or rcplaccd by somcthing clsc, but sccurity no
human bcing can possibly do without, on i twc dcpcnd or all our
immunity rom cvil, and or thcwholcvaluc oall and cvcry good,
bcyond thc passing momcnt, sincc nothing but thc gratihcation o
thc instant could bc oany worth to us, iwc could bc dcprivcd o
cvcrything thc ncxt instant by whocvcr was momcntarily strongcr
thanoursclvcs. lowthismostindispcnsablcoall ncccssarics, acr
physical nutrimcnt, cannot bc had, unlcss thc machincry or
providing it is kcpt unintcrmittcdly in activc play. Cur notion,
thcrcorc, othc claim wc havc on our cllow crcaturcs tojoin in
making sac or us thc vcrygroundwork oour cxistcncc, gathcrs
cclings rounditsomuchmorc intcnsc thanthoscconccrncd inany
othcmorccommoncascsoutility,thatthcdicrcnccindcgrcc as
is otcn thc casc in psychology) bccomcs a rcal dicrcncc in kind.
Jhc claim assumcs that charactcr o absolutcncss, that apparcnt
inhnity, and incommcnsurability with all othcr considcrations,
which constitutc thc distinction bctwccn thc ccling o right and
wrong and that o ordinary cxpcdicncy and incxpcdicncy. Jhc
cclings conccrncd arc so powcrul, and wc count so positicly on
hndingarcsponsivccclinginothcrs allbcingalikcintcrcstcd) , that
ce/t and s/ce/d grow into mest, and rccognizcd indispcnsability
bccomcs a moral ncccssity, analogous to physical, and olcn not
incriortoitinbindingorcc.
!thc prcccding analysis, or somcthing rcscmbling it, bc not thc
corrcct account o thc notion o j usticc, i justicc bc totally
indcpcndcntoutility,and bca standardtr st, which thcmindcan
rccognizcby simplc introspcction oitscl, itis hard to undcrstand
why that intcrnal oraclc is so ambiguous, and why somany things
appcarcithcrj ustorunjust, accordingtothclightinwhichthcyarc
rcgardcd.
Wcarccontinuallyinormcdthat!tilityisanunccrtainstandard,
which cvcrydicrcntpcrsonintcrprcts dicrcntly, and thatthcrcis
no sacty but in thc immutablc, incaccablc, and unmistakablc
dictatcso jsticc,whichcarrythcircvidcnccinthcmsclvcs,andarc
indcpcndcntothchuctuationsoopinion. Cncwouldsupposcrom
j . S . MI LL
thisthatonqucstionsof justiccthcrccouldbcnocontrovcrsy,thatif
wc takc that for our rulc, its application to any givcn casc could
lcavcusinaslittlcdoubtasamathcmaticaldcmonstration.Sofaris
this from bcingthcfact, that thcrcisas much dihcrcnccofoinion,
andashcrccdiscussion,aboutwhatisjust,asaboutwhatisuscfulto
socicty. lot only havc dihcrcnt nations and individuals dihcrcnt
notions ofjusticc but, inthc mind ofoncand thc samc individual,
justicc is not somc onc rulc, principlc, or maxim, ut many, which
do not always coincidc in thcir dictatcs, and in choosing bctwccn
which, hc is guidcd cithcr by somc cxtrancous standard, or by his
ownpcrsonalprcdilcctions.
lor instancc, thcrc arc somc who say, that iti sunjustto punish
anyonc for thc sakc ofcxamplc to othcrs, that punishmcnt isjust,
only whcn intcndcd for thc good of thc suhcrcr himsclf. Cthcrs
maintain thc cxtrcmc rcvcrsc, contcnding that to punish pcrsons
who havc attaincd ycars of discrction, for thcir own bcncht, is
dcspotismandinj usticc,sinccifthcmattcratissucissolclythcirown
good no onc has a right to control thcir ownjudgcmcnt ofit, but
thatthcymayj ustlybcpunishcd toprcvcntcviltoothcrs, thisbcing
an cxcrcisc ofthc lcgitimatc right ofsclf-dcfcncc. MrCwcn, again,
amrmsthatitisunj usttopunishatall ,forthccriminaldidnotmakc
his own charactcr, his cducation, and thc circumstanccs which
surround him, havc madc him a criminal, and for thcsc hc is not
rcsponsiblc. All thcsc opinions arc cxtrcmclyplausiblc, and solong
as thc qucstion is argucd as onc ofj usticc simply without ging
down to thcprinciplcswhichlicundcrj usticcandarc thc sourccof
its authority, am unablc to scc how any ofthcsc rcasoncrs can bc
rcfutcd. lor, in truth, cvcry onc of thc thrcc builds upon rulcs of
justicc confcsscdly truc. Thc hrst appcals to thc acknowlcdgcd
injusticc ofsingling out an individual, and making him a sacrihcc
withouthisconscnt, forothcrpcoplc`sbcncht. Thcsccond rclics on
thc acknowlcdgcdj usticc ofsclf-dcfcncc, and thcadmittcdinjusticc
of forcing onc pcrson to conform to anothcr` s notions of what
constitutcs his good. Thc Cwcnitc invokcs thc admittcd principlc,
that it is unjust to punish anyonc for what hc cannothclp ach is
triumphantsolongashcisnotcompcllcdtotakcintoconsidcration
anyothcrmaximsof justiccthanthconchchassclcctcd, butassoon
as thcir scvcral maxims arc brought facc to facc, cach disputant
sccms tohavccxactly as much to sayfor himsclfas thc othcrs. lo
onc of thcm can carry out his own notion of justicc without
tramplinguponanothcrcquallybindingThcscarc dimcultics, thcy
havc always bccn fclt to bc such, and many dcviccs havc bccn
invcntcdtoturnrathcrthantoovcrcomcthcm.Asarcfugcfromthc
lastofthc thrcc, mcn imagincd what thcy callcd thcfrccdomofthc
jLSTI CEo LTI LIT

5
will,ancying that thcycouldnotjustiypunishinga manwhoscwill
is in a thoroughly hatculstatc, unlcss itbc supposcd tohavccomc
into that statc through no inhucncc oantcrior circumstanccs. Jo
cscapc rom thc othcr dimcultics, a avouritc contrivancc has bccn
thc hction oa contract, whcrcby at somc unknown pcriod all thc
mcmbcrs osocicty cngagcd to obcy thc laws, and conscntcd to bc
punishcd or any disobcdicncc to thcm, thcrcby giving to thcir
lcgislators thc right, which it is assumcd thcy would notothcrwisc
havchad, opunishingthcm, cithcror thcirowngoodororthato
socicty. Jhis happy thoughtwas considcrcd to gct rid othc wholc
dimculty, and tolcgitimatcthcinhictionopunishmcnt, invirtuco
anothcr rcccivcd maxim ojusticc, :c/ra/i aca {/ iqaria, that is not
unjustwhichisdoncwiththcconscntothcpcrsonwhoissupposcd
to bchurt by it. nccdhardlyrcmark, thatcvcnithcconscntwcrc
not a mcrc hction, this maxim is not supcrior in authority to thc
othcrswhich itisbroughtin tosupcrscdc. t is, onthccontrary,an
instructivc spccimcn o thc loosc and irrcgular manncr in which
supposcdprinciplcso justiccgrow up. Jhis particularonccidcntly
camc into usc as a hclp to thc coarsc cxigcncics ocourts olaw,
which arc somctimcs obligcd to bc contcnt with vcry unccrtain
prcsumptions, on account o thc grcatcr cvils which would otcn
ariscrom any attcmpton thcirpartto cuthncr. Butcvcn courts o
law arc not ablcto adhcrc consistcntlyto thcmaxim, or thcy allow
voluntary cngagcmcnts to bc sct asidc on thc ground oraud, and
somctimcsonthatomcrcmistakcormisinormation.
Again, whcn thc lcgitimacy oinhicting punishmcnt is admittcd,
how many conhicting conccptions o justicc comc to light in
discussingthcpropcrapportionmcntopunishmcnttoocnccs. o
rulc on this subjcct rccommcnds itsclso strongly to thc primitivc
andspontancousscntimcnto justicc asthc/rx /a/icais, ancycor an
cyc and a toothor a tooth. Jhough thisprinciplco thc cwish and
othc Muhammadan lawhas bccngcncrallyabandoncdin Luropc
as a practical maxim, thcrc is, suspcct, in most minds, a sccrct
hankcring atcr it, and whcn rctribution accidcntally alls on an
ocndcr in that prccisc shapc, thc gcncral ccling o satisaction
cvinccd, bcars witncss how natural is thc scntimcnt to which this
rcpaymcnt in kind is acccptablc. With many thc tcst ojusticc in
pcnalinhictionis thatthcpunishmcntshouldbcproportioncdtothc
ocncc, mcaning that it should bc cxactly mcasurcd by thc moral
guilto thcculpritwhatcvcrbcthcirstandardor mcasuringmoral
guilt) . thcconsidcration,whatamountopunishmcntisncccssaryto
dctcr rom thc olIcncc, having nothing to do with thc qucstion o
justicc, in thcir cstimation. whilc thcrc arc othcrs to whom that
considcrationisallinall,whomaintainthatitisnotjust, atlcastor
j . S . MI LL
man, t oinict ona fcllow crcaturc, whatcvcr may bchi sohcnccs,
anyamountofsuhcringbcyond thclcastthatwillsumccto prcvcnt
himfromrcpcating,andothcrsfromimitating,hismisconduct
Totakcanothcrcxamplcfroma subjcctalrcadyonccrcfcrrcd to.
lnaco-opcrativcindustrialassociation,isitj ustornotthattalcntor
skillshould givc a titlc to supcrior rcmuncration! Cn thc ncgativc
sidcofthc qucstion itis argucd that whocvcr docs thc bcsthc can,
dcscrvcscquallywcll, andoughtnotinjusticctobcputinaposition
of infcriority for no fault of his own, that supcrior abilitics hac
alrcady advantagcs morc than cnough, in thc admiration thcy
cxcitc, thc pcrsonal inucncc thcy command, and thc intcrnal
sourccs of satisfaction attcnding thcm, without adding to thcsc a
supcrior sharc of thc world` s goods, and that socicty is bound in
justicc rathcr to makc compcnsation to thc lcss favourcd, for this
unmcritcd incquality ofadvantagcs, than to aggravatc it. Cn thc
contrary sidc it is contcndcd that socicty rcccivcs morc from thc
morc cmcicnt labourcr, that his scrviccs bcing morc uscful, socicty
owcs him a largcr rcturn for thcm, that a grcatcr sharc ofthcjoint
rcsultisactuallyhiswork,andnottoallowhisclaimtoitisakindof
robbcry, thatifhcisonlytorcccivc as much as othcrs, hccanonly
bcjustlyrcquircdtoproduccasmuch, andtogivcasmallcramount
oftimc and cxcrtion, proportioncd to his supcrior cmcicncy. Who
shall dccidc bctwccn thcsc appcals to conicting principlcs of
justicc!justicchas inthis casc twosidcs toit, whichitisimpossiblc
tobringintoharmony,andthctwodisputantshavcchoscnoppositc
sidcs, thc onc looks to what it is just that thc individual should
ccivc,thc othcrtowhatitisjustthatthc community shouldgivc.
Lach, from his own pointofvicw, is unanswcrablc, and anychoicc
bctwccn thcm, on grounds ofj usticc, must bc pcrfcctly arbitrary.
Socialutilityalonccandccidcthcprcfcrcncc.
How many, again and how irrcconcilablc, arc thc standards of
justicc to which rcfcrcncc is madc in discussing thc rcpartition of
taxation. Cnc opinion is, that paymcnt to thc Statc should bc in
numcricalproportiontopccuniarymcans. Cthcrsthinkthatjusticc
dictatcs what thcy tcrm graduatcd taxaton, taking a highcr
pcrccntagcfrom thoscwho havc morc to sparc. ln pointofnatural
j usticc a strong casc might bc madc for disrcgarding mcans
altogcthcr, andtakingthcsamcabsolutc sum whcncvcritcouldbc
got)fromcvcryonc. asthcsubscribcrstoamcss, ortoaclub,allpay
thcamc sumfor thc samcprivilcgcs, whcthcr thcy can all cqually
aord it or not. Sincc thc protcction it might bc said) oflaw and
govcrnmcntisahordcdto,andiscquallyrcquircdby,all, thcrcisno
justiccinmakingall buyitatthcsamcpricc. lt isrcckoncdjusticc,
jLSTI CEANDLTI LI T
not injusticc, that a dcalcr should chargc to all customcrs thc samc
pricc for

hc samc articlc, not a pricc varying according to thcir

mcans ofpaymcnt. Jhis doctrinc, as applicd to taxation, hnds no
advocatcs, bccausc it conicts strongly with mcn`s fcclings of
humanity and pcrccptions ofsocial cxpcdicncy, but thcprinciplcof
justiccwhichitinvokcsisas truc and asbindingas thoscwhich can
bc appcalcd to againstit. Accordingly, it cxcrts a tacit inhucncc on
thc lincofdcfcncc cmploycd for othcr modcs ofasscssing taxation.
lcoplc fccl obligcd to arguc that thc Statc docs morc for thc rich
than for thc poor, as ajustihcation for its taking morc from thcm.
thoughthisisinrcalitynottruc,forthcrichwouldbcfarbcttcrablc
toprotcctthcmsclvcs,inthcabscnccoflaworgovcrnmcnt, thanthc
poor, and indccd would probably bc succcssful in convcrting thc
poor into thcir slavcs. Cthcrs, again, so far dcfcr to thc samc
conccption ofjusticc, as to maintain that all should pay an cqual
capitation tax for thc protcction of thcir pcrsons thcsc bcing of
cqual valuc to all) , and an uncqual tax for thc protcction ofthcir
propcrty, whichisuncqual . Jo this othcrs rcply, thatthc all ofonc
man is as valuablc to him as thc all of anothcr lrom thcsc
confusionsthcrcisnoothcrmodcofcxtricationthanthcutilitarian.
ls, thcn, thc dihcrcncc bctwccn thc just and thc Lxpcdicnt a
mcrclyimaginarydistinction! Havc mankind bccn undcradclusion
inthinkingthatjusticc is a morcsacrcd thingthanpolicy, and that
thc lattcr ought only to bc listcncd to aftcr thc formcr has bccn
satishcd! By no mcans . Jhccxpositionwchavcgivcnofthc naturc
andoriginofthcscntimcntrccognizcsarcaldistinction, andnoonc
of thosc who profcss thc most sublimc contcmpt for thc consc
qucnccs ofactions as an clcmcnt in thcir morality, attachcs morc
importancc to thc distinction than l do Whilc l disputc thc
prctcnsions ofany thcory which scts up an imaginary standard of
justicc not groundcd on utility, l account thc justicc which is
groundcdonutilitytobcthc chicfpart, andincomparablythcmost
sacrcdandbindingpart,ofallmorality.usticcisanamcforccrtain
classcs ofmoral rulcs, which conccrn thc csscntials ofhuman wcll-
bcing morc ncarly, and arc thcrcforc ofmorc absolutc obligation,
thananyohcrrulcsforthcguidanccoflifc,andthcnotionwhichwc
havc found to bcofthc csscncc ofthcidcaofjusticc, that ofa right
rcsidingin an individual, implics and tcstihcs to this morc binding
obligation.
Jhc moral rulcs which forbid mankind to hurt onc anothcr in
which wc must ncvcr forgct to includc wrongful intcrfcrcncc ith
cach othcr`sfrccdom) arc morcvital to human wcll-bcing thanany
maxims,howcvcrimportant, whichonly pointoutthc bcst modc of
managing somc dcpartmcnt ofhuman ahairs Jhcy havc also thc
j . S . MI LL
pcculiarity, that thcyarc thc main clcmcntindctcrminingthcwholc
ofthc socialfcclings ofmankind. !t is thcirobscrvanccwhichalonc
prcscrvcspcaccamonghumanbcings. ifobcdicncctothcmwcrcnot
thc rulc, and disobcdicncc thc cxccption, cvcry onc would scc in
cvcry onc clsc a probabc cncmy, against whom hc must bc
pcrpctually guarding himsclf. What is hardly lcss important, thcsc
arc thc prcccpts which mankind havc thc strongcst and thc most
dircct inducccnts for imprcssing upon oc anothcr By mcrcly
givingtocachothcrprudcntialinstructionorcxhoration,thcy may
gain, or think thcy gain, nothing. in inculcating in cach othcr thc
dutyofpositivc bcnchccnccthcyhavcanunmistakablcintcrcst, but
far lcss in dcgrcc. a pcrson may possibly not nccd thc bcnchts of
othcrs, but hcalways nccds thatthcy should notdohim hurt. Jhus
thcmoraliticswhichprotcctcvcryindividualfrombcingharmcdby
othcrs, cithcr dircctly or by bcing hindcrcd in his frccdom of
pursuinghisowngood,arcatonccthoscwhichhchimsclfhasmost
athcart,adthocwhichhchasthcstrongcstintcrcstinpublishing
and cnforcing by word and dccd. !t is by a pcrson` s obscrvancc of
thcscthathishtncss tocxistasoncofthcfcllowshipofhumanbcings
istcstcdanddccidcd,foronthatdcpcndshisbcinganuisanccornot
to thosc with whom hc is in contact. ow it is thcsc moralitics
primarily which composc thc obligations of justicc Jhc most
markcd cascs of injusticc, and thosc which givc thc tonc to thc
fcclingofrcpugnanccwhich charactcrizcs thcscntimcnt, arc acts of
wrongful aggrcssion, or wrongful cxcrcisc ofpowcr ovcr somconc,
thcncxtarcthoscwhichconsistinwrongullywithholdingfromhi
socthing which is his duc, in both cascs, inhicting on him a
positivchurt,cithcrin thcformofdircctsuhcringorothc privation
ofsomc good which hc had rcasonablcground, cithcrofa physical
orofasocialkind,forcountingupon.
Jhc samc powcrful otivcs which command thc obscrvancc of
thcscprimaryoralitics,cnjointhcpunishmcntothoscwhoviolatc
thcm,andasthcimpulscsoscldcfcncc,odccnccoothcrs, ando
vcngcancc, arc all callcd forth against such pcrsons, rctribution, or
cvilforcvil,bccocsclosclyconncctcdwiththcscntimcntof justicc,
and isunivcrsallyincludcdinthcidca. Goodfor goodi salsoonco
thc dictatcs ojusticc, and this, though its social utility is cvidcnt,
andthoughitcarricswithitanaturalhuanfccling,has notathrst
sightthatobviousconncctionwithhurtorinjurywhich,cxistingin
thc most clcmcntary cascs ojust and unjust, is thc sourcc ofthc
charactcristicintcnsityothcscntimcnt. Buthcconnccion, hough
lcss obvious, is notlcss rcal . Hc who acccpts bcnchts, and dcnics d
rcturn o thcm whcn nccdcd, inhicts a rcal hur, by disappointing
onc of thc most natural and rcasonablc of cxpcctatios, and onc
jLSTI CEo LTI LIT
which hc must at lcast tactly havc cncouragcd, othcrwisc thc
bcnchts would scldom havc bccn concrrcd. Jhc important rank,
among human cvils and wrongs, othc disappointmcnt ocxpccta
tion, isshownin thcactthatitconstitutcs thc principalcriminality
otwo such highly immoral acts as a brcach oricndship and a
brcach opromisc. lcw hurts which human bcngs can sustain arc
grcatcr, and nonc wound morc, than whcn that on which thcy
habitually and with ull assurancc rclicd ails thcm in thc hour o
nccd, and cw wrongs arc grcatcr than this mcrc wthholding o
good, nonccxcitc morcrcscntmcnt, cithcr inthcpcrsonsulIcring,or
in a sympathizing spcctator. Jhc principlc, thcrcorc, ogiving to
cachwhatthcy dcscrvc, thatis, goodorgoodaswcllascvilorcvil,
is not only includcdwithinthc idcaojusticcaswc havc dchncdit,
butisapropcrobjcctothatintcnsityoscntimcnt,whichplaccsthc
just, inhumancstimation,abovcthcsimplyLxpcdicnt.
Mostothcmaximsojusticccurrcntinthcworld,andcommonly
appcalcd to inits transactions, arc simply instrumcntal to carryng
into clIcct thc principlcs ojusticc which wc havc now spokcn o
Jhata pcrson is only rcsponsiblcor what hc has doncvoluntarily,
or couldvoluntarilyhavcavoidcd, thatitis unj ustto condcmnany
pcrson unhcard, that thc punishmcnt ought to bc proportioncd to
thc olIcncc, and thc likc, arc maxims intcndcd to prcvcnt thcjust
principlcocvilor cvilrombcingpcrvcrtcdtothcinictionocvil
withoutthatjustihcation.Jhcgrcatcrpartothcsccommonmaxms
havccomcintouscromthcpracticcocourtso justicc,whichhavc
bccn naturally lcd to a morc complctc rccognition and claboration
than was likcly to suggcst itsclto othcrs, othc rulcs ncccssary to
cnablc thcm to ulhl thcir doublcunction, oinhictingpunishmcnt
whcnduc,andoawardingtocachpcrsonhisright.
Jhat hrst oj udicial virtucs, impartiality, is an obligation o
justicc, partly or thc rcason last mcntioncd, as bcing a ncccssary
conditionothculhlmcntothcothcrobligationsojusticc. Butthis
isnotthconlysourccothccxaltcdrank,amonghuman obligations,
othoscmaximsocqualityandimpartialitywhich, bothinpopular
cstimationand inthatothcmostcnlightcncd, arc includcd among
thcprcccptsojusticc. lnoncpointo vicw,thcymaybcconsidcrcd
as corollaricsromthcprinciplcsalrcadylaiddown. itisadutyto
do to cach according to his dcscrts, rcturning good or good as wcll
as rcprcssng cvil by cvil, it ncccssarilyollows that wc should trcat
all cqually wcll whcn no highcr duty orbids) who havc dcscrvcd
cquallywcll ous,and thatsocictyshouldtrcatallcquallywcllwho
havcdcscrvcd cquallywcll oit, thatis, who havc dcscrvcd cqually
wcll absolutcly. Jhis is thc highcst abstract standard osocal and
distributivcjusticc, towardswhich all institutions, andthccortso
j. S . MI LL
allvirtuouscitizcns,shouldbcmadci nthcutmostpossiblcdcgrccto
convcrgc. But this grcat moral duty rcsts upon a still dccpcr
foundation, bcing a dircct cmanation from thc hrst principlc of
mrals, and not a mcrc logical corollary from sccondary or
dcrivativcdoctrincs. t isinvolvcdinthcvcry mcaningof!tility,or
thc Grcatcst Happincss lrinciplc. Jhat principlc is a mcrc form of
wordswithoutrationalsignihcation, unlcss onc pcrson` shappincss,
supposcd cqual in dcgrcc with thc propcr allowancc madc for
kind) , iscountcdforcxactlyas muchas anothcr` s Jhoscconditions
bcing supplicd, Bcntham` s dictum, 'cvcrybody to count for onc,
nobodyfor morc thanonc` , mightbcwrittcn undcr thc principlcof
utility as an cxplanatory commcntary.

Jhc cqual claim of

cvcrybody to happincss in thc cstimation of thc moralist and thc
lcgislator, involvcs an cqual claim to all thc mcans ofhappincss,
cxccptin so far as thc incvitablcconditions ofhuman lifc, and thc
gcncral intcrcst, in which that ofcvcry individual is includcd, sct
limitstothcmaxim, and thosclimitsoughtto bcstrictlyconstrucd.
As cvcryothcrmaximofjusticc, so this, is by nomcans applicd or
hcld applicablc univcrsally, on thc contrary, as havc alrcady
This imp|ication, in thc hrst princip|c of thc uti|itarian schcmc, of pcrfcct
impartia|itybctwccn pcrsons, isrcgardcdbyMrHcrbcrt Spcnccr [in hisSccialStatics)
as a disproofofthc prctcnsions ofuti|ity to bc a sucicnt guidc to right, sincc [hc
says)thcprincip|cofuti|ityprcsupposcsthcantcriorprincip|cthatcvcrybodyhasan
cqua|rightto happincss. !tmaybc morccorrcct|ydcscribcdas supposingthatcqua|
amounts ofhappincss arc cqua||y dcsirab|c, whcthcrfc|tby thcsamc or by dicrcnt
pcrsons. This,howcvcr,is notaprcsupposition, notaprcmissnccdfu| to supportthc
princip|cof uti|ity,butthcvcryprincip|citsc|f forwhatisthcprincip|cofuti|ity,if it
bcnotthat'happincss'and'dcsirab|c' arcsynonymoustcrms!!fthcrcisanyantcrior
princip|c imp|icd, it can bc no othcr than this, that thc truths of arithmctic arc
app|icab|ctothcva|uationofhappincss,asofa||othcrmcasurab|cquantitics.
MrHcrbcrt Spcnccr, inapriatccommunicationon thc subcct olthc prcccding
Notc, obccts to bcing considcrcd an opponcnt of\ti|itarianism, and statcs that hc
rcgardshappincss as thcu|timatccndofmora|ity butdccms thatcndon|y partia||y
attainab|c by cmpirica| gcncra|izations from thc obscrvcd rcsu|ts ofconduct, and
comp|ctc|y attainab|c on|y by dcducing, from thc |aws of|ifc and thc conditions of
cxistcncc, what kinds ofaction ncccssari|y tcndto producc happincss andwhatkinds
to producc unhappincss. ith thc cxccption o| thc word ncccssari|y, ! hac no
disscnt to cxprcss from this doctrinc, and [omitting thatword ! am notawarc that
anymodcrnadvocatcofuti|itarianismisofadicrcntopinion.cntham,crtain|y,to
whom in thc Sccial Statics Mr Spcnccr particu|ar|y rcfcrrcd, is, |cast ofa|| writcrs,
chargcab|cwith unwi||ingncss to dcducc thc ccct ofactions on happincss from thc
|aws of human naturc and thc univcrsa| conditions of human |ifc. Thc common
chargcagainst himisofrc|yingtoo cxc|usivc|yupon such dcductions, anddcc|ining
a|togcthcr to bc bound by thc gcncra|izations from spccihc cxpcricncc which Mr
Spcnccr thinks that uti|itarians gcncra||y conhnc thcmsc|vcs to. My own opinion
[and,as !co||cct,MrSpcnccr's) is,thatincthics,asina||othcrbranhcsofscicntih
study, thc consi|icncc ofthcrcsu|ts ofboth thcsc proccscs, cach corroborating and
vcrifyingthcothcr,isrcquisitctogivctoanygcncra|propositionthcindanddcgrcc
of cvidcnccwhichconstitutcsscicntihcproo
jLSTI CEANDLTI LI T
; t
rcmarkcd, itbcnds to cvcrypcrson` sidcas osocial cxpcdicncy But
in whatcvcr cascit is dccmcdapplicablc at all, it is hcld to bc thc
dictatco justicc. Allpcrsons arcdccmcdtohavca ri// tocquality
o trcatmcnt, cxccpt whcn somc rccognizcd social cxpcdicncy
rcquircs thc rcvcrsc. And hcncc all social incqualitics which havc
ccascd to bc considcrcd cxpcdicnt, assumc thc charactcr not o
simplcincxpcdicncy, butoinjusticc, and appcarso tyrannical, that
pcoplc arc apt to wondcrhow thcy cvcr could havc bccn tolcratcd,
orgctul that thcy thcmsclvcs pcrhaps tolcratc othcr incqualitics
undcr an cqually mistakcn notion ocxpcdicncy, thc corrcction o
which would makc that which thcy approvc sccm quitc as
monstrous as what thcy havc at lastlcarnt to condcmn. Jhc cntirc
history o social improvcmcnt has bccn a scrics otransitions, by
which onc custom or institution atcr anothcr, rom bcing a
supposcd primary ncccssity osocial cxistcncc, has passcd into thc
rank o a univcrsally stigmatizcd injusticc and tyranny. So it has
bccn with thc distinctions oslavcs and rccmcn, noblcs and scrs,
patricians and plcbcians, and soitwill bc, and in part alrcady is,
withthcaristocracicsocolour,racc,andscx.
t appcars rom what has bccn said, thatjusticc is a namc or
ccrtain moral rcquircmcnts, which, rcgardcd collcctivcly, stand
highcr in thc scalc o social utility, and arc thcrcorc o morc
paramountobligation, thananyothcrs, thoughparticularcascsmay
occurinwhichsomcothcrsocialdutyissoimportant,astoovcrrulc
any onc othcgcncralmaxims ojusticc Jhus to savc a lic, itmay
not only bc allowablc, but a duty, to stcal, or takc by orcc, thc
ncccssaryoodormcdicinc,ortokidnap,andcompclto omciatc thc
only qualihcd mcdical practitioncr. nsuch cascs, as wc do notcall
anythingjusticcwhichisnotavi rtuc,wcusuallysay,notthatjusticc
mustgivcway to somcothcrmoralprinciplc,butthatwhatisjustin
ordinary cascs is, by rcason othat othcr principlc, notjustin thc
particular casc. By this uscul accommodation o languagc, thc
charactcr oindccasibility attributcd tojusticc is kcpt up, and wc
arc savcd rom thc ncccssity o maintaining that thcrc can bc
laudablcinjusticc.
Jhc considcrations which havc now bccn adduccd rcsolvc,
conccivc, thconly rcal dicultyinthcutilitarianthcoryomorals. t
has always bccn cvidcnt that all cascs o justicc arc also cascs o
cxpcdicncy. thc dicrcncc is in thc pcculi ar scnti mcnt which
attachcs to thcormcr,as contradistinguishcdromthclattcr this
charactcristic scntimcnt has bccn sumcicntly accountcdor,ithcrc
isnoncccssityto assumcoritanypcculiari tyoorigin,iitissimply
thc natural ccling o rcscntmcnt, moralizcd by bcing madc
cocxtcnsivcwith thc dcmands osocial good, and ithis ccling not
;z j . S . I I LL
only docs but ought t ocxist in all thc classcsofcascs t owhich thc
idca ofjusticc corrcsponds. that idca no longcr prcscnts itsclfas a
stumbling-block to thc utilitarian cthics. justicc rcmains thc
appropriatc namc for ccrtain social utilitics which arc vastly morc
important, and thcrcforc morc absol utc and impcrativc, than any
othcrs arc as a class though not morc so than othcrs may bc in
particular cascs) , and which, thcrcforc, ought to bc, as wcll as
naturally arc, guardcd by a scntimcnt not only dicrcnt in dcgrcc,
but also in kind, distinguishcd from thc mildcr fccling which
attachcs to thc mcrc idca of promoting human plcasurc or
convcnicncc, at oncc by thc morc dchnitc naturc ofits commands,
andbythcstcrncrcharactcrofitssanctions.
O
1 bb _\b L'
jOHN RA\VLS
c may think ofa human socictas a morc orlcss sclfsumcicnt
associationrcguatcd byacommonconccptionof justiccand aimcd
atadvancingthcgoodof itsmcmbcrs . As a co-opcrativcvcnturcfor
mutual advantagc, it is charactcricd by a conict as wcll as an
idcntityofintcrcsts. Jhcrc is an idcntity ofintcrcsts sinccsocial co-
opcration makcs possi blc a bcttcr lifc for all thananywouldhavc if
cvcryoncwcrc to try to livc by his own corts, yctatthc samc timc
mcn arc not indicrcnt as to how thc grcatcr bcnchts produccd by
thcirjoint labours arc distributcd for in ordcr to furthcr thcir own
aimscachprcfcrsalargcr toalcsscrsharc.Aconccptionof justiccis
a sct of principlcs for choosing bctwccn thc social arrangcmcnts
whichdctcrmincthisdivisionandforundcrwritingaconscnsusasto
thcpropcrdistributivcsharcs.
ow at hrst sight thc most rationa conccption ofjusticc would
sccm to bc utiitarian. lor considcr. cach man in rcaliing his own
good canccrtainlybalancchisown losscs agai nsthisowngains . Wc
can imposc a sacrihcc on oursclvcs now for thc sakc ofa grcatcr
advantagc latcr. Amanquitcpropcrly acts, aslongasothcrsarcnot
acctcd, to achicvchisowngrcatcstgood toadvancchiscndsasfar
as possiblc. ow, whyshouldnotasocictyactonprccisclythc samc
principlcWhy is not thatwhich isrationalinthc cascofonc man
right in thc casc ofa group ofmcn Surcly thc simplcst and most
dircctconccptionofthcright,andsoof justicc,isthatofmaximiing
thc good. Jhis assumcs a prior undcrstandingofwhat is good, but
wc can thinkofthcgoodasarcadygivcnbythcintcrcstsofrational
]ohnKaws Distributc]usticc' |romKobcrtM Stcwart cd. ) RtadiasiaSacial
aod Ialiical I/ilasaq Cx|ord \nicrsity Frcss c York t g8G) . Criginally
pub|ishcd in F. Ls|ctt nd W. G. Kunciman cds , I/ilasa/, Ialitics aad Sacit
as||ckwc|Cx|ord gG) .Kcprintcdbypcrmissiono|uthorand pub|ishcrs
'
nthiscssay try to wokout somc o|thcimp|icationso|thc twoprincip|cso|
usticc discusscd in ]usticc as lairncss' hch rst appcarcd in thc I/ilasa/ical
Reeieu in gj8 and hich is rcprintcd in I/i/asa/, Ialitics aod Sacie, Scrics ,
pp.
/1
jCH> RALS
individuals Jhus just as thc principlc oindivi dual choicc is to
achicvconc sgrcatcstgood, toadvancc soar aspossiblc oncs own
systcm o rational dcsircs, so thc principlc o social choicc is to
rcalizc thc grcatcst good similarly dchncd) summcd ovcr all thc
mcmbcrs osocicty. c arrivc at thc principlcoutiliy in anaural
way. by thi s principlc a socicty is rightly ordcrcd and hcnccjus
whcnitsinstitutionsarcarrangcdsoas torcalizcthcgrcatcstsumo
satisactions.
Jhc striking caturc othc principlc outility is that it docs not
mattcr, cxccptindircctlyhowthissum osati sactionsis distributcd
amongindividuals, anymorcthanitmattcrs, cxccpt indircctly, how
oncmandistributcshissatisactionsovcrtimc. Si ncc ccrtainwayso
distributingthings acctthctotal sumosatisactions,thisactmust
bctakcnintoaccountinarrangingsocialinstitutions, butaccoding
tothis principlc thc cxplanationocommon-scnscprcccptsojusticc
and thci sccmingly stringcnt charactcr is that thcy arc thosc rulcs
which cxpcricncc shows must bc strictly rcspcctcd and dcpartcd
romonly undcrcxccptionalcircumstanccsithc sumoadvantagcs
is to bc maximizcd. Jhc prcccpts ojusticc ac dcrivativc rom thc
onc cnd oattaining thc grcatcst nct balancc osatisactions. Jhcrc
is no rcason in principlc why thc grcatcr gains osomc should not
compcnsatcorthclcsscrlosscsoothcrs,orwhy thcviolationothc
libcrtyoacwmightnotbcmadcrightbyagrcatcrgood sharcd by
many. t simply happcns, at lcast undcr most conditions, that thc
gcatcst sum o advantacs is not gcncrally achicvcd in this way.
lrom thc standpoint o utility thc strictncss o common-scnsc
notions ojusticc has a ccrtain usculncss, but as a philosophical
doctrincitisirrational .
, thcn, wc bclicvc that as a mattcroprinciplc cach mcmbcro
socicty has an inviolability oundcd on justicc which cvcn thc
wclarc ocvcryonc clsc cannot ovcrridc, and thata loss orccdom
orsomcis notmadcright by a grcatcrsumosatisactionscnjoycd
by many,wcshallhavctolookoranothcraccountothcprinciplcs
ojusticc. Jhcprinciplcoutility isincapablcocxplainingthcact
that in ajust socicty thc libcrtics ocqual citizcnship arc takcn or
grantcd, and thcrightssccurcdbyjusticcarcnotsubjccttopolitical
bargaining nor to thc calculus o social intcrcsts ow, thc most
natural altcrnativc to thc principlc outility is its traditional rival,
thc thcoryothc socialcontract. Jhcaimothccontractdoctrincis
prccisclytoaccountor thcstrictncsso justiccby supposingthatits
principlcs arisc rom an agrccmcnt among rcc and indcpcndcnt
pcrsons in an original position o cquality and hcncc rccct thc
intcgrity and cqual sovcrcigntyothc rational pcrsons who arc thc
DI STRI BL' TI ` Lj L STI CL
/a
contractccs nstcadosupposingthataconccptiono right,andsoa
conccptiono justicc,issimplyancxtcnsionothcprinciplcochoicc
oroncmantosocictyasawholc,thccontractdoctrincassumcs that
thcrational indiiduals whobclongto socicty mustchoosctogcthcr,
in oncjoint act, what is to count among thcm as just and unjust.
Jhc arctodccidcamongthcmsclvcsonccandorallwhatis to bc
thcirconccptiono justicc. Jhisdccisionis thoughtoasbcingmadc
inasuitablydchncdini tialsituationoncothcsignihcantcaturcso
whichis thatnooncknowshis position insocicty, norcvcnhisplacc
in thcdistribution onatural talcntsand abilitics. Jhc principlcso
justicc to which all arc orcvcr bound arc choscn in thc abscncc o
thissortospccihcinormation. Avciloignorancc prcvcnts anyonc
rom bcing advantagcd or disadvantagcd by thc contingcncics o
social class and ortunc, and hcncc thc bargaining problcms which
arisc in cvcryday lic rom thc posscssion othis knowlcdgc do not
ahcct thc hoicc oprinciplcs Cn thc contract doctrinc, thcn, thc
thcoryo justicc,andindccdcthicsitscl,ispartothcgcncralthcory
orational choicc, aactpcrcctlyclcarinits antianormulation.
Cnccjusticcisthoughtoasarisingromanoriginalagrccmcnto
this kind, it is cvidcnt that thc principlc outility is problcmatical.
lorwhy shouldrational individualswho havcasystcmocndsthcy
wish to advancc agrcc toa violation othcirlibcrtyor thcsakcoa
grcatcr balancc osatisactions cnjoycd by othcrs !t sccms morc
plausiblc to supposc that, whcn situatcd in an original posit|on o
cqual right, thcy would insist upon i nstitutions which rcturncd
compcnsating advantagcs or any sacrihccs rcquircd. A rational
man would not acccpt an institution mcrcly bccausc it maximizcd
thc sumoadvantagcsirrcspcctivcoi ts cccton hisown intcrcsts.
t appcars, thcn, that thc princi plc outi lity would bc rcjcctcd as a
principlco j usticc,althoughwc shallnottryto arguc this i mportant
qucstion hcrc. Kathcr, our aim is to givc a bric skctch o thc
conccption odistributivc sharcsimplicit in thc principlcs ojust|cc
which, it sccms, would bc choscn in thc original position. Jhc
philosophicalappcaloutilitarianismisthatitsccmstoohcrasinglc
principlconthcbasisowhichaconsistcntandcomplctcconccption
o right can bc dcvclopcd. Jhc problcm is to work out a
contractarianaltcrnativcin such away that ithas comparablcinot
allthcsamcvirtucs
z
n our discussion wc shall makc no attcmpt to dcrivc thc two
principlcso justicc which wc shallcxaminc, that is, wcshal nottry
on RAWLS
t oshow thatthcywouldbcchoscninthcoriginalposition.

lt must
sumccthatitisplausiblcthatthcywouldbc,atlcastinprcfcrcnccto
thc standard forms of traditional thcorics. lnstcad wc shall bc
mainlyconccrncd with thrcc qucstions. nrst, how to intcrprct thcsc
principlcs so that thcy dchnc a consistcnt and complctcconccption
of jsticc,sccond,whcthcritispossiblctoarrangcthcinstitutionsof
a constittionaldcmocracyso that thcsc principlcs arc satishcd, at
lcast approximatcly, and third, whcthcr thc conccption ofdistribu-
tivc sharcs which thcy dchnc is compatiblc with commonscnsc
notions ofjusticc. Jhc signihcancc ofthcsc principlcs is that thcy
allow for thc strictncss ofthc claims ofjusticc, and ifthcy can bc
undcrstoodsoas toyicld a consistcntand complctc conccption, thc
contractarianaltcrnativcwouldsccmallthcmorcattractivc
Jhc two principlcs ofjusticc which wc shall discuss may bc
formulatcdasfollows. nrst, cachpcrsoncngagcdinaninstitutionor
ahcctcd by it as an cqual right to thc most cxtcnsivc libcrty
compatiblc with a likc libcrty for all, and sccond, incqualitics as
dchncd by thc institutional structrc orfostcrcd by itarc arbitrary
unlcssitisrcasonablctocxpcctthatthcywillworkouttocvcryonc` s
advantagcandprovidcd thatthcpositionsandomccstowhich thcy
attach or from which thcy may bc gaincd arc opcn to all . Jhcsc
principlcs rcgulatc thc distributivc aspccts of institutions by
controllingthcassignmcntofrightsandduticsthroughoutthcwholc
social structurc, bcginningwith thc adoptionofa political consti tu-
tion in accordancc with which thcy arc thcn to bc applicd to
lcgislation t is upon a corrcctchoiccofa basic structurcofsocicty,
its fundamcntal systcm of rights and dutics, that thc justicc of
distributivcsharcsdcpcnds
Jhc two principlcs ofjusticc apply in thc nrst instancc to this
basicstructurc, that is, to thc maininstitutionsoftcsocialsystcm
and thcirarrangcmcnt, how thcyarccombincd togcthcr Jhus this
structurc includcs thc political constitution and thc principal
cconomic and social institutions which togcthcr dcnnc a pcrson`s

This qucstion is discusscd vcry bricy in ']usticc as lairncss`, t -q . Thc
intuitivc idca is as o||ows. Givcn thc circumstanccs othc origina| position, i t is
rationa|oramantochooscas ihcwcrcdcsigningasocictyinwhichhiscncmyisto
assign him his p|acc. Thus, in particu|ar, givcn thc comp|ctc |ack o know|cdgc
[which makcs thc choicc onc undcr unccrtainty) thc act that thc dccision invo|vcs
onc`s |ic-prospcctsas awholcandis constraincd byobligations to third partics [c.g.
onc`sdcsccndants) andduticsto ccrtain valucs [c. g. to rcligious truth) , itis rationa|
tobc conscrvativc andso to chooscinaccordanccwith an ana|ogucothcmaxim in
princip|c. Vicwingthcsituationinthiswaythcintcrprctationgivcntothcprincip|cs
ojusticc in Scction is pcrhaps natura| cnough. Morcovr, it sccms c|car how thc
principlcouti|itycanbcintcrprctcd. itisthcana|ogucothcLap|accan princip|cor
choicc unccrtainty. [ lora discussinothcsc choicc critcria, scc K. D. Lucc and H.
Kaia, 6amtsaadDtcisiaas[ r gj ;)
'
2 ;8. )
DI STRI BLTI VEjLSTI CE
//
libcrticsandrights and alIccthislifc-prospccts, whathcmaycxpcct
to bcand how wcll hc mayxpcctto bcand how wcll hc maycxpcct
to farc. Jhc intuitivc idca hcrc is that thosc born into thc social
systcm at dilIcrcnt positions, say in dicrcnt social classcs, havc
varyinglifc-prospcctsdctcrmincd, inpart, by thc systcmofpolitical
libcrt|cs and pcrsonal r|ghts, and by thc cconomic and social
opportun|tics which arc madc availablc to thcsc positions. n this
way thc basic structurc ofsocicty favours ccrtain mcn ovcr othcrs,
andthcscarcthcbasicincqualitics,thconcswhichacctthcirwholc
lifc-prospccts. !tisincqualiticsofthiskind, prcsumablyincvitablcin
any socicty with which thc two principlcs ofjusticc arc primarily
dcsigncd.
owthc sccondprinciplcholds that anincqualityis allowcdonly
ifthcrcisrcasontobclicvcthatthcinstitutionwiththcincquality,or
pcrmitting it, will work out for thc advantagc of cvcry pcrson
cngagcdin it. n thc casc ofthc basic structurc this mcans that all
incqualiticswhichacctlifcprospccts,saythcincqualiticsofincomc
and wcalth which cxist bctwccn social classcs, must bc to thc
advantagcofcvcryonc. Sinccthcprinciplc applicstoinst|tutions,wc
intcrprctthis to mcan thatincqualitics must bcto thc advantagc of
thcrcprcscntativcmanforcach rclcvant social position,thcyshould
improvc cach such man s cxpcctation. Hcrc wc assumc that it is
possiblc to attach to cach position an cxpcctation, and that this
cxpcctation is a function ofthcwholcinstitutionalstructurc. itcan
bc raiscd and lowcrcd by rcassigning rights and dutics throughout
thc systcm. Jhus thc cxpcctation ofany position dcpcnds upon thc
cxpcctations of thc othcrs, and thcsc in turn dcpcnd upon thc
pattcrnofrightsandduticscstablishcdbythcbasicstructurc. Butit
isnotclcarwhatismcantbysayingthatincqualiticsmustbctothc
advantagcofcvcryrcprcscntativcman,andhcnccourhrstqucstion.

Cnc possibility is to say that cvcryonc is madc bcttcr o in

comparison with somc historically rclcvant bcnchmark. An intcr-
prctation ofthis kind is suggcstcd by Humc. Hc somctimcs says
that thc institutions ofj usticc, that is, thc rulcs rcgulating propcrty
and contracts, and so on, arc to cvcryonc` s advantagc, sincc cach
man can counthimsclfthcgaincronbalanccwhcnhcconsidcrshis
pcrmancnt intcrcsts Lvcn though thc application of thc rulcs is
somctimcs to his disadvantagc, and hc loscs in thcparticularcasc,
lorthisobscrvation amindcbtcdtorianarry
jCHNRAWLS
cachmangains inthclongrunbythcstcady administrationothc
wholcsystcmojusticc Butall Humc sccms to mcanbythisis that
cvcryoncisbcttcroincomparisonwiththcsituationomcninthc
statconaturc, undcrstood cithcras somcprimitivcconditionor as
thc circumstanccs which would obtain at any timc ithc cxisting
institutions ojusticc wcrc to brcak down. Whilc this scnsc o
cvcryonc` s bcing madc bcttcr ois pcrhaps clcar cnough, Humc` s
intcrprctationis surclyunsatisactory. lorcvcniallmcnincluding
slavcsarcmadcbcttcrobya systcmoslavcrythanthcywouldbc
inthcstatconaturc,itisnottructhatslavcrymakcscvcryonc cvcn
a slavc) bcttcr o, at lcast not in a scnsc which makcs thc
arrangcmcntjust. Jhc bcnc ts and burdcns osocial coopcration
arc unjustly distributcd cvcn icvcryonc docs gain in comparison
withthcstatconaturc thishistoricalorhypothcticalbcnchmarkis
simplyirrclcvantto thcqucstionojusticc nact, anypaststatco
socicty othcr than a rcccnt onc sccms irrclcvant oand, and this
suggcsts that wc should look or an intcrprctation indcpcndcnt o
historical comparisons altogcthcr. Cur problcm is to idcntiy thc
corrcct hypothctical comparisons dc ncd by currcntly casiblc
changcs.
owthcwcllknown critcrion olarctoocrs a possibility along
thcsc lincs oncc it is ormulatcd so as to apply to institutions.
ndccd, this is thcmostnaturalwayotakingthcsccond principlc
or rathcr thc rst part oit, lcaving asidc thc rcquircmcnt about
opcn positions) . Jhis critcrion says that group wclarc is at an
optimum whcn it is impossiblc to makc any onc man bcttcr o
withoutat thc samc timcmakingat lcastonc othcr man worsco.
Applying thiscritcrion to allocatinga givcn bundlcogoodsamong
givcnindividuals, a particularallocationyiclds an optimum ithcrc
is no rcdistribution which would improvc onc individuals position
without worscning that oanothcr. Jhus a distribution is optimal
whcnthcrcisnourthcrcxchangcwhichistothcadvantagcoboth
partics,ortothcadvantagcooncandnottothcdisadvantagcothc
othcr. But thcrc arc many such distributions, sincc thcrc arc many
ways o allocating commoditics so that no urthcr mutually
bcnchcial cxchangc is possiblc. Hcncc thc larcto critcrion as
importantasi tis, admittcdlydocsnotidcntiy thcbcstdistribution,
but rathcr a class ooptimal, or cmcicnt, distributions. Morcovcr,
wc cannot say that a givcn optimal distribution is bcttcr than any
non-optimalonc,itisonlysupcriortothoscwhichitdominatcs. Jhc
critcrionisatbcstanincomplctcprinciplcorordcringdistributions.
!ntroduccd by him in his Maaatld'ccacmitclitiat , gog) and |ong sincca basic
princip|cowcllarccconomics.
DI STRI BLTI VEjLSTl CE ;
9
larcto`s idca can bc applicd to institutions . Wc assumc, as
rcmarkcd abovc, that it is possiblc to associatc with cach social
position an cxpcctation which dcpcnds upon thc assignmcnt of
rights and dutics in thc basic structurc. Givcn this assumption, wc
gct a principlc which says that thc pattcrn of cxpcctations
incqualitics in lifc-prospccts ) is optimal if and only if it is
impossiblc to changc thc rulcs, to rcdchnc thc schcmcofrights and
dutics, so as to raisc thc cxpcctations of any rcprcscntativc man
without at thc samc timc lowcring thc cxpcctations ofsomc othcr
rcprcscntativcman. Hcnccthcbasicstructurcsatishcthisprinciplc
whcn it is impossiblc to changc thc assignmcnt of fundamcntal
rightsandduticsandtoaltcrthcavailabilityofcconomicandsocial
opportunitics so as to makc somc rcprcscntativc man bcttcr o
without making anothcr worsc o. Jhus, in comparing dicrcnt
arrangcmcntsofthcsocialsystcm,wccansaythatoncisbcttcrthan
anothcr ifin onc arrangcmcnt all cxpcctations arc at lcast as high,
andsomchighcr, than in thcothcr. Jhc principlcgivcs groundsfor
rcform, for if thcrc is an arrangcmcnt which is optimal in
comparison with thc cxisting statc of things, thcn, othcr things
cqual,itisabcttcrsituationallaroundandshouldbcadoptcd.
Jhc satisfaction ofthisprinciplc, thcn, dchncs a sccond scnsc in
which thc basic structurc makcs cvcryonc bcttcr o namcly, that
from thc standpoint of its rcprcscntativc mcn in thc rclcvant
positions, thcrc cxists no changc which would improvc anyonc`s
condition without worscning that ofanothcr. lowwcshallassumc
that this principlc would bc choscn in thc original position, for
surcly itisa dcsirablcfcaturcofasocialsystcm that t isoptimal in
this scnsc. n fact, wc shall supposc that this principlc dchncs thc
conccptofcmcicncyforinstitutions,as can bcsccn fromthcfactthat
ifthcsocialsystcmdocsnotsatisfyit,thisimplicsthatthcrcissomc
changc which can bc madc which will lcad pcoplc to act morc
ccctivcly so that thc cxpcctations ofsomc at lcast can bc raiscd.
lcrhaps an cconomic rcform will lcad toan incrcasc in prduction
with givcn rcsourccs and tcchniqucs, and with grcatcr output
somconc` scxpcctationsarcraiscd.
lt isnotdiculttoscc,howcvcr, thatwhilcthis principlcprovidcs
anothcrscnscforaninstitutionsmakingcvcryoncbcttcro, itisan
inadcquatc conccption ofjusticc. lor onc thing, thcrc is thc samc
incomplctcncss as bcforc. Jhcrc arc prcsumably many arrangc-
mcntsofaninstitutionand ofthc basic structurc which arcoptimal
in this scnsc. Jhcrc may also bc many arrangcmcnts which arc
optimal with rcspcct to cxisting onditions, and so many rcforms
whichwould bc improvcmcnts by thisprinciplc. fso,howisoncto
chooscbctwccnthcm tisimpossiblctosaythat thc manyoptimal
o on RAWLS
arrangcmcnts arc cqually just, and thc choicc bctwccn thcm a
mattcr o indicrcncc, sincc cmcicnt institutions allow cxtrcmcly
widcvariationsinthcpattcrnodistributivcsharcs.
Jhusit maybc that undcrccrtain conditions scrdom cannot bc
signihcantly rcormcd without lowcring thc cxpcctations o somc
rcprcscntativcman,saythatolandowncrs,inwhichcascscrdomis
optimal. But cquallyitmay happcn undcrthcsamc conditions that
a systcm orcc labour could not bc changcd without lowcring thc
cxpcctations osomc rcprcscntativc man, saythatorcclabourcrs,
so that this arrangcmcnt likcwisc is optimal Morc gcncrally,
whcncvcra socicty isrclcvantly dividcd into a numbcroclasscs, it
is possiblc, lct`s supposc, tomaximizcwithrcspccttoanyoncoits
rcprcscntativcmcnata timc.Jhcscmaximagivcatlcastthismany
optimalpositions, ornoncothcmcanbcdcpartcdromtoraiscthc
cxpcctationsoanymanwithoutlowcringthoscoanothcr, namcly,
thcmanwithrcspccttowhomthcmaximumisdchncd. Hcncccach
othcsccxtrcmcsisoptimal.Allthiscorrcspondstothcobviousact
that, in distributing particular goods to givcn individuals, thosc
distributionsarcalsooptimalwhichgivcthcwholcstocktoanyonc
pcrson, or oncc a singlc pcrson has cvcrything, thcrc isno changc
whichwillnotmakchimworsco.
Wc scc, thcn, that social systcms which wc should judgc vcry
dicrcntly rom thc standpoint ojusticc may bc optimal by this
critcrion. Jhis conclusion is not surprising. Jhcrc is no rcason to
think that, cvcn whcn applicd to social systcms, justicc and
cmcicncycomc to thcsamcthing. Jhcscrchcctionsonlyshowwhat
wc kncw all along, which is that wc must hnd anothcr way o
intcrprcting thc sccond principlc, or rathcr thc hrst part oit. lor
whilc thc two principlcs takcn togcthcr incorporatc strong rcquirc-
mcnts ocqual libcrty and cquality oopportunity, wc cannot bc
surc that cvcn thcsc constraints arc sumcicnt to makc thc social
structurc acccptablc rom thc standpoint ojusticc. As thcy stand
thc two principlcs would appcar to placc thc burdcn ocnsuring
justicc cntircly upon thcsc prior constraints and to lcavc ndctcr-
minatcthcprccrrcddistributivcsharcs.
1
Jhcrc is, howcvcr, a third intcrprctation which is immcdiatcly
suggcstcdbythcprcviousrcmarks,andthisistochooscsomcsocial
positionbyrccrcncctowhichthcpattcrnocxpcctationsasawholc
is to bc judgcd, and thcn to maximizc with rcspcct to thc
DI STRI BLTI VEjLSTI CE
cxpcctationsothisrcprcscntativcmanconsistcntwiththcdcmands
ocquallibcrty and cquality oopportunity. ow, thc onc obvious
candidatcisthcrcprcscntativcman othoscwho arclcastavourcd
by thc systcm o institutional incqualitics Jhus wc arrivc at thc
ollowingidca. thcbasicstructurcothcsocialsystcmahcctsthclic-
prospccts otypical individuals according to thcir initial placcs in
socicty,say thcvariousincomcclasscsintowhichthcyarc born, or
dcpcnding upon ccrtain natural attributcs, as whcn institutions
makc discriminations bctwccn mcn and womcn or allow ccrtain
advantagcs tobcgaincd by thoscwithgrcatcrnaturalabilitics. Jhc
undamcntalproblcmodistributivcjusticcconccrnsthcdilIcrcnccs
in lic-prospcct which comc about in this way. Wc intcrprct thc
sccond principlc to hold that thcscdihcrcnccs arcjust iand onlyi
thc grcatcr cxpcctations o thc morc advantagcd, whcn playing a
part in thc working o thc wholc social systcm, improvc thc
cxpcctations o thc lcast advantagcd. Jhc basic structurc is just
throughoutwhcnthcadvantagcs othcmorcortunatcpromotcthc
wcllbcing othc lcast ortunatc, that is, whcn a dccrcasc in thcir
advantagcswouldmakcthclcastortunatccvcnworscohthanthcy
arc. Jhc basic structurc is pcrcctlyjust whcn thc prospccts othc
lcastortunatcarcasgrcatasthcycan bc.
lnintcrprcting thc sccond principlc or rathcr thc hrst part oit
which wc may, or obvious rcasons, rccr to as thc dihcrcncc
principlc , wc assumc that thc hrst principlc rcquircs a basic cqual
libcrty or all, and that thc rcsulting political systcm, whcn
circumstanccs pcrmit, is that oa constitutional dcmocracyinsomc
orm. Jhcrc must bc libcrty othc pcrson and political cquality as
wcll as libcrty oconscicncc and rccdom othought. Jhcrc is onc
classocqualcitizcnswhichdchncsacommonstatusor all. Wcalso
assumc that thcrc is cqualityoopportunityanda air compctiton
or thc availablc positions on thc basis orcasonablc qualihcations .
ow, givcn this background thc dilIcrcnccs to bcjustihcd arc thc
variouscconomcand socialincqualiticsinthcbasicstructurcwhich
mustincvitablyariscinsuch a schcmc. Jhcscarcthcincqualiticsin
thcdistribution oincomcand wcalth and thc distinctions insocial
prcstigcandstatuswhichattachtothcvariouspositionsandclasscs.
Jhcdihcrcncc principlc says that thcsc incqualitics arcjust iand
onlyithcyarcpartoalargcrsystcminwhichthcyworkouttothc
advantagc o thc most unortunatc rcprcscntativc man. Jhc just
distributivc sharcs dctcrmincd by thc basic structurc arc thosc
spccihcdby this constraincdmaximumprinciplc
Jhus, considcr thc chic problcm o distributivc justicc, that
conccrningthcdistributionowcalthastahcctsthclic-prospcctso
thosc starting out in thc various incomc groups. Jhcsc incomc
jCHNRAWLS
classcsdchncthcrclcvant rcprcscntativcmcnromwhichthcsocial
systcm is to bc judgcd. ow a son o a mcmbcr o thc
cntrcprcncurial class in a capitalist socicty) has a bcttcr prospcct
than that othc son oan unskillcd labourcr. Jhis will bc truc, it
sccms cvcn whcn thc social injusticcs which prcscntly cxist arc
rcmovcd and thc two mcn arc o cqual talcnt and ability, thc
incquality cannot bc doncawaywith as long as somcthing likc thc
amilyis maintaincd. What thcn, canjustiy this incquality in lic
prospcctsAccordingtothcsccondprinciplcitisjusticdonlyiitis
to thc advantagc othc rcprcscntativc manwho is worsto, in this
casc thc rcprcscntativc unskillcd labourcr Jhc incquality is
pcrmissiblc bccausc lowcring it would, lct s supposc, makc thc
working man cvcn worsc o than hc is lrcsumably, givcn thc
principlc oopcn omccs thc sccond part othc sccond principlc) ,
thc grcatcr cxpcctations allowcd to cntrcprcncurs has thc ccct in
thclongcrrunoraisingthclicprospcctsothclabouringclassJhc
incqualityincxpcctationprovidcs aninccntivcsothatthccconomy
is morccmcicnt,industrialadvanccprocccdsata quickcr pacc, and
so on thc cnd rcsult owhich is that grcatcr matcrial and othcr
bcnchtsarc distributcdthroughoutthcsystcm. Ccoursc, allothis
isamiliar, andwhcthcr trucornotinparticularcascs, itisthc sort
othingwhichmustbcargucdithcincqualityinincomcandwcalth
istobcacccptablcbythcdicrcnccprinciplc.
Wc should now vcriy that this intcrprctation o thc sccond
principlcgivcsa naturalscnscinwhich cvcryonc may bcsaid to bc
madc bcttcr o Lct us supposc that incqualitics arc chain-
conncctcd. that is, ian incquality raiscs thc cxpcctations o thc
lowcst position, itraiscsthccxpcctationsoallpositions inbctwccn
lor cxamplc, i thc grcatcr cxpcctations o thc rcprcscntativc
cntrcprcncurraiscs thatothc unskillcd labourcr,italsoraiscs that
othcscmi-skillcd. Lctusurthcrassumcthatincqualitics arcclosc-
knit.thatis, itisimpossiblctoraisc orlowcr) thccxpcctationoany
rcprcscntativcmanwithoutraising orlowcring) thc cxpcctations o
cvcry othcr rcprcscntativc man, and inparticular,withoutaccting
onc way or thc othcr that othc lcast ortunatc Jhcrc is n loosc-
jointcdncss, so to spcak, in thc way in which cxpcctations dcpcnd
upon onc anothcr. ow, with thcsc assumptions, cvcryonc docs
bcncht rom an incqualit which satishcs thc dicrcncc principlc,
and thc sccondprinciplc as wc havc ormulatcd itrcads corrcctly
lor thc rcprcscntativc man who is bcttcr o in any pairwisc
comparison gains by bcing allowcd to havc his advantagc, and thc
man who is worsc o bcnchts rom thc contribution which all
incqualitics makc to cach position bclow C cursc, chain-
conncctionandclosc-knitncssmaynotobtain, butinthiscascthosc
Dl STRl BLTI VEjLSTI CE
who arc bcttcr oshould not havc a vcto ovcr thc advantagcs
availablcor thclcastadvantagcd Jhcstrictcr intcrprctation othc
dicrcncc principlc should bc ollowcd, and all incquali tics should
bc arrangcd or thcadvantagcothosc in middlc positions. Should
thcsc conditions ail, thcn, thc sccond principlc would havc to bc
statcdinanothcrway.
t may bc obscrvcd that thc dicrcncc principlc rcprcscnts, in
ccct, an original agrccmcnt to sharc in thc bcnchts o thc
distribution onatural talcnts and abilitics, whatcvcrthis distribu
tion turn out to bc, in ordcr to allcviatc as ar as possiblc thc
arbitrary handicaps rcsulting rom our initial starting placcs in
socicty.Jhoscwhohavcbccnavourcdbynaturc,whocvcrthcyarc,
may gain rom thcirgood ortunc only on tcrms thatimprovc thc
wcll-bcingothoscwhohavclostout.Jhcnaturallyadvantagcdarc
not to gainsimplybccauscthcyarc morc gitcd, butonly to covcr
thc costs o training and cultivating thcir cndowmcnts and or
putting thcm to usc inaway which improvcs thcpositionothclcss
ortunatcWcarclcdtothcdicrcnccprinciplciwcwishtoarrangc
thcbasicsocialstructurcsothatnooncgains orloscs) romhisluck
in thcnaturallottcryotalcntand ability,orromhis initialplaccin
socicty, without giving or rccciving) compcnsating advantagcs in
rcturn. Jhc partics in thc original position arc not said to bc
attractcdbythisidcaandsoagrccto it, rathcr,givcnthcsymmctrics
othcir situation, and particularly thcir lack oknowlcdgc and so
on,thcywillhndittothcirintcrcsttoagrcctoaprinciplcwhichcan
bcundcrstood inthisway. ) Andwcshouldnotcalso thatwhcn thc
dicrcncc principlc is pcrcctly satishcd, thc basic structurc is
optimalbythccmcicncyprinciplc Jhcrcis nowaytomakcanyonc
bcttcr owithout making somconc clscworsc o, namcly, thc lcast
ortunatc rcprcscntativc man. Jhus thc two principlcs ojusticc
dchnc distributivc sharcs in a way compatiblc with cmcicncy, at
lcastaslongas wcmovconthishighlyabstractlcvcl wcwantto
say as wc do,although itcannotbcargucdhcrc) thatthcdcmands
ojusticc havc an absolutc wcight with rcspcct to cmcicncy, this
claim may sccm lcss paradoical whcn it is kcpt in mind that
pcrcctlyjustinstitutionsarcalsocmcicnt.
a
Cur sccond qucstion is whcthcr it is possiblc to arrangc thc
institutions oa constitutionaldcmocracy so hat thc two principlcs
ojusticc arc satishcd, atlcast approimatcly. Wc shall tryto show
that this can bc donc providcd thc govcrnmcnt rcgulatc a rcc
jCHRA \\ LS
cconomyin a ccrtain way. Morc ull i law andgornmcnt t
ccctivcly to kccp markcts compctitic rcsourccs ulv cmcd
propcrty and wcalth widcly distributcd ocr timc and to mi nt i n
thc appropriatc social minimum thcn i thcrc i s cqu i v
opportunity undcrwrittcn b cducation or all thc cs t n
distribution will bcjust. Ccoursc all othcsc arragcmcnts nd
policics arc amiliar. Jhconl nocltv in thc olloi ng cm i
thcrc i sanynocltyatall i sthat thi sramcworoi nst i t t i ns n
bcmadcto satisy thcdicrcncc principc. Jo aruc thi s s
skctchthcrclationsothcscinstitutionsandhothcvorkt gt c
lirstoall wcassumcthatthcbasicsoci al structurciscont lcd
by ajust consti tution which sccurcs thc ari ous li bcrti cs cu
citizcnshi p. Jhusthclcgal ordcri sadmini stcrcd i accodncc i t
thc principlc olcgality and li bcrtv oconscicncc and ccdm
thought arc tacnorgrantcd.Jhcpoliticalproccss isconductd s
ar as possiblc as ajust proccdurc or choosing bctccn n-
mcnts and or cnacting just lcislation. lrom thc standi nt
distributivc justicc it i s also csscntial that thcrc bc cqual tv
opportunity inscvcral scnscs. Jhus csupposc that inaddi t i on t
maintainingthc usualsocialocrhcad capi tal gocrnmcntr ids
or cqual cducational opportunitics o all ci t cr b subsidizin
privatc schools or by opcrating a public school sstcm. t ls
cnorccs and undcrwritcs cqualitv o opotnitv in commcrcia
vcnturcsandinthcrccchoiccooccuati on. Jhisrcsultisachiccd
bypolicingbusincss bchaviorandbvprccnt i ngthccstabishmcnt
o barricrs and rcstriction to thc dcsirablc positions and markcts
Lastly thcrc i s a uarantcc o a social mini mum whic thc
gocrnmcnt mccts by amil allowanccs nd sci l pavmnts i
timcso uncmploymcntorbancgatici ncomcta.
n maintainingthissystcm oinstitutions thcocrnmcnt mv b
thought oasdividcdintoourbranchcs. Lachbranch is rcrscnt d
by various agcncics or activi tics thcrco charcd with rcsci ng
ccrtain social and cconomic conditions. Jhcsc brnccs do not
ncccssarily ovcrlapwiththcusual organization oocrnmcnt but
should bc undcrstood as purcl conccptual. Jhus thc allocation
branch is to kccp thc cconomy casibl compctitic that is to
prcvcnt thc ormation ounrcasonablc markct powcr. Markctsarc
compctitivc in this scnsc whcn thcv cannot bc madc morc so
consistcnt with thc rcquircmcntsoccicnc and thcacccptancco
thc act o consumcr prccrcnccs and gcograph Jhc allocation
branch is also chargcd with idcntiying and corccting s b
suitablc taxcs and subsdics whcrcvcr ossbc tc morc obvious
dcparturcsromcmcicncycauscd by thcai lrcopriccs to mcasrc
accuratclysocial bcnctsandcosts. Jhcstabili zation branchstrivcs
Dl STRI LTI V L [ LSTI CL
to maintain rcasonably ull cmploymcnt s o that thcrc i s nowastc
through ailurc to usc rcsourccs and thc rcc choicc ooccupation
and thc dcploymcnt o nancc is supportcd by strong cIcctivc
dcmand Jhcsc two branchcs togcthcrarc to prcscrvc thc ccicncy
othcmarkctcconomygcncrally.
Jhc social minimum is cstablishcd through thc opcrations othc
transcr branch. Latcr on wc shall considcr at what lcvcl this
minimum should bc sct, sincc this is a crucial mattcr but or thc
momcnt, a cw gcncral rcmarks will sumcc. Jhc main idca is that
thcworkingsothc transcr branch takc intoaccountthc prcccpto
nccd and assign it an appropriatc wcight with rcspcct to thc othr
commonscnsc prcccpts ojusticc. A markct cconomy ignorcs th
clai ms o nccd altogcthcr Hcncc thcrc is a divi sion o labour
bctwccn thc parts o thc social systcm as diIcrcnt institutions
answcr to diIcrcnt commonscnsc prcccpts. Compctitivc markcts
propcrly supplcmcntcd by govcrnmcnt opcrations) handlc thc
problcm othc cmcicntallocation olabour and rcsouccs and sct a
wcight to thc convcntional prcccpts associatcd with wagcs and
carnings thcprcccptsocachaccordingtohisworkandcpcricncc
orrcsponsibilityand thchazardsothcjob, and soon) , whcrcasthc
transcr branchguarantccs a ccrtain lcvcl owcllbcing and mccts
thcclaimsonccd. hus it isobviousthatthcusticcodistributivc
sharcs dcpcnds upon thcwholc social systcm and how itdistributcs
total incomc, wagcs plus transcrs. Jhcrc is with rcason strong
objcctiontothc compctitivcdctcrminationototalincomc sinccthis
would lcavc out o account thc clai ms o nccd and o a dccct
standard olic lrom thc standpoint othc original position i t i
clcarly rational to insurc oncscl against thcsc cont ngcnc cs Bu
now,ithcappropriatc minimumisprovidcdbytranss, itmac
pcrcctly air that thc othcr part o total incomc is compctitivl
dctcrmi ncd orcovcr, thiswa odcalingwiththcclai mso ncdi
doubtlcss morc cmcicnt, at lcast rom a thcorctical poi nt ov cw,
than trying to rcgulatc priccsby minimum wagc standards and s
on. lt is prccrablc to handlc thcsc claims by a scparatc rach
which supports a social minimum. Hcnccorth, in conidcrin
whcthcrthcsccond principlcousticc is satiscd, thc answr tu
on whcthcr thctota incomcothclcastadvantagcd, tha i, wa
plus transcrs, is such as to maimizc thcir longtcrm cpccatin
consistcntwiththcdcmandsoli bcrty.
linally, thc distri bution branch is to prcscrvc an ap mt
just distri bution o incomc and wcalth ovcr tmc b accin hc
background conditions o thc markc rom pcriod to cid w
aspcctsothis branchmaybcdist nguishcd. lirst oa l itocraa
systcmoinhcritanccand gi tacs Jhc aim othcsclcvics s n
jCHNRAWLS
raisc rcvcnuc, but gradually and continually to corrcct thc
distributionof wcalthandtoprcvcntthcconccntrationsofpowcrto
thc dctrimcnt oflibcrty and cquality ofopportunity. t is pcrfcctly
truc, as somc havc said, that uncqual inhcritancc ofwcalth is no
morc inhcrcntly unjust than uncqual inhcritancc ofintclligcncc, as
far as possiblc thc incqualitics foundcd on cithcr should satis thc
dihcrcnccprinciplc. Thusthcinhcritanccofgrcatcrwcalthisj ustas
long as it is to thc advantagc ofthc worst ohand consistcnt with
libcrty includingcquality ofopportunity. low by thc lattcrwc do
not mcan, ofcoursc, thc cquality ofcxpcctations bctwccn classcs,
sinccdihcrcnccsinlifcprospcctsarisingfromthcbasicstructurcarc
incvitablc, and itis prcciscly thc aim ofthc sccond principlc to say
whcn thcsc dihcrcnccsarcj ust. nstcad, cqualityofopportunityisa
ccrtain sct ofinstitutions which assurcscqually good cducation and
chanccsofculturcfor all andwhich kccps opcn thccompctitionfor
positionsonthc basisofqualiticsrcasonablyrclatcdtopcrformancc,
and so on. t is thcsc institutions which arc put injcopardy whcn
incqualitics andconccntrations ofwcalth rcach a ccrtain limit, and
thc taxcs imposcd by thc distribution branch arc to prcvcnt this
limitfrombcingcxcccdcd.laturallycnoughwhcrcthislimitlicsisa
mattcr for political judgcmcnt guidcd by thcory, practical cx
pcricnccandplainhunch, onthis qucstion thcthcoryof justicchas
nothingtosay.
Thcsccondpartofthcdistributionbranchisaschcmcoftaxation
for raising rcvcnuc to covcr thc costs of public goods, to makc
transfcr paymcnts, and thc likc. This schcmc bclongs to thc
distribution branch sincc thc burdcn of taxation must bcj ustly
sharcd. Although wc cannot cxaminc thc lcgal and cconomic
complications involvcd, thcrc arc scvcral points in favour of
proportional cxpcnditurc taxcs as part ofan idcallyj ust arrangc
mcnt. loroncthing, thcyarcprcfcrablcto incomc taxcsatthclcvcl
of commonscnsc prcccpts ofj usticc, sincc thcy imposc a lcvy
according to how much hc contributcs assuming that incomc is
fairly carncd in rcturn for productivc chorts) . Cn thc othcr hand,
proportional taxcstrcatcvcryonc in a clcarly dchncd uniformway
again assuming that incomc is fairly carncd) and hcncc it is
prcfcrablc to usc progrcssivcratcsonlywhcnthcyarc ncccssary to
prcscrvcthcjusticcofthcsystcmasawholcthatis,toprcvcntlargc
fortuncs hazardous to libcrty and cquality ofopportunity, and thc
likc. f proportional cxpcnditurc taxcs should also provc morc
ccicnt,saybccauscthcyintcrfcrclcsswithinccntivcs, orwhatcvcr,
this would makc thc casc for thcm dccisivc providcd a fcasiblc
Scc,orcamplc,l. vonHayck,7m Casst:tat:as a] L:t:rp [ gGo ,go.
DI STRI BLTIVE jLSTI CE
schcmc could bc workcd out.

Yct thcsc arc qucstions opolitical

judgcmcnt which arc not our conccrn and, in any casc, a
proportional cxpcnditurc tax is part oan idcalizcd schcmc which
wc arc dcscribing. t docs not ollow that cvcn stccply progrcssivc
incomctaxcs,givcnthcinjusticcocxistingsystcms, donotimprovc
justicc and cmcicncy all things considcrcd. !n practicc wc must
usuallychoosc bctwccn unjustarrangcmcntsandthcnitis amattcr
ohndingthclcsscrinjusticc.
Whatcvcrormthcdistributionbranchassumcs, thcargumcntor
it is tobcbascdonj usticc.wcmusthold that oncc itisacccptcdthc
socialsystcmasawholc-thccompctitivccconomysurroundcdbya
justconstitutional and lcgal ramcwork-can bc madctosatisy thc
principlcs ojusticc with thc smallcst loss in cmcicncy. Jhc long-
tcrm cxpcctations othc lcast advantagcd arc raiscd to thc highcst
lcvclconsistcntwiththcdcmandsocquallibcrty. !n discussingthc
choicc oa distribution schcmc wc havc madc no rccrcncc to thc
traditional critcriaotaxationaccordingto abilitytopayorbcnchts
rcccivcd norhavcwcmcntioncdanyothcvariantsothcsacrihcc
principlc. Jhcsc standards arc subordinatc to thc two principlcs o
justicc, onccthc problcm is sccn as thatodcsigning a wholc social
systcm, thcy assumc thcstatus osccondaryprcccptswith no morc
indcpcndcnt orcc than thc prcccpts ocommon scnsc in rcgard to
wagcs. Josupposcothcrwiscisnottotakcasumcicntlycomprchcn
sivc point o vicw. n sctting up a just distribution branch thcsc
prcccptsmayormaynothavcaplaccdcpcndinguponthcdcmands
othctwoprinciplcso justiccwhcnapplicdtothccntircsystcm

Cur problcmnowis whcthcrthc wholcsystcmoinstitutionswhich

wchavcdcscribcd, thccompctitivccconomy surroundcd bythcour
branchcsogovcrnmcnt,canbcmadctosatisythctwoprinciplcso
justicc !t sccmsintuitivcly plausiblc thatthiscanbcdonc, butwc
musttrytomakcsurc. Wcassumcthatthcsocialsystcmas a wholc
mccts thc dcmands olibcrty, it sccurcs thc rights rcquircd by thc
hrstprinciplcand thcprinciplcoopcnomccs . Jhus thcqucstionis
whcthcr, consistcnt with thcsc libcrtics, thcrc is any way o
opcrating thc our branchcs o govcrnmcnt so as to bring thc
incqualitics o thc basic structurc in linc with thc dilIcrcncc
principlc
Scc N. a|dor,Aataditart7a gjj)
jCHNRAWLS
ow, quitc clcarlythcthing todoisto sctthcsocialminimumat
thc appropriatc lcvcl . So far wc havc said nothingabout how high
this minimum should bc. Common scnsc might bc contcnt to say
that thc right lcvcl dcpcnds on thc avcragc wcalth ofthc country,
and that, othcr things cqual, thc minimumshould bchighcr iftis
avcragcishighcr, orit might hold thatthcpropcrlcvcl dcpcnds on
customary cxpcctations. Bothofthcsc idcasarcunsatisfactory. Jhc
hrst is not prccisc cnough sincc it docs not statc how thcminimum
should dcpcnd on wcalth and it ovcrlooks othcr rclcvant
considcrations such as distribution, and thc sccond providcs no
critcrion for whcn customary cxpcctations arc thcmsclvcs
rcasonablc. Cncc thc dihcrcncc principlc is acccptcd, howcvcr, it
follows that thc minimum should bc sct at thc lcvcl which, taking
wagcsintoaccount,maximizcsthccxpcctationsofthclowcstincomc
class. By adjusting thc amount oftransfcrs, and thc bcnchts from
public goods which improvc thcir circumstanccs, i t is possiblc to
incrcascordccrcascthc total i ncomcofthc lcastadvantagcd wagcs
plus transfcrsplusbcnchtsfrom publicgoods) Controllingthcsu
oftransfcrs, thcrcby raising orlowcringthc social minimum, givcs
sumcicnt lccway in thc wholc schcmc to satisfy thc dicrcncc
principlc.
ow, oand it might appcar that this arrangcmcnt rcquircs a
vcryhigh minimum t is casy toimagincthcgrcatcrwcalthofthosc
bcttcr oh bcing scalcd down until arrangcmcnt of institutions
workingovcrtimcrcsultsinadchnitcpattcrnofdistributivcsharcs,
and cach man rcccivcs a total incomc wagcs plus transfcrs) to
which hc is cntitlcd undcr thc rulcs upon which his lcgitimatc
cxpcctations arc foundcd. ow an csscntial fcaturc of this whoc
schcmc is that it contains an clcmcnt of purc proccduraljusticc.
Jhat is, no attcmpt is madc to spccify thc just distribution of
particulargoods and scrviccs toparticularpcrsons, as ifthcrcwcrc
only onc way in which, indcpcndcntly ofthc choiccs ofcconomic
agcnts,thcscthingsshouldbcsharcd.Kathcr,thcidcaistodcsigna
schcmcsuch that thc rcsultingdistribution, whatcvcr it is, which is
brought aboutby thc chorts ofthosc cngagcd in coopcration and
cicitcdbythcirlcgitimatccxpcctations,i sjust.
Jhc option ofpurc proccdural justicc may bc cxplaincd by a
comparison with pcrfcct and impcrfcctproccduraljusticc. Considcr
thcsimpcstprobcmoffairdivisionA numbcrofmcnarctodividc
a cakc. assuming that a fair division is an cqual onc which
proccdurcwillgivcthisoutcomc!Jhcobvioussolutionistohavcthc
man who dividcs thc cakc takc thc last piccc. Hc will dividc it
cqually,sinccinthiswayhcassurcsforhimsclfaslargcasharcashc
can. ow in this casc thcrcis an indcpcndcntcritcrionfor whichis
DI STRI BLTI VEjLSTI CE
thcfairdivision. Jhc problcm is todcvisc aproccdurc, asctofrulcs
for dividingthc cakc, whichwillyicldthisoutcomc. Jhcproblcmof
fair division cxcmplics thc fcaturcs of pcrfcct proccdural justicc.
Jhcrc is an indcpcndcnt critcrion for whichoutcomc isjust-and
wccandcsignaproccdurcguarantccdtolcadtoit.
Jhc casc ofi mpcrfcct proccdural justicc is found in a criminal
trial. Jhcdcsircdoutcomcis that thc dcfcndant should bcdcclarcd
guilty ifand only ifhc has committcd thc ocncc as chargcd. Jhc
trial proccdurcis framcd toscarch for and to cstablish this rcsult,
butwccannotdcsignrulcsguarantccdtorcachit.Jhcthcoryoftrial
proccdurcs cxamincs which rulcsofcvidcncc, and thc likc, arc bcst
calculatcd to advancc this purposc. ilIcrcnt proccdurcs may
rcasonably bc cxpcctcd in dicrcnt circumstanccs toyicld thc right
rcsult, not always, but at lcast most ofthc timc. Hcncc a trial is a
casc ofimpcrfcct proccduraljusticc. Lvcn though thc law may bc
carcfully followcd, and thc trial fairly and propcrly conductcd, it
may rcach thc wrong outcomc. An innoccnt man may bc found
guilty, a guilty man may bc sct frcc. n such cascs wc spcak ofa
miscarriagcofjusticc. thcinjusticcspringsfromnohumanfault but
from a combination ofcircumstanccs which dcfcats thc purposc of
thcrulcs
Jhcnotionof purcproccduraljusticcisillustratcdbygambling.f
anumbcrofpcrsonscngagcinascricsoffairbcts,thcdistributionof
cash aftcr thc last bct is fair, or at lcast not unfair, whatcvcr this
distribution is. Wc arcassuming, ofcoursc, thatfairbctsarcthosc
which dchnca zcro cxpcctation, that thc bcts arcmadcvluntarily,
that no onc chcats, and so on. ) Any distri bution summing to thc
initialstockofcashhcldbycvcryonccouldrcsultfromascricsoffair
bcts, hcncc allofthcsc distributionsarc, in this scnsc, cquallyfair.
Jhc distribution which rcsults is fair simply bccausc it is thc
outcomc owwhcnthcrc is purcproccduraljusticc, thcproccdurc
for dctcrmining thcj ust rcsult must actually bc carricd out, for in
this casc thcrc i sno indcpcndcnt critcrion by rcfcrcncc towhich an
outcomc can bc known to bcjust. Cbviously wc cannot say that a
particularstatcofalIairs isjust bccauscitcould havc bccn rcachcd
byollowingajustproccdurc. Jhis would pcrmit far too muchand
lcad to absurdly unjust conscqucnccs. n thc casc ofgambling, for
cxamplc, it would cntail that any distribution whatcvcr could bc
imposcd. What makcs thchnal outcomc ofthc bctting fair, or not
unfair, is that it is thc onc which has ariscn alcr a scrics offair
gamblcs.
nordcr,thcrcforc, tocstablishjustdistributivcsharcsajusttotal
systcm ofinstitutions must bc sct upand i mpartially administcrcd.
Givcn a just constitution and thc smooth working of thc four
o jCHNRAWLS
branchcs ofgovcrnmcnt, and so on, thcrc cxists a proccdurc such
thatthcactualdistributionofwcalth,whatcvcritturnsouttobc, is
just. lt will havc comc about as a conscqucncc ofjust systcm of
institutionssatisfying thcprinciplcs towhich cvcryonc would agrcc
andagainstwhichnoonccan complain. Thcsituationisoncofpurc
proccduraljusticc, sincc thcrc isnoindcpcndcntcritcrion bywhich
thc outcomc can bc judgcd. lor can wc say that a particular
distribution of wcalth isjust bccausc it is onc which could havc
rcsultcdfromjustinstitutionsalthoughithasnot,asthiswouldbcto
allowtoomuch.Clcarlythcrcarcmanydistributionswhichmaybc
rcachcd by just institutions, and this is truc whcthcr wc count
distributions of particular goods and scrviccs among particular
individuals. Thcrc arcindchnitclymanyoutcomcsandwhatmakcs
oncofthcscj ustisthatithasbccnachicvcdbyactuallycarryingout
ajust schcmc ofco-opcrationas it is publicly undcrstood. lt is thc
rcsult which has ariscn whcncvcryoncrcccivcs that to which hc is
cntitlcd givcn his and othcrs` actions guidcd by thcir lcgitimatc
cxpcctationsand thcirobligations to onc anothcr. Wc can nomorc
arrivc at ajust distribution ofwcalth cxccpt by working togcthcr
withinthcframcworkofajustsystcmofinstitutionsthanwccanwin
orloscfairlywithoutactuallybctting.
Thisaccountofdistributivcsharcsissimplyanclaborationofthc
familiar idca that cconomic rcwards will bcjust oncc a pcrfcctly
compctitivcpriccsystcmisorganizcdasafairgamc But inordcrto
do this wc havc to bcgin with thc choicc ofa social systcm as a
wholc,forthc basicstructurcofthccntircarrangcmcntmustbcjust.
Thccconomymust bcsurroundcdwith thcappropriatcframcwork
ofinstitutions, sincc cvcn a pcrfcctly ccicnt pricc systcm has no
tcndcncytodctcrmincj ustdistributivcsharcswhcnlcfttoitsclf ot
only mustcconomicactivitybcrcgulatcdbyajustconstitutionand
controllcd by thc four branchcs ofgovcrnmcnt, but aj ust saving
function must bc adoptcd to cstimatc thc provision to bc madc for
futurc gcncrations. Thus, wc cannot, in gcncral, considcr only
picccwisc rcforms, for unlcss all ofthcscfundamcntalqucstions arc
propcrly handlcd, thcrc is no assurancc that thc rcsulting
distributivc sharcs will bcj ust, whilcifthccorrcctinitial choiccs of
institutionsarcmadc, thcmattcrofdistributivcj usticcmaybclcftto
takccarcofitscl Withinthcframcworkofajustsystcm mcnmaybc
pcrmittcdtoformassociations and groupingsasthcy plcasc solong
as thcy rcspcct thc likc libcrty ofothcrs. With social ingcnuity it
shouldbcpossiblcto invcnt manydihcrcntkindsofcconomic and
socialactiviticsappcalingtoawidcvarictyoftastcsandtalcnts,and
as long as thc justicc of thc basic structurc of thc wholc is not
ahcctcd, mcn may bc allowcd, in accordancc with thc principlc of
DI STRI BLTI VEjLSTI CE

r
rcc association, tocntcrinto and to takc partin whatcvcractivitics
thcy wish. Jhc rcsulting distribution will bc just whatcvcr it
happcns to bc. Jhc systcm oinstitutions which wc havc dcscribcd
is, lct`s supposc, thc basic structurc oa wcll-ordcrcd socicty. Jhis
systcm cxhibits thc contcnt o thc two principlcs o justicc by
showing howthcymay bc pcrcctlysatishcd, and itdchncs a social
idcalbyrccrcncctowhichpoliticaljudgcmcntamongsccond-bcsts,
andthclongrangcdircctionorcorm,maybcguidcd.

Wc may concludc by considcring thc third qucstion. whcthcr this

conccption odistributivc sharcs is compatiblc with common-scnsc
notionso justicc. nclaboratingthccontractdoctrincwchavcbccn
lcd to whatsccms to bc a rathcrspccial, cvcnccccntric,conccption
thc pcculiaritics owhich ccntrc in thc dicrcncc principlc. Clcar
statcmcnts oit sccm to bc rarc, and it dicrs rathcr widcly rom
traditionalutilitarian and intuitionist notions. ' But this qucstionis
not an casy onc to answcr, or philosophicalconccptions oj usticc,
includingthconcwchavcjustputorward, andourcommonscnsc
convictions, arc notvcryprccisc. Morcovcr, a comparison is madc
dimcult by our tcndcncy in practicc to adopt combinations o
principlcs and prcccpts thc conscqucnccs o which dcpcnd
csscntially uponhowthcyarcwcightcd, but thc wcighting ay bc
undchncd and allowcd to vary with circumstanccs, and thus rclics
onthcintuitivcjudgcmcntswhichwcarctryingtosystcmatizc.
Considcrthcollowingconccptionoright. socialjusticcdcpcnds
positivclyontwothings,onthccqualityodistribution undcrstood
as cqualityinlcvcls owcll-bcing) and total wclarc undcrstood as
thc sum o utilitics takcn ovcr all individual s) . Cn this vicw onc
socialsystcmisbcttcrthananothcrwithoutambiguityiitisbcttcr
on both counts, that is, ithc cxpcctations it dchncs arc both lcss
uncqualand sum to a largcr total. Anothcrconccptionorightcan
bcobtaindbysubstitutingthcprinciplcoasocialminimumorthc
principlc o cquality, and thus an arrangcmcnt o institutions is
prccrablc toanothcrwithoutambiguityithc cxpcctations sumtoa
' Thc ncarcst statcmcnt known tomcisbySantayana. Scc thc |ast part ofchap. q
in Ktasaa aadSacit(y [ t goG) on thc aristocratic idca|. Hc says, for cxamp|c, ' . . . an
aristocratic rcgimcn can on|y bc usticd by radiating bcnct and by proving that
wcrclcssgivcntothoscabovc,|csswou|dbcattaincdbythscbcncaththcm. ' utscc
a|so Christian ay, 7ht Stractart a Irttdam [t gj8) , wh adopts thc princip|c of
maximizng frccdom, giving spccia| attcntion to thc frccdom ofthc margina|, |cast
privi|cgcdman.Cpp. jg,yq f.
jCHNRAWLS
largcr totalanditprovidcsor a highcrminimum. Jhcidca hcrci s
tomaximizcthcsumocxpcctationssubjccttothcconstraintthatno
onc bc allowcd to all bclow somc rccognizcd standard olic. !n
thcscconccptionsthcprinciplcso cquality andoasocialminimum
rcprcscnt thc dcmands ojusticc, and thc principlc ototal wclarc
that o cmcicncy. Jhc principlc outility assumcs thc rolc o thc
principlc ocmcicncy thc orcc owhichislimitcd by a principlc o
justicc.
low in practicc combinations oprinciplcs othis kind arc not
withoutvaluc. Jhcrcisnoqucstion butthatthcyidcntiy plausiblc
standards by rccrcncc to which policics may bc appraiscd, and
givcn thc appropriatc background o institutions, thcy may givc
corrcct conclusions. Considcr thc hrst conccption. a pcrson guidcd
by it may rcqucntly dccidc rightly. lor cxamplc, hc would bc in
avour ocquality oopportunity, or it sccms cvidcnt that having
morc cqual chanccs or all both improvcs cmcicncy and dccrcascs
incquality. Jhcrcalqucstionariscs,howcvcr, whcnaninstitutionis
approvcd by onc principlc but not by thc othcr. !n this casc
cvcrything dcpcnds on how thcprinciplcs arcwcightcd, buthow is
this to bc donc Jhc combination oprinciplcsyiclds noanswcrto
thisqucstion, andthcjudgcmcntmustbclct tointuition. lorcvcry
arrangcmcnt combininga particular total wclarc with a particular
dcgrccoincquality oncsimplyhas todccidc, withoutthcguidancc
rom principlc, how much o an incrcasc or dccrcasc) in total
wclarc, say, compcnsatcs or a givcn dccrcasc or incrcasc) in
cquality.
Anyonc using thctwo principlcs o justicc, howcvcr, would also
appcar to bc striking a balancc bctwccn cquality and totalwclarc.
How do wc know, thcn, that a pcrson who claims to adopt a
combinationoprinciplcs docs not,inact, rclyonthc twoprinciplcs
ojusticc in wcighing thcm, not consciously ccrtainly, but in thc
scnscthatthcwcightshcgivcstocqualityandtotalwclarcarcthosc
which hc would givc to thcm i hc applicd thc two principlcs o
j usticcWc nccd notsay, ocoursc, that toscwhoin practicc rccr
to a combination o principlcs, or whatcvcr, rcly on thc contract
doctrinc, butonly that until thcir conccption oright is complctcly
spccihcd thc qucstion is still opcn. Jhc lccway providcd by thc
dctcrminationowcightslcavcsthcmattcrunscttlcd.
Morcovcr thc samc sort osituation ariscs with othcr practical
standards. !t iswidcly agrccd, or cxamplc, that thc distribution o
incomc should dcpcnd upon thc claims o cntitlcmcnt, such as
trainingandcxpcricncc, rcsponsibilityandcontribution, andsoon,
wcighcdagainst thc claimsonccd and sccurity. But how arc thcsc
common-scnsc prcccpts to bc balanccd! Again i t is gcncrally
DI STRI BLTI VEjLSTI CE
9
]
acccptcd thatthc cnds occonomicpolicyarccompctitivccmcicncy,
ull cmploymcnt, and appropriatc ratc ogrowth, a dcccnt social
minimum, and a morc cqual distribution oincomc. n a modcrn
dcmocratic statc thcsc aims arc to bc advanccd in ways consistcnt
withcquallibcrtyandcqualityoopportunity. Jhcrcisnoargumcnt
with thcsc objcctivcs, thcy would bc rccognizcd by anyonc who
acccptcd thc two principlcs ojusticc. But dilIcrcnt political vicws
balancc thcsc cnds dicrcntly, and how arc wc to choosc bctwccn
thcm! Jhc act is that wc agrcc too littlc whcn wc acknowlcdgc
prcccpts and cnds othis kind, it must bc rccognizcd that a airly
dctailcd wcighting is implicit in any complctc conccption o justicc.
Ctcn wc contcnt oursclvcs with cnumcrating common-scnsc
prcccpts and obcctivcs o policy, adding that on particular
qucstionswcmuststrikcabalanccbctwccnthcmhavingstudicdthc
rclcvant acts. Whilc this is sound practical advicc, it docs not
cxprcssa conccptiono justicc.Whcrcason thccontractdoctrincall
combinations o principlc, prcccpts, and objcctivcs o policy arc
givcn a wcightin maximizing thc cxpcctations othclowcst incomc
class consistcnt with making thc rcquircd saving and maintaining
thcsystcmocquallibcrtyandcqualityoopportunity.
Jhus dcspitcthcactthatthccontractdoctrincsccmsathrsttobc
a somcwhat spccial conccption, particularly in its trcatmcnt o
incqualitics,itmay still cxprcss thcprinciplcso usticcwhichstand
in thc background and control thc wcights cxprcsscd in our
cvcryday judgcmcnts. Whcthcr this is indccd thc casc can bc
dccidcdonlybydcvclopingthcconscqucnccsothctwoprinciplcsin
morc dctail and noting ianydiscrcpancics turn up. lossiblythcrc
will bc noconicts,ccrtainlywc hopcthcrcarc noncwith thchxcd
points oourconsidcrcdjudgcmcnts. Jhcmain qucstion pcrhaps is
whcthcr onc is prcparcd to acccpt thc urthcr dchnition o onc`s
conccption oright which thctwo principlcs rcprcscnt. lor, as wc
havc sccn, common scnsc prcsumably lcavcs thc mattcr owcights
undccidcd. Jhc two principlcs may not so much opposc ordinary
idcas as providc a rclativcly prccisc principlc whcrc common scnsc
haslittlctosay.
linally, it is a political convcntion in a dcmocratic socicty to
appcal to thc common good. o political party would admit to
prcssing or lcgislation to thc disadvantagcoanyrccognizcd social
intcrcst. But how, rom a philosophical point o vicw, is this
convcntion to bc undcrstood! Surcly it is somcthingmorc than thc
principlcocmcicncy in i ts larctian orm) and wc cannot assumc
that govcrnmcnt always accts cvcryonc` s intcrcsts cqually. Yct
sincc wc cannot maximizc with rcspcct to morc than onc point o
vicw, itis natural, givcn thc cthos oa dcmocratic socicty, to singlc
94
jCHNRAWLS
out that of thc lcast advantagcd and maximizc thcir long-tcrm
prospccts consistcnt with thc libcrtics of cqual citizcnship.
Morcovcr, itdocs sccmthatthcpolicicswhichwc mostconhdcntly
think to bcjustdo atlcastcontributcpositivclyto thcwcll-bcingof
this class, and hcncc that thcsc policics arcj ust throughout. Thus
thc dihcrcncc principlc is a rcasonablc cxtcnsion of thc political
convcntion of a dcmocracy oncc wc facc up to thc ncccssity of
choosingacomplctcconccptionof justicc.

1 bb \ _\b L
ROBERT NOZI CK
Jhctcrm distributivcjusticc`i s notancutralonc. Hcaringthctcrm
'distribution` , most pcoplc prcsumc that somc thingormcchanism
uscs somc principlc orcritcriontogivcout a supplyothings. nto
thisproccssodistributingsharcssomccrrormayhavccrcpt . Soitis
anopcnqucstion, atlcast,whcthcrdistributionshouldtakcplacc,
whcthcr wc should do again what has alrcady bccn donc oncc,
thoughpoorly. Howcvcr,wcarc notinthcpositionochildrcnwho
havc bccn givcn portions opic by somconc who now makcs last-
minutc adjustmcnts to rcctiy carclcss cutting. Jhcrc is no
distribution,nopcrsonorgroup cnti tlcdtocontrolall thcrcsourccs,
ointly) dcciding how thcy arc to bc dolcd out What cach pcrson
gcts,hcgctsromothcrswhogivctohimincxchangcorsomcthing,
or as a git. n a rcc socicty, divcrsc pcrsons control dicrcnt
rcsourccs, and ncw holdings arisc out othc voluntary cxchangcs
and actions o pcrsons. Jhcrc is no morc a distributing or
distribution o sharcs than thcrc is a distributing o matcs in a
socicty in which pcrsons choosc whom thcy shall marry. Jhc total
rcsultisthcproductomanyindividualdccisionswhichthcdicrcnt
individuals involvcd arc cntitlcd to makc. Somc uscs othc tcrm
'distribution` , it is truc, do not imply a prcvious distributing
appropriatclyjudgcd by somc critcrion c. g. probability distribu-
tion` ) , ncvcrthclcss,dcspitcthctitlcothiscssay,itwouldbcbcstto
usca tcrminoloy thatclcarly is ncutral. Wcshallspcakopcoplc` s
holdings, a principlco justicc in holdings dcscribcs parto what
justicc tclls us rcquircs) about holdings. shall statc hrst what
takc tobcthccorrcctvicwaboutjusticcinholdings, andthcnturnto
thc discussionoaltcrnativcvicws.

Kobcrt Nozick, 'Distributivcusticc`, part !, ss. t G, romAaarch, Stattaad /tcia

[t g;) . Copyright @ t g; by asic ooks, !nc. Fub|ishcrs, and asil |ackwc||.
Kcprintcdby pcrmissionoasicooks !nc., adivisionoHarpcrCo|lins Fub|ishcrs,
and asi| |ackwcll. [Abridgcd o|lowing Kobcrt M. Stcwart, Ktadias ia Sccial aad
Fcli|icalFhilcsch[Cxord\nivcrsityFrcss.NcwYork, g8G) .
Thc rcadcr whohas rcadAaarch, Stattaad |tcia and sccn that thcsccond part
othis chaptcrdiscusscs Kawls`s thcory, mistakcn|y may think that cvcry rcmark or
argumcntinthchrst partagainstaltcrnativcthcoricso justiccis mcant to apply toor
anticipatca criticismohis thcory. This is notso, thcrcarcothcrthcoricsalsoworth
criticizing.
q0 RCBERT NCZI CK
THE ENTI TLEMENTTHECR
Jhc subjcctofjusticcinholdingsconsistsofthrccmajortopics. Jhc
hrstis thc criiaa/ aceisi/ica c/c/dias, thc appropriation ofunhcld
things.Jhisincludcsthcissucsofhowunhcldthingsmaycomctobc
hcld, thcproccss cs) by whichunhcldthings maycomcto bchcld,
thcthingsthatmaycomctobchcldbythcscproccsscs, thccxtcntof
whatcomcs to bchcldby a particularproccss, andsoon. Wcshall
rcfcr to thc complicatcd truth about this topic, which wc shall not
formulatchcrc, as thcprinciplcofjusticcinacquisition. Jhcsccond
topicconccrnsthc/raasrr c/c/dias fromoncpcrson toanothcr. By
whatproccsscsmayapcrsontransfcrholdingstoanothcr!Howmay
a pcrson acquirc a holdingfrom anothcr who holds it! ndcr this
topiccomcgcncraldcscriptionsofvoluntarycxchangc, andgift, and
on thc othcr hand) fraud, as wcll as rcfcrcncc to particular
convcntional dctails hxcd upon a givcn socicty Jhc complicatcd
truthaboutthis subjcct with placcholdcrsfor convcntionaldctails)
wc shall call thc principlc ofjusticc in transfcr. And wc shall
supposc it also includcs principlcs govcrning how a pcrson may
divcsthimsclfofaholding,passingitintoanunhcldstatc. )
fthc world wcrc whollyjust, thc following inductivc dchnition
wouldcxhaustivclycovcrthcsubjcctof justiccinholdings .
I ) A pcrson who acquircs a holding in accordancc with thc
principlcof justiccinacquisitioniscntitlcdtothatholding.
2) A pcrson who acquircs a holding in accordancc with thc
principlc ofjusticc in transfcr, from somconc clsc cntitlcd to
thcholding,iscntitlcdtothcholding.

]
) lo onc is cntitlcd to a holding cxccpt by rcpcatcd)
applicationsof I ) and 2) .
Jhc complctcprinciplcofdistributivcjusticcwould say simplythat
a distribution is just if cvcryonc is cntitlcd to thc holdings thcy
posscss undcrthcdistribution.
Adistributionisjustifit ariscsfromanothcrust) distributionby
lcgitimatc mcans. Jhc lcgitimatc mcans of moving from onc
distribution to anothcr arc spccihcd by thc principlc ofjusticc in
transfcr.Jhclcgitimatchrst' movcs`arcspccihcdbythcprinciplcof
justiccin acquisition.

Whatcvcrariscs fromajustsituation byjust

App|ications othcprincip|co justiccinacquisitionmaya|so occurasparto
thcmovc romoncdistribution to anothcr.Youmay hndanunhc|d thing now, and
appropriatcit.Acquisitionsalsoarcto bcundcrstoodasincludcdwhcn,tosimpliy, !
spcak onlyotransitionsbytranscrs
DI STRI BLTI VEjLSTI CE
J/
stcpsi sitsclf j ust. Jhc mcansofchangcspccihcdbythc principlcof
justicc in transfcr, prcscrvcjusticc. As corrcct rulcs ofinfcrcncc arc
truthprcscrving, and any conclusiondcduccd via rcpcatcdapplica-
tionofsuchrulcsfromonlytrucprcmisscsisitsclftruc, sothcmcans
oftransitionfromonc situationto anothcrspccihcdby thcprinciplc
of justicc in transfcr arc justicc prcscrving, and any situation
actually arising from rcpcatcd transitions in accordancc with thc
principlc from a just situation is itsclfjust. Jhc parallcl bctwccn
justiccprcscrvingtransformationsandtruth-prcscrvingtransforma-
tions illuminatcs whcrc it fails as wcll as whcrc it holds. Jhat a
conclusion could havc bccn dcduccd by truth-prcscrving mcans
fromprcmisscs that arc truc sumccs to show its truth. Jhat froma
just situation a situation cce/d havc ariscn via justiccprcscrving
mcans docs ac/ sumcc to show itsjusticc. Jhc fact that a thics
victims voluntarily cce/d havc prcscntcd him with gifts, docs not
cntitlc thc thicf to his ill-gottcn gains. justicc in holdings is
historical, it dcpcnds upon what actually has happcncd. Wc shall
rcturntothispointlatcr.
lotallactualsituationsarcgcncratcdinaccordanccwith thctwo
principlcsof justiccinholdings thcprinciplcofjusticcinacquisition
and thc principlc ofj usticc in transfcr. Somc pcoplc stcal from
othcrs, or dcfraud thcm, or cnslavc thcm scizing thcir product and
prcvcnting thcm from living as thcy choosc, or forcibly cxcludc
othcrsfromcompctingincxchangcs. lonc ofthcsc arc pcrmissiblc
modcsoftransitionfromoncsituationtoanothcr.Andsomcpcrsons
acquircholdingsby mcansnotsanctioncdby thcprinciplcof j usticc
in acquisition Jhccxistcnccofpastinjusticc prcviousviolationsof
thc hrst two principlcs ofjusticcin holdings) raiscs thc third major
topic undcr j usticc in holdings. thc rcctihcation of injusticc in
holdings. fpast injusticc has shapcd prcscnt holdings in various
ways, somcidcntihablcand somcnot,whatnow,ifanything,ought
to bc donc to rcctify thcsc injusticcs! What obligations arc thc
pcrformcrs ofinjusticc undcr to thcirvictims! What obligations do
thc bcnchciarics ofinjusticc havc to thosc whosc position is worsc
thanitwouldhavcbccnhadthcinjusticcnot bccn donc! Cr, thanit
wouldhavcbccnhadcompcnsationbccnpaidpromptly!How,ifat
all, do things changc ifthc bcnchciarics and thosc madc worsc o
arc not thc dircct partics in thc act ofinjusticc, but, for cxamplc,
thcir dcsccndants! !s an injusticc donc to somconc whosc holding
was itsclfbascd upon an unrcctihcd injusticc! How far back must
onc go inwipingclcan thc historicalslatc ofinj usticcs! What may
victims ofinjusticc pcrmissibly do in ordcr to rcctify thc injusticcs
bcingdonc to thcm, including thc many injusticcs donc by pcrsons
actingthrough thcir govcrnmcnt! ! do not know ofa thorough or
q8 RCBERT NCZI CK
thcorctically sophisticatcd trcatmcnt of such issucs. ldcalizing
grcatly, lct us supposc thcorctical invcstigation will producc a
principlc ofrcctihcation. Jhis principlc uscs historical information
aboutprcvioussituationsandinjusticcsdoncinthcm asdchncdby
thc hrst twoprinciplcs ofjusticc, and rights against intcrfcrcncc) ,
and information about thc actual coursc ofcvcnts that howcd from
thcscinjusticcs, upuntilthcprcscnt,andityiclds a dcscription or
dcscriptions) ofholdingsinthcsocicty.Jhcprinciplcofrcctihcation
prcsumably will makc usc of its bcst cstimatc o subjunctivc
information about what would havc occurrcd or a probability
distribution ovcr what might havc occurrcd, using thc cxpcctcd
valuc) ifthcinjusticchadnottakcnplacc. lfthcactualdcscriptionof
holdings turns out not to bc onc ofthc dcscriptions yicldcd by thc
principlc,thcnoncofthcdcscrptionsyicldcd mustbcrcalizcd.
Jhc gcncral outlincs ofthc thcory of justicc in holdings arc that
thc holdings of a pcrson arcjust if hc is cntitlcd to thcm by thc
principlcsof justiccinacquisitionandtransfcr,orbythcprinciplcof
rcctihcation ofinjusticc as spccihcd bythc hrst two principlcs) . lf
cach pcrson` s holdings arcjust thcn thc total sct distribution) of
holdings isjust. Joturnthcscgcncraloutlincsintoa spccihcthcory
wcwouldhavctospccifythcdctailsofcachofthcthrccprinciplcsof
justicc in holdings. thc principlc of acquisition of holdings, thc
principlc oftransfcrofholdings, and thcprinciplcofrcctihcationof
violations of thc hrst two principlcs. shall not attcmpt that task
hcrc. Lockc` sprinciplcofjusticcinacquisitionisdiscusscdbclow. )
His/crica/ Iriaci/rs aad Lad-Krse// Iriaci/rs
Jhc gcncraloutlincsofthc cntitlcmcntthcoryilluminatc thc naturc
and dcfccts of othcr conccptions of distributivc justicc. Jhc
cntitlcmcnt thcory ofjusticc in distribution is /is/crica/, whcthcr a
distribution isjust dcpcnds upon how it camc about. ln contrast,
cerrra/ /imr-s/icr riaci/rs of justicc hold that thc justicc of a
distribution is dctcrmincd by how things arc distributcd who has
what) asjudgcdbysomcs/rec/era/ principl c s) of justdistribution.A
utilitarian who judgcs bctwccn any two distributions by sccing
which has thc grcatcr sum ofutility and, ifhcsc tic, who applics
!thcprincip|corcctihcationovio|ationsothchrsttwoprincip|csyic|dsmorc
thanoncdcscriptionoho|dings, thcnsomcchoiccmustbcmadcastowhichothcsc
is to bc rcalizcd. Pcrhaps thc rt o considcrations about distributivcusticc and
cqua|ity ! arguc against p|ay a |cgitimatc rolc in this subsidiary choicc. Simi|ar|y,
thcrc may bc room or such considcrations in dcciding which othcrwisc arbitrary
caturcs a statutc will cmbody, hcn such caturcs arc unavoidab|c bccausc othcr
considcrationsdonotspcciyaprccisclinc,yctoncmustbcdrawn.
DI STRI BLTI VEjLSTI CE
JJ
somc hxcd cquality critcrion to choosc thcmorc cqual distribution,
would hold a currcnt timc-slicc principlc of justicc. As would
smconcwho had a hxcd schcdulcoftradc-os bctwccnthcsumof
happincssandcquality. All thatnccds tobclookcdat, injudgingthc
justiccofa distribution, according to a currcnt timc-slicc principlc,
is who cnds upwith what, in comparing any two distributions onc
nccdlookonlyatthcmatrixprcscntingthcdistributions. lofurthcr
information nccd bc fcd into a principlc of justicc. !t is a
conscqucncc ofsuch principlcs ojusticc that any two structurally
idcntical distributions arc cqually just. Jwo distributions arc
structurally idcntical ifthcy prcscnt thc samcprohlc, but pcrhaps)
havcdicrcntpcrsonsoccupyingthcparticularslots. Myhavingtcn
and yourhavinghvc, and my havinghvc and your havingtcn arc
structurallyidcnticaldistributions. ) Wclfarccconomicsisthcthcory
ofcrrcnt timc-slicc principlcs of justicc. Jhcsubjcctisconccivcdas
opcratingon matriccs rcprcscnting only currcnt information about
distri bution. Jhis, as wcll as somc ofthc usual conditions c. g. thc
choicc of distribution is invariant undcr rclabclling of columns) ,
guarantccs that wclfarc cconomics will bc a currcnt timc-slicc
thcory,withallofitsinadcquacics.
Most pcrsons do not acccpt currcnt timcslicc principlcs as
constitutingthcwholc story about distributivcsharcs . Jhcy think it
rclcvantinasscssingthcjusticcofasituationtoconsidcrnotonlythc
distributionitcmbodics, but alsohowthatdistributioncamcabout.
!fsomcpcrsonsarc in prisonfor murdcror war crimcs, wc do not
say that to asscss thcjusticc ofthc distribution in thc socicty wc
must look only at what this pcrson has, and that pcrson has, and
that pcrson has . . . , atthc currcnttimc. Wcthinkitrclcvanttoask
whcthcrsomconc did somcthingso that hc drsrr:rd to bc punishcd,
dcscrvcdtohavca lowcrsharc. Mostwillagrccto thcrclcvanccof
furthcr information with rcgard to punishmcnts and pcnaltics.
Considcr also dcsircd things. Cnc traditional socialist vicw is that
workcrs arc cntitlcd to thc product and full fruits ofthcir labour,
thcy havc carncd it, a distribution is unjust ifit docs not givc thc
workcrswhatthcyarccntitlcdto. Suchcntitlcmcntsarcbascdupon
somc past history. lo socialist holding this vicw would hnd it
comfortingtobctoldthatbccauscthcactualdistributionA happcns
tocoincidcsrucurallywith thc onc hcdcsircs D, A thcrcforc is no
lcssjustthanD, itdicrsonlyinthatthc' parasitic`owncrsofcapital
rcccivc undcrA what thcworkcrs arc cntitlcd to undcr D, and thc
workcrs rcccivcundcrA what thcowncrsarc cntitlcd to undcrD) ,
namcly vcry littlc. Kightly in my vicw, this socialist holds onto thc
notionsofcarning,producing,cntitlcmcnt,dcscrt,ctc. and hcrcjccts
currcnt timc-slicc) principlcs that lookonly to thc structurc ofthc
IOO RCBERT NCZI CK
rcsulting sctofholdings . Jhc sctofholdings rcsultingfromwhat!
!sn`t it implausiblc that how holdings arc produccd and comc to
cxisthas noclIcctatallonwhoshouldholdwhat!) Hismistakclics
inhisvicwof whatcntitlcmcntsariscoutofwhatsortsofproductivc
proccsscs.
Wc construc thc position wc discuss too narrowly by spcakingof
carrra/ timcslicc principlcs. lothing is changcd if structural
principlcsopcratcuponatimcscqucnccofcurrcnttimc-sliccprohlcs
and,forcxamplc,givcsomconcmorcnowtocountcrbalanccthclcss
hc has hadcarlicr. A utilitarianor ancgalitarianorany mixturcof
thc two ovcr timc will inhcrit thc dimcultics ofhis morc myopic
comradcs. Hc is not hclpcd by thc fact thatscmr ofthc information
othcrs considcr rclcvant in asscssing a distribution is rchcctcd,
unrccovcrably, in past matriccs. Hcnccforth, wc shall rcfcr to such
unhistorical principlcs ofdistributivcjusticc, including thc currcnt
timcsliccprinciplcs,asrad-rrsa// riaci/rs orrad-s/a/r riaci/rs.
!n contrast to cnd-rcsult principlcsofjusticc, /is/crica/ riaci/rs of
justicc hold that past circumstanccs or actions ofpcolc can crcatc
dilIcrcntialcntitlcmcntsordilIcrcntialdcscrtstothings. Aninjusticc
can bc workcd by moving from onc distribution to anothcr
structurally idcntical onc, for thc sccond, in prohlc thc samc, may
violatc pcoplc` s cntitlcmcnts or dcscrts, it may not ht thc actual
history.
Ia//rmia
Jhc cntitlcmcnt principlcs of justicc in holdings that wc havc
skctchcd arc historical principlcs ofjusticc. Jo bcttcr undcrstand
thcir prccisc charactcr, wc shall distinguish thcm from anothcr
subclass ofthc historical principlcs . Considcr, as an cxamplc, thc
principlc ofdistribution according to moral mcrit Jhis principlc
rcquircs total distributivc sharcs tovary dircctly with moral mcrit,
no pcrson should havc a grcatcr sharc than anyonc whosc moral
mcrit is grcatcr !f moral mcrit could bc not mcrcly ordcrcd but
mcasurcd on anintcrvalorratioscalc, strongcrprinciplcs could bc
formulatcd. ) Cr considcr thc principlc that rcsults by substituting
uscfulncss tosocicty`for ' moralmcrit` inthcprcviousprinciplc. Cr
instcad of 'distributc according to moral mcrit` , or distributc
according to uscfulncss to socicty` , wc might considcr 'distributc
accordingtothcwcightcdsumofmoralmcrit, uscfulncsstosocicty,
andnccd` , withthcwcightsofthcdilIcrcntdimcnsionscqual . Lctus
call a principlc of distribution a//rmrd if it spccihcs that a
distributionis tovaryalongwith somcnaturaldimcnsion,wcightcd
sum of natural dimcnsions, or lcxicographic ordcring of natural
DI STRI BLTI VEjLSTI CE r o t
dimcnsions. And lct us say a distribution is pattcrncd ifit accords
with somc pattcrncd principlc. spcak of natural dimcnsions
admittcdlywithout agcncralcritcrionfor thcm, bccauscfor any sct
ofholdingssomc artihcial dimcnsions can bcgimmickcduptovary
alongwith thc distributionofthc sct . Jhc principlcofdistribution
in accordancc with moral mcrit is a pattcrncd historical principlc,
which spccihcs a pattcrncd distribution. ' istributc ccording to
isa pattcrncd principlc that looks toinformationnotcontaincd
in distributional matriccs. t is not historical, howcvcr, in that it
docsnotlooktoanypastactionscrcatingdilIcrcntialcntitlcmcntsto
cvaluatc a distribution, it rcquircs only distributional matriccs
whosc columns arc labcllcd by scorcs. Jhc distribution in a
socicty, howcvcr, may bc composcd of such simplc pattcrncd
distributions,withoutitsclfbcingsimplypattcrncd. ilIcrcntscctors
may opcratc dilIcrcnt pattcrns, or somc combination of pattcrns
mayopcratcindicrcntproportionsacrossasocicty. A distribution
composcd in this manncr, from a small numbcr of pattcrncd
distrbutions,wcalsoshalltcrmpattcrncd. Andwccxtcndthcuscof
' pattcrn` toincludcthcovcrall dcsigns putforth by combinationsof
cndstatcprinciplcs.
Almost cvcry suggcstcd principlc of distributivc justicc is pat-
tcrncd to cachaccordingto his moral mcrit, ornccds, ormarginal
product,orhowhard hctrics, orthcwcightcd sumofthcforcgoing,
and so on. Jhc principlc of cntitlcmcnt wc havc skctchcd is ac/
pattcrncd. Jhcrc is no onc natural dimcnsion orwcightcd sum or
combination ofa small numbcr o natural dimcnsions thatyiclds
thc distributions gcncratcd in accordancc with thc principlc of
cntitlcmcnt. Jhc sct of holdings that rcsults whcn somc pcrsons
rcccivc thcir marginal products, othcrs win at gambling, othcrs
rcccivc a sharc of thcir matc`s incomc, othcrs rcccivc gis from
foundations, othcrs rcccivc intcrcst on loans, othcrs rcccivc gifts
fromadmircrs,othcrsrcccivcrcturnsoninvcstmcnt,othcrsmakcfor
Cnc might try to squcczcapattcrncd conccptionodistributivcjusticc into thc
ramcwork o thc cntit|cmcnt conccption, by ormu|ating a gimmicky ob|igatory
'princip|cotranscr`thatwou|d|cadto thcpattcrn. lorcxamp|c,thcprincip|cthati
onc has morc than thc mcan incomc onc must transcrcvcrything onc ho|ds abovc
thc mcan to pcrsons bc|ow thc mcan so as to bring thcm up to [but not ovcr) thc
mcan. Wc can ormulatc a crtcrion or a 'principlc o transcr` to rulc out such
ob|igatorytranscrs,orwccansaythatnocorrcctprincip|cotranscr,noprincip|co
transcr in a rcc socictywi|l bc likc this. Thc ormcr is probably thc bcttcr coursc,
thoughthc|attcra|soistruc.
A|tcrnativc|y, onc might think to makc thc cntit|cmcnt conccption instantiatc a
pattcrn by using matrix cntrics that cxprcss thc rc|ativc strcngth o a pcrson`s
cntitlcmcnts asmcasurcdby somc rca|-va|ucd unction. utcvcnithc |imi tation to
natura| dimcnsons alcd to cxcludc this unction, thc rcsulting cdicc woud at
capturcoursystcmocntit|cmcntstoarticalarthings.
IO2 RCBERT NCZI CK
thcmsclvcs much ofwhat thcy havc, othcrs hnd things, and s oon,
willnotbcpattcrncd.Hcavystrandsofpattcrnswillrunthroughit,
signihcantportionsofthcvarianccinholdingswillbcaccountcdfor
by pattcrn variablcs . f most pcoplc most of thc timc choosc to
transfcr somc of thcir cntitlcmcnts to othcrs only in cxchangc for
somcthing from thcm, thcn a largc part ofwhat many pcoplc hold
willvarywith whatthcyhcld thatothcrswantcd. Morc dctails arc
providcd by thc thcory of marginal productivity But gifts to
rclativcs, charitablc donations, bcqucsts to childrcn, and thc likc,
arcnotbcstconccivcd,inthchrstinstancc,inthismanncr. gnoring
thc strands of pattcrn, lct us supposc for thc momcnt that a
distribution actually gottcn by thc opcration of thc principlc of
cntitlcmcnt is random with rcspcct to any pattcrn. Jhough thc
rcsulting sct of holdings will bc unpattcrncd, it will not bc
incomprchcnsiblc,for itcanbcsccnasarisingfromthcopcrationof
asmallnumbcrofprinciplcs. Jhcscprinciplcsspccifyhowaninitial
distributionmayarisc thc principlcofacquisitionofholdings) and
how distributions may bc transformcd into othcrs thc principlc of
transfcr of holdings) . Jhc proccss whcrcby thc sct ofholdings is
gcncratcd will bc intclligiblc, though thc sct ofholdings itsclfthat
rcsultsfromthisproccsswillbcunpattcrncd . .
Hcu Li/rr() |sr/s !a//rras
t is not clcar how thosc holding altcrnativc conccptions of
distributivcjusticccanrcjcctthccntitlcmcntconccptionof justiccin
holdings. lor supposc a distribution favourcd by onc ofthcsc non-
cntitlcmcnt conccptions is rcalizcd. Lct us supposc it is your
favouritconcandcall thisdistributionD, , pcrhapscvcryonchasan
cqual sharc, pcrhaps sharcs vary in accordancc with somc dimcn-
sionyoutrcasurc.lowsupposcthatWiltChambcrlainisgrcatlyin
dcmand by baskctball tcams, bcing a grcat gatc-attraction. Also
supposc contracts run only for a ycar, with playcrs bcing frcc
agcnts. ) Hcsigns thcfollowingsortofcontractwitha tcam. incach
homc gamc, twcntyhvc ccnts from thc pricc of cach tickct of
admission gocs to him. Wc ignorc thc qucstion ofwhcthcr hc is
'gouging` thc owncrs, lctting thcm look out for thcmsclvcs. ) Jhc
scason starts, and pcoplc chccrfully attcnd his tcam`s gamcs, thcy
buythcirtickcts, cachtimcdroppinga scparatctwcnty-hvcccntsof
thciradmissionpriccintoaspccialboxwithChambcrlain`snamcon
it. Jhcy arc cxcitcd about sccing him play, it is worth thc total
admission pricc to thcm. Lct us supposc that in onc scason onc
million pcrsons attcnd his homc gamcs, and Wilt Chambcrlain
DI STRI BLTI VEjLSTI CE t o
]
windsupwith

o, ooo,amuchlargcrsumthan thc avcragc incomc

andlargcrcvcnthan anyoncclschas. s hccntitlcd tothisincomc!
!s this ncw distribution D unjust! fso, why!Jhccis ac qucstion
aboutwhcthcrcachofthcpcoplcwascntitlcdtothccontrolovcrthc
rcsourccs thcy hcld, in D, bccausc that was thc distribution your
favouritc) that for thc purposcs of argumcnt) wc assumcd was
acccptablc. Lach ofthcsc pcrsons c/csr to givc twcnty-hvc ccnts of
thcir moncy to Chambcrlain. Jhcy could havc spcnt iton going to
thc movics, oron candy bars, oron copics ofDissra/ magazinc,orof
Mca//j) Kr:ira. Butthcyall, atlcastoncmillionofthcm, convcrgcd
ongivingittoWiltChambcrlainincxchangcforwatchinghimplay
baskctball. f D
,
was a just distribution, and pcoplc voluntarily
movcd from it to D, transfcrring parts of thcir sharcs thcy wcrc
gvcn undcr D what was itfor ifnot to do somcthingwith!) , sn` t
D also just!f thcpcoplcwcrccntitlcdtodisposcofthccsourccsto
which thcywcrccnt tlcd undcrD
,
) , ddn` tthisincludc thcirbcing
cntitlcd to givc it to, or cxchangc it with, Wilt Chambcrlain! Can
anyonc clsc complain on grounds ofjusticc! Lach othcr pcrson
alrcadyhashislcgitimatcsharcundcrD
,
. ndcrD
,
thcrcisnothng
thatanyonchas thatanyoncclschasaclaimof justiccagainst. Aftcr
somconctransfcrssomcthingtoWiltChambcrlain,thirdparticss/i//
havc thcir lcgitimatc sharcs, //rir sharcs arc not changcd. By what
proccss could such a transfcr among two pcrsons givc risc to a
lcgitimatc claim of distributivc justicc on a portion of what was
transfcrrcd, by a third party who had no claim ofjusticc on any
holding of thc othcrs /crr thc transfcr! Jo cut o objcctions
irrclcvant hcrc, wc might imaginc thc cxchangcs occurrng in a
socialist socicty, aftcr hours . Aftcr playing whatcvcr baskctball hc
docs in his dailywork, ordongwhatcvcrothcrdailyworkhcdocs,
' Might nota transfcr havc instrumcnta| cccts on a third party, changing his
fcasib|coptions![ut whatifthctwopartics to thc transfcrindcpcndcnt|y haduscd
thcirho|dings in ths fashion!) ! discussthisqucstionc|scwhcrc, butnotchcrcthat
this qucstion conccdcs thc point for distributions of ultimatc intrinsic non
instrumcnta|goods[purcuti|itycxpcricnccs,sotospcak)thatarctransfcrablc. !ta|so
mightbcobjcctcdthatthctransfcrmightmakca thirdpartymorccnviousbccauscit
worscnshispositionrc|ativctosomconcc|sc. ! nditincomprchcnsib|chowitcanbc
thought that this invo|vcs a c|aimofjusticc. Cncnvy, sccAaarch, Statt, aad |tcia,
ch.8.
Hcrc and c|scwhcrc in this cssay, a thcory which incorporatcs c|cmcnts ofpurc
proccdura|usticcmighthndwhat! sayacccptab|c kcptinitspropcrp|acc,thatis
ifbackground institutions cxist to cnsurc thc satisfaction ofccrtain conditions on
distributivc sharcs. ut ifthcsc institutions arc not thcmsc|vcs thc sum or invisib|c
hand rcsult of pcoplc`s vo|untary nonaggrcssivc) actons, thc constrants thcy
imposc rcquircustihcation. At no point docs carargumcnt assumc anybackground
institutions morc cxtcnsivc than thoscofthc minima| nightwatchman statc, |imitcd
toprotcctingpcrsonsagainstmurdcr,assau|t,thcft,fraud,ctc.
t o
4
RCBERT NCZI CK
Wilt Chambcrlain dccidcs to put in crcr/imc to carn additional
moncy. lirst his work quota is sct hc works timc ovcr that. ) Cr
imagincitis a skillcdjugglcr pcoplclikctoscc,whoputs on shows
aftcrhours.
Why might somcpcoplcworkovcrtimcin a socictyinwhich it is
assumcd thcirnccds arc satishcd! lcrhapsbccausc thcy carc about
things othcrthan nccds likctowritcinbooksthat rcad, and to
havccasyacccss to books for browsing at odd hours. t would bc
vcry plcasant and convcnicnt to havc thc rcsourccs of Widcncr
Library in my back yard. lo socicty, assumc, will providc such
rcsourccs closc to cach pcrson who would likc thcm as part ofhis
rcgular allotmcnt undcrD, ) . Jhus, pcrsonscithcrmustdowithout
somc cxtra things that thcy want, or bc allowcd to do somcthing
cxtra to gct somc o thcsc things. Cn what basis could thc
incqualitics that would cvcntuatc bc forbiddcn! loticc also that
small factorics would spring up in a socialist soccty, unlcss
forbiddcn. mcltdown somcofmy pcrsonalposscssion undcrD, )
and build a machinc out ofthc matcrial . ocr you, and othcrs, a
philosophy lccturc oncc a wcck in cxchangc for your cranking thc
handlc on my machinc, whosc products cxchangc for yct othcr
things,andsoon. Jhcrawmatcrialsuscdbythcmachincarcgivcn
tomcbyothcrswhoposscssthcmundcrD , , incxchangcforhcaring
lccturcs . ) Lach pcrson might participatc to gain things ovcr and
abovc thcirallotmcntundcr D, . Somcpcrsonscvcnmght want to
lcavcthcirjobinsocialistindustry,andworkfulltimcinthisrivatc
scctor. say somcthing morc about thcsc issucs clscwhcrc. Hcrc
wish mcrcly to notc how privatc propcrty, cvcn in mcans of
production, would occur in a socialist socicty that did not forbid
pcolc to usc as thcy wishcd somc ofthc rcsourccs thcy arc givcn
undcrthcsocialistdistributionD, . Jhcsocialistsocictywouldhavc
toforbidcapitalistactsbctwccnconscntingadults.

Sccthc sc|cctionrom]ohn Hcnry Macay`s novc|, 7ht Aaarchists, rcprintcdin

LconardrimmcrmanandLcwis Pcrry [cds. ) , FatttcAaarch [NcwYork, t gGG) ,
t G-, in which an individualist anarchist prcsscs upon a communist anarchist thc
qucstion. Wou|d you, in thc systcm o socicty which you ca|| "rcc Communism
prcvcntindividua|sromcxchangingthcir|aboramongthcmsc|vcsby mcansothcir
own mcdium ocxchangc! And urthcr. Wou|d you prcvcntthcm rom occupying
|andor thcpurposcopcrsonalusc!` Thcnovc|continucs thc qucstionwas notto
bc cscapcd. !hcanswcrcd "Ycs hc admittcd that socicty had thc rght ocontro|
ovcrthcindividua|andthrcwovcrboardthcautonomyothcindividua|which hchad
a|ways zcalous|y dccndcd, ionthcothcr hand,hcanswcrcd "No hc admittcd thc
right oprivatc propcrty which hc hadj ust dcnicd so cmphatica||y. . . . Thcn hc
answcrcd"!nAnarchyany numbcromcnmusthavcthcrightoormingavoluntary
association, and so rca|izing thcir idcas in practicc. Nor an ! undcrstand how any
onc cou|djustly bc drivcn romthc|andandhouscwhich hc uscs and occupics . . .
cvcry scrious man must dcc|arc himscl or Socia|ism, and thcrcby or orcc and
against |bcrty, or or Anarchism, and thcrcby or |ibcrty and againstorcc. ' n
DI STRI BLTI VEjLSTI CE
Jhc gcncral point illustratcd by thc Wilt Chambcrlain cxamplc
and thc cxamplcofthccntrcprcncurin a socialist socictyis that no
cnd-statc principlc or distributional pattcrn principlc ofjusticc can
bc continuously rcalizcd without continuous intcrfcrcncc into
pcoplc` s livcs. Anyfavourcd pattcrnwould bc transformcd intoonc
unfavourcd by thc principlc, by pcoplc choosing to act in various
ways, c. g. by pcoplc cxchanging goods and scrviccs with othcr
pcoplc, orgivingthings to othcr pcoplc, things thc transfcrrcrs arc
cntitlcd to undcr thcfavourcddistributionalpattcrn. Jomaintaina
pattcrn onc must cithcr continuously intcrfcrc to stop pcoplc from
transfcrring rcsourccs as thcy wish to, or continually or pcriodi
cally) intcrfcrc to takc from somc pcrsons rcsourccs that othcrs for
somc rcason chosc to transfcr to thcm. Butifsomc timc limit is to
bc sct on how long pcoplc may kccp rcsourccs othcrs voluntarily
transfcrtothcm, whylctthcmkccpthcscrcsourccsfor0g pcriodof
timc Why not havc immcdiatc conhscation) t might bc obj cctcd
thatallpcrsonsvoluntarilywillchoosctorcfrainfromactionswhich
would upsctthcpattcrn.Jhisprcsupposcsunrcalistically 0) thatall
will most want to maintain thc pattcrn arc thosc who don t, to bc
'rccducatcdorforccdtoundcrgo'sclfcriticism` ) , /) thatcachcan
gathcr cnough information about his own actions and thc ongoing
activitics will upsct thc pattcrn, and c) that divcrsc and farhung
pcrsons can coordinatc thcir actions to dovctail into thc pattcrn.
Comparcthcmanncrinwhichthcmarkctis ncutralamongpcrsons`
dcsircs, as itrchcctsand transmitswidclyscattcrcd informationvia
priccs,andco-ordinatcspcrsons`activitics.
t puts things pcrhaps a bit too strongly to say that cvcry
pattcrncd or cndstatc) principlc is liablc to bc thwartcd by thc
voluntaryactions ofthcindividual partics transfcrringsomcofthcir
sharcs thcyrcccivcundcr thc principlc. lor pcrhaps somc 0c[ wcak
pattcrns arc not so thwartcd. Any distributional pattcrn with any
contrast, wc hnd Noam Chomsky writing, 'Any consistcnt anarchist must opposc
privatcowncrshipolthcmcansolproduction, ` and 'thcconsistcntanarchistthcn . . .
wi|IbcasociaIist . . . ofaparticu|arsort. ` !ntroductiontoDanic|Gucrin,Aaarchism.
Iram7htataIractict NcwYork, t g;o) , pp. xiii,xv. )
' !s thc pattcrncd principIc stabIc that rcquircs mcrc|y that a distribution bc
Farctooptima Cnc pcrson might givc anothcr a gilt or bcqucst that thc sccond
cou|d cxchangc with a third to thcir mutuaI bcncht. cforc thc sccond makcs this
cxchangc, thcrcis not Farctooptimaity. !sa stabIc pattcrn prcscntcd by a princip|c
choosing that among thc Farctooptima positions that satishcs somc lurthcr
conditionC !tmaysccmthcrccannotbcacountcr-cxamp|cforwon` tanyvo|untary
cxchangc madc away lrom a situation show that thc rst situation wasn`t Farcto
optima! [!gnorc thc imp|ausibi|ity olthis |ast c|aim lor thc casc olbcqucsts. ) ut
principlcs arc to bc satiscd ovcr timc, during which ncw possbilitics arsc. A
distribution that at onc timc satishcs thc critcrion ofFarcto-optima|ity might not do
sowhcn somc ncw possibi|itics arisc [WiItChambcr|ain grows upandstartspIaying
baskctball) and though pcoplc`s activitics will tcnd to movc thcn to a ncw Farcto-
t o RCBERTNCZI CK
cgalitarian componcnt i s ovcrturnablc bythc voluntary actions of
individual pcrsons ovcr timc, as is cvcry pattcrncd condition with
sumcicntcontcntsoasactuallytohavcbccnproposcdasprcscnting
thcccntralcorcofdistributivcjusticc. Still,givcnthcpossibilitythat
somcwcakconditionsorpattcrnsmaynotbcunstablcinthisway,it
would bc bcttcrto formulatc an cxplicit dcscription ofthckind of
intcrcstingand contcntful) pattcrnsundcrdiscussion, andtoprovc
a thcorcm about thcir instability. Sincc thc wcakcr thc pattcrning,
thc morc likcly itis that thc cntitlcmcnt systcm itsclfsatishcs it, a
plausiblc conjccturc is that any pattcrning cithcr is unstablc or is
satishcdbythccntitlcmcntsystcm . . .
Krdis/ri/a/iaa aad !tart() Kih/s
Apparcntly pattcrncd principlcs allow pcoplc to choosc to cxpcnd
upon thcmsclvcs, but not upon othcrs, thosc rcsourccs thcy arc
cntitlcd to or rathcr, rcccivc) undcr somc favourcd distributional
pattcrnD, . lorifcachofscvcralpcrsonschooscs tocxpcndsomcof
his D, rcsourccs upononcothcrpcrson, thcn thatothcrpcrsonwill
rcccivc mrc than his D, sharc, disturbing thc favourcd distribu-
tionalpattcrn.Maintainingadistributionalpattcrnisindividualism
with a vcngcancc lattcrncd distributinal principlcs do not givc
pcoplc what cntitlcmcnt principlcs do, only bcttcr distri butcd. lor
thcy donot givc thc right to choosc what to do with what onc has,
thcy do not givc thc right to choosc to pursuc an cnd involving
intrinsically, orasamcans) thccnhanccmcntofanothcr` sposition.
Jo such vicws, familics arc disturbing for within a family occur
transfcrs that upsct thc favourcd distributional pattcrn. Lithcr
familics thcmsclvcs bccomc units to which distribution takcs placc,
thc column occupicrs on what rationalc!) , or loving bchaviour is
forbiddcn. Wc should notc in passing thc ambivalcnt position of
radicals towards thc family. ts loving rclationships arc sccn as a
modcltobccmulatcdandcxtcndcdacrossthcwholcsocicty,whilcit
is dcnounccd as a suhocating institution to bc brokcn, and
condcmncd as a focus of parochial conccrns that intcrfcrc with
achicving radical goals. lccd wc say that it is not appropriatc to
cnforcc across thc widcrsocicty thc rclationships oflovc and carc
appropriatc within family, rclationships which arc voluntarily
undcrtakcn!

ncidcntally,lovcisanintcrcstinginstancc ofanothcr
optima| position, this ncw onc nccd notsatisy thccontcntu| condition C. Continua|
intcrcrcnccwi||bcnccdcdtocnsurcthccontinua|satisactionoC. [Thcthcorctica|
possibi|ity shou|d bcinvcstigatcd oa pattcrn`s bcingmaintaincd by somcinvisib|c
hand

roccss that brings i t back to an cqui|ibrium that hts thc pattcrn whcn
dcviationsoccur. )
Cnc indication othc stringcncy oKaw|s's dicrcncc principlc, which wc
attcnd to in thc sccond part o this cssay, is its inappropriatcncss as a govcrning
DI STRI BLTI VEjLSTI CE i o
7
rclationship that is historical, in that likcjusticc) it dcpcnds upon
whatactuallyoccurrcd.Anadultmaycomctolovcanothcrbccausc
ofthcothcr`scharactcristics, butitis thcothcrpcrson, and not thc
charactcristics, thatislovcd. Jhclovcisnottransfcrablctosomconc
clsc with thc samc charactcristics, cvcn to onc who scorcs` highcr
for thcsc charactcristics. And thc lovc cndurcs through changcs of
thc charactcristics that gavc risc to it. Cnc lovcs thc particular
pcrsononcactuallycncountcrcd.Whylovcishistorical,attach|ngto
pcrsons in thisway and nottocharactcristics, isanintcrcstingand
puzzlingqucstion.
lroponcnts of pattcrncd principlcs of distributivc justicc focus
upon critcria for dctcrmining who is to rcccivc holdings, thcy
considcrthcrcasonsforwhichsomconcshouldhavcsomcthing,and
also thc totalpicturcofholdings. Whcthcrornotitis bcttcr togivc
than to rcccivc, proponcnts of pattcrncd principlcs ignorc giving
altogcthcr. n considcring thc distribution of goods, incomc, ctc. ,
thcir thcoricsarcthcoricsofrccipicnt-justicc,thcycomplctclyignorc
any right a pcrson might havc to givc somcthing to somconc. Lvcn
incxchangcswhcrccachpartyissimultancouslygivcrandrccipicnt,
pattcrncdprinciplcsof j usticcfocusonlyuponthcrccipicntrolcand
its supposcd rights. Jhus discussions tcnd to focus on whcthcr
pcoplc should) havc a right to inhcrit, rathcr than on whcthcr
pcoplcshould)havcarighttobcqucathoronwhcthcrpcrsonswho
havca right to hold also havc a rightto choosc that othcrs hold in
thcir placc. lacka good cxplanat|on ofwhythcusual thcorics of
distributivc j usticc arc so rccipicnt-oricntcd, ignoring givcrs and
transfcrrcrsandthcirrightsisofapicccwithignoringproduccrsand
thcircntitlcmcnts. Butwhyisita// ignorcd!
lattcrncd principlcs ofdistributivcjusticc ncccssitatc distribu-
tivcactivitics. Jhclikclihoodis small that anyactualfrccly arrivcd
atsctofhold|ngshtsagivcn pattcrn, andthclikclihoodisnil thatit
will continuc to ht thc pattcrn as pcoplc cxchangc and givc. lrom
thcpointofvicwofancntitlcmcntthcory, rcdistributionisascrious
mattcrindccd, involving, asitdocs, thcviolationofpcoplc`s rights.
An cxccption is thosc takings that fall undcr thc principlc ofthc
rcctihcation of injust|ccs. ) lrom othcr points of vicw, also, it is
scrious.
principlc cvcn within a family olindividualswholovconcanothcr. Should a family
dcvotcitsrcsourccsto maximizingthcpositionolitslcastwcll-oandtalcntcdchild,
holding back thc othcr childrcn or using rcsourccs for thcir cducation and
dcvclopmcntonlyilthcywillollowapolicythroughoutthcirlifctimcsofmaximizing
thc position ofthcir lcast fortunatc sibing! Surcly not. How thcn can this cvcn bc
considcrcd as thc appropriatc policy lor cnforccmcntinthcwidcrsocicty! [! discuss
bclowwhat ! thinkwould bc Kawls`srcply thatsomcprinciplcsapplyat thcmacro
lcvclwhichdonotapplytomicrositations. )
r o8 RCBERTNCZI CK
Jaxationofcarningsfromlabouri sona parwithforccd labour.
Somcpcrsonshndthisclaimobviouslytruc takingthccarningsofu
hours labouris likc takingu hoursfrom thc pcrson, it is likc forcing
thc pcrson to work u hours for anothcr` s purposc Cthcrs hnd thc
claimabsurd. Butcvcn thcsc, thcyobjccttoforccdlabour,would
opposc forcing uncmploycd hippics to work for thc bcncht ofthc
nccdy.
,
And thcy alsowouldobjccttoforcingcach pcrsontowork
hvccxtrahourscachwcckfor thcbcnchtofthcnccdy. But asystcm
thattakcshvc hours` wagcsintaxcsdocsnotsccmtothcmlikconc
that forccs somconc to work hvc hours, sincc it ohcrs thc forccc a
widcrrangc ofchoiccinactiviticsthandocstaxationin kind with thc
particular labour spccihcd. But wc can imaginc a gradation of
systcms of forccd labour, fom onc that spccihcs a particular
activity,tooncthatgivcsachoiccamongtwoactiviticsto. . , and
so on up. ) lurthcrmorc, pcoplc cnvisagc a systcm with somcthing
likcaproportionaltaxoncvcrythingabovcthcamountncccssaryfor
basic nccds. Somc think this docs not forcc somconc to work cxtra
hours, sincc thcrc isnohxcd numbcr ofcxtra hours hc isforccd to
wok, andsincchccanavoidthctaxcntirclybycarningonlycnough
tocovcrhisbasicnccds. Jhisisavcryuncharactcisticvicwofforcing
for thosc whoa/sc think pcoplc arc forccd to do somcthing hcucrcr
thc altcrnativcs thcy facc arc considcrably worsc. Howcvcr, uci/hcr
vicw is corrcct. Jhc fact that othcrs intcntionally intcrvcnc, in
violationofa sidc-constraintagainstaggrcssion, tothrcatcnforcc to
limitthcaltcrnativcs,inthiscasctopayingtaxcsor prcsumablythc
worsc altcrnativc) barc subsistcncc, makcs thc taxation systcmonc
of forccd labour, and distinguishcs it from othcr cascs oflimitcd
choiccswhicharcnotforcings.
I I
Jhcman whochooscstowoklongctogainanincomcmorc than
sumcicntfor his basicnccds prcfcrs somccxtragoodsorscrviccsto
thc lcisurc and activitics hc could pcrform during thcpossiblcnon-
am unsurc as to whcthcr thc argumcnts ! prcscnt bclow show that such
taxationust isorccd labour so that 'is on a par with' mcans 'is onc kind o. ' Cr
altcrnativcly, whcthcrthc argumcntscmphasizc thcgrcatsimlaritics bctwccn such
taxation and orccd |abour, to show it s p|ausiblc and i|luminating to vicw such
taxation inthclightoorccdlabour. Thislattcrapproachwould rcmndoncohow
]ohnWisdomconccivcsothcclaimsomctaphysicians.
'
Nothinghangson thcactthathcrcandclscwhcrc! spcakloosclyoattds, sincc
! go on, cach timc, to rccct thc critcrion ousticc which includcs it. !, howcvcr,
somcthingdiddcpcnduponthcnotion,oncwou|dwanttocxamincitmorccarcul|y.
lor a sccptical vicw, scc cnncth Minoguc, 7ht Li/tra/ Miad Ncw York, t gG) ,
t o t z.
lurthcr dctals that this statcmcnt should ncludc arc containcd n my cssay,
Cocrcion, in S. Morgcnbcsscr, F. Suppcs, and M. Whitc [cds. ) , Fhilcsch, Scitact,
aadMthcdNcwYork, gGg) .
DI STRI BLTI VEjLSTI CE r o

workinghours, whcrcas thc man who chooscs not towork thc cxtra
timc prcfcrs thc lcisurc activitics to thc cxtra goods or scrviccs hc
could acquirc by working morc. Givcn this, if it would bc
illcgitimatcfor a tax systcm to scizcsomcofa man` slcisurc forccd
labour) forthcpurposcofscrvingthcnccdy,howcanitbclcgitimatc
for a tax systcm to scizc somc of a man`s goods for that purposc!
Why should wc trcat thc man whosc happincss rcquircs ccrtain
matcrial goods or scrviccs dihcrcntly from thc man whosc prcfcr-
cnccs and dcsircs makc such goods unncccssary for his happincss!
Why should thc man who prcfcrs sccing a movic and who has to
carn moncy for a tickct) bc opcn to thc rcquircd call to aid thc
nccdy, whilc thc pcrson who prcfcrs lookingata sunsct and hcncc
nccd carn no cxtra moncy) is not! ndccd, isn` t it surprising that
rcdistributionists choosc to ignorc thc man whosc plcasurcs arc so
casily attainablc without cxtra labour, whilc adding yct anothcr
burdcnto thc poorunfortunatcwhomustworkfor hisplcasurcs!f
anything, onc would havc cxpcctcd thc rcvcrsc. Why i sthc pcrson
withthcnon-matcrialornonconsumptiondcsircallowcdtoprocccd
unimpcdcd to his most favourcd fcasiblc altcrnativc, whcrcas thc
man whosc plcasurcs or dcsircs involvc matcrial things and who
mustwork for cxtra moncy thcrcby scrving whocvcr considcrs his
activiticsvaluablccnoughtopayhim) isconstraincdinwhathccan
rcalizc! lcrhaps thcrc is no dihcrcncc in principlc. And pcrhaps
somcthinkthcanswcrconccrns mcrclyadministrativc convcnicncc.
Jhcscqucstions andissucs will notdisturb thosc who thinkforccd
labourtoscrvcthcnccdyorrcalizcsomcfavourcd cnd-statc pattcrn
acccptablc. ) n a fullcr discussion wc would havc and want) to
cxtcndour argumcnt toincludcintcrcst,cntrcprcncurialprohts,ctc.
Jhoscwho doubt that this cxtcnsion can bc carricd through, and
whodraw thclinchcrc attaxationofincomcfromlabour,willavc
tostatcrathcrcomplicatcdpattcrncd/is/crica/ principlcsofdistribu-
tivcjusticc, sincccndstatcprinciplcswouldnotdistinguishscarcrs of
incomcinanyway. tis cnoughfor nowtogctawayfromcnd-statc
principlcs and to makc clcar how various pattcrncd principlcs arc
dcpcndcnt upon particular vicws about thc sourccs or thc il-
lcgitimacy or thc lcsscr lcgitimacy of prohts, intcrcst, ctc. which
particularvicwsmaywcllbcmistakcn.
What sort ofright ovcrothcrs docs a lcgally institutionalizcdcnd-
statc pattcrn givconc! Jhc ccntralcorcofthc notion ofa propcrty
rght in X, rclativc to which othcr parts of thc notion arc to bc
cxplaincd, is thc right to dctcrminc what shall bc donc withZ, thc
righttochooscwhichofthc constraincd sctofoptions conccrningZ
shall bc calizcd or attcmptcd.

Jhc constraints arc sct by othcr
J
Cnthcthcmcsinthisandthcncxtparagraph,sccthcwritingsolArmcnAlchian.
I I O RCBERT NCZ ICK
principlcs or laws opcrating i n thc socicty, i n our thcory by thc
Lockcan rights pcoplc posscss undcr thc minimal statc) My
propcrtyrightsinmyknifcallowmctolcavcitwhcrc will, butnot
in your chcst. may choosc which of thc acccptablc options
involvingthcknifcistobcrcalizcd. Jhisnotionofpropcrtyhclpsus
to undcrstand why carlicr thcorists spokc of pcoplc as having
propcrty in thcmsclvcs and thcir labour. Jhcy vicwcd cach pcrson
ashavingarighttodccidcwhatwouldbccomcofhimsclfandwhathc
woulddo,andashavingarighttorcapthcbcnchtsofwhathcdid.
Jhis right of sclccting thc altcrnativc to bc rcalizcd from thc
constraincd sct ofaltcrnativcs may bc hcld by an iudiridual or by a
grcu] with somcproccdurcfor rcachingajointdccision, orthc right
may bc passcd back and forth, so that onc ycar dccidc what`s to
bccomc ofZ, and thc ncxt ycar you do with thc altcrnativc of
dcstruction, pcrhaps, bcing cxcludcd) . Cr, during thc samc timc
pcriod, somc typcs ofdccisions aboutZ may bc madc by mc, and
othcrs by you. And soon. Wc lackan adcquatc, fruitful, analytical
apparatusforclassifyingthc()]cs ofconstraints onthcsctofoptions
amongwhichchoiccs arc to bc madc, andthc()]cs ofways dccision
powcrs can bchcld, dividcd, andamalgamatcd. A/hcc ofpropcrty
would, among othcr things, contain such a classihcation of
constraints and dccision modcs, and from a small numbcr of
principlcs would follow a host ofintcrcsting statcmcnts about thc
rcuscqucurcs and chccts of ccrtain combinations of constraints and
modcsofdccision.
Whcn cnd-rcsultprinciplcsofdistributivcjusticcarcbuiltinto thc
lcgal structurc ofa socicty, thcy as do most pattcrncd principlcs)
givc cach citizcn an cnforccablc claim to somc portion ofthc total
social product, that is, to somc portion of thc sum total of thc
individually and jointly madc products. Jhis total product is
produccd by individuals labouring, using mcans of production
othcrs havc savcd to bring into cxistcncc, by pcoplc organizing
production orcrcatingmcans to producc ncw things or things in a
ncw way. t is on this batch ofindividual activitics that pattcrncd
distributional principlcs givccach individual an cnforccablc claim.
Lach pcrson has a claim t othc activitics and thc productsofothcr
pcrsons, indcpcndcntly of whcthcr thc othcr pcrsons cntcr into
particularrclationships that givc risc to thcsc claims, and indcpcn-
dcntly ofwhcthcr thcy voluntarily takc thcsc claims upon thcm-
sclvcs,incharityorincxchangcforsomcthing
Whcthcritisdoncthroughtaxationonwagcsoronwagcs ovcra
ccrtainamount,orthroughscizurcofprohts,orthroughthcrcbcing
a bigscria/ ]c/ so that it`s notclcarwhat` s coming from whcrc and
what` s going whcrc, pattcrncd principlcs of distributivc j usticc
DI STRI BLTI VEjLSTI CE I I I
involvc appropriating thc actions of othcr pcrsons. Scizing thc
rcsults ofsomconc`s labouris cquivalcnt to scizinghours from im
and dircctinghim tocarryonvarious activitics. !fpcoplc forcc you
todoccrtainwork,orunrcwardcdwork,foraccrtainpcriodoftimc,
thcydccidc whatyouarc to do anwhat purposcsyourwork is to
scrvcapartfromyourdccisions. Jhisproccsswhcrcbythcytakcthis
dccision from you makcs thcm aar/ carr ofyou, itgivcs thcm a
propcrty riht inyou justashavingsuch partialcontrol and powcr
ofdccision byright,ovcrananimalorinanimatcobjcctwouldbcto
havcapropcrtyrightinit.
Lndstatc and most pattcrncd principlcs ofdistributivc justicc
institutc partial) owncrship by othcrs ofpcoplc and thcir actions
and labour. Jhcsc principlcs involvc a shift from thc classical
libcrals` notion ofsclf-owncrship to a notion of partial) propcrty
rightsinc/hrr pcoplc
onsidcrations such as thcsc confront cnd-statc and othcr
pattcrncd conccptions ofjusticc with thc qucstion ofwhcthcr thc
actions ncccssary to achicvc thc sclcctcd pattcrn don`t thcmsclvcs
violatc moral sidcconstraints. Any vicw holding that thcrc arc
moral sidc-constraints on actions, that not all moral considcrations
can bc built into cnd-statcs thatarc to bcachicvcd mustfacc thc
possibility that somc ofits goals arc not achicvablc by any morally
pcrmissiblc availablc mcans. An cntitlcmcnt thcoristwill facc such
conhictsi a socicty thatdcviatcs from thcprinciplcsofjusticc for
thcgcncrationofholdings,ifand onlyifthconly actionsavailablcto
rcalizc thc principlcs thcmsclvcs violatc somc moral constraints.
Sinccdcviationfromthchrstwoprinciplcsof j usticc inacquisition
and transfcr) will involvc othcr pcrsons` dircct and aggrcssivc
intcrvcntion to violatc rights, and sincc moral constraints will not
cxcludcdcfcnsivcorrctributivcactioninsuchcascs,thccntitlcmcnt
thcorist` sproblcm rarclywillbc prcssing. Andwhatcvcrdimcultics
hc has in applying thc principlcofrcctihcation to pcrsons who did
not thcmsclvcs violatc thc hrst two principlcs, arc dimcultics in
balancingthcconhictingconsidcrationssoas corrcctly to formulatc
thc complcx principlc of rcctihcation itsclf hc will not violatc
moral sidc-constraints by applying thc principlc. lroponcnts of
pattcrncd conccptions ojusticc, howcvcr, ocn will acc hcadon
clashcs and poignant oncs ifthcy chcrish cach party to thc clash)
bctwccn moral sidc-constraints on how individuals may bc trcatcd
on thc onc hand and, on thc othcr, thcir pattcrncd conccption of
justicc that prcscnts an cndstatc or othcr pattcrn that mas/ bc
rcalizcd.
` SccAaarch,Statt,aadC|cia,ch. .
I I 2 RCBERTNCZI CK
May a pcrson cmigratc from a nation that has institutionalicd
somc cndstatc or pattcrncd distributional principlc! lor somc
principlcs c. g. Hayck` s) cmigration prcscnts no thcorctical
problcm. But for othcrs it is a tricky mattcr. Considcr a nation
having a compulsory schcmc ofminimal social provision to aid thc
nccdicst or onc organicd so as to maximic thc position of thc
worst-ogroup) , no onc may opt out ofparticipating in it. lonc
maysay, don` tcompclmctocontributctoothcrsanddon` tprovidc
for mcvia this compulsory mcchanismif am in nccd. ` ) vcryonc
abovc a ccrtain lcvcl isforccd to contributc toaid thc nccdy. But if
cmigrationfrom thc countrywcrc allowcd, anyonc could choosc to
movc to anothcr country that did not havc compulsory social
provisionbutothcrwiscwas as muchaspossiblc) idcntical . nsuch
a casc, thc pcrson` s only motivc for lcaving would bc to avoid
participatinginthccompulsory schcmcofsocialprovision.Andifhc
docs lcavc, thc nccdy in this initial country will rcccivc no
compcllcd) hclpfromhim.Whatrationalcyicldsthcrcsultthatthc
pcrsonbcpcrmittcdtocmigratc,yctforbiddcntostayandoptoutof
thc compulsory schcmc of social provision! fproviding for thc
nccdy is of ovcrriding importacc, this docs militatc against
allowing intcrnal opting out, but it also spcaks against allowing
cxtcrnal cmigration. Would it also support, to somc cxtcnt, thc
kidnapping ofpcrsons living in a placc without compulsory social
provision, who could bcforccd to makca contribution to thc nccdy
inyourcommunity!) lcrhapsthccrucialcomponcntofthcposition
that allowscmigration solcly to avoid ccrtain arrangcmcnts, whilc
not allowing anyonc intcrnally to opt out ofthcm, is a conccrn for
fratcrnal fcclings within thc country. Wc don` t want anyonc hcrc
whodocsn` tcontributc, whodocsn` tcarccnoughaboutthcothcrsto
contributc. ` Jhatconccrn, in this casc, wouldhavc to bcticdto thc
vicw that forccd aiding tcnds to producc fratcrnalfcclings bctwccn
thc aidcd and thc aidcr or pcrhaps mcrcly to thc vcw that thc
knowlcdgcthatsomconcorothcrvoluntarily is not aidingproduccs
unfratcrnalfcclings)
Lackr`s 7/ra aAceisi/iaa
Bcforc wc turn to considcr anothcr thcory ofjusticc in dctail, wc
mustintroducc an additional bit ofcomplcxity into thc structurc of
thc cntitlcmcnt thcory. Jhis s bcst approachcd by considcring
Lockc`sattcmpttospccifyaprinciplcof justiccinacquisition. Lockc
vicwspropcrtyrights in an unowncd objcct as originating through
somconc`s mixing his labour with it. Jhis givcs risc to many
qucstions What arcthcboundaricsofwhat labourismixcdwith!f
DI STRI BLTI VEjLSTI CE r r
]
a privatc astronaut clcas a placcon Mars, has hcmicd his labou
with so that hc comcs to own) thc wholc planct, thc wholc
uninhabitcd univcrsc, orjusta particularplot Which plot docs an
act bring undcr owncrship Jhc minimal possibly disconncctcd)
arca such that an act dccrcascs cntropy in that arca, and not
clscwhcrc Canvirginland for thcpurposcsofccologicalinvcstiga
tion by high-yingairplancs ) comc undcr owncrship by a Lockcan
proccss Building a fcncc around a tcrritory prcsumably would
makc onc thc owncr ofonly thc fcncc and thc land immcdiatcly
undcrncathit) .
Why docs mixing onc` s labour with somcthing makc onc thc
owncr of it lcrhaps bccausc onc owns onc` s labour, and so onc
comcs to owna prcviously unowncd thingthatbccomcspcrmcatcd
with what onc owns. Cwncrship sccps ovcr into thc rcst. But why
isn` tmixingwhat! ownwithwhat! don` townawayof losingwhat
! own rathcr than a way ofgainingwhat ! don`t !f! own a can of
tomatojuicc,andspillitinthcscasothatitsmolcculcs radioactivc,
so ! can chcckthis) minglccvcnlythroughoutthcsca,do ! thcrcby
comctoownthcsca,orhavc! foolishlydissipatcdmytomatojuicc
lcrhaps thcidca, instcad, is thatlabouringon somcthingimprovcs
itandmakcsitmorcvaluablc,andanyonciscntitlcdtoowna thing
whosc) valuchc has crcatcd. Kcinforcingthis, pcrhaps, is thcvicw
that labouring is unplcasant. !fsomc pcoplc madc things chort-
lcssly, as thc cartoon charactcrs in 7/r Ir//cu Sa/mariar trailhowcrs
in thcir wakc, would thcy havc lcsscr claim to thcir own products
whosc making didn t ccst thcm anything) !gnorc thc fact that
labouring on somcthing may makc it lcss valuablc spraying pink
cnamcl paint on a found piccc of driftwood) . Why should onc`s
cntitlcmcntcxtcnd to thcwholcobjcctrathcrthanj ustto thc addrd
/a/ar onc` slabourhas produccd Suchrcfcrcncctovalucmightalso
scrvctodclimitthccxtcntofowncrship,c. g. substitutc'incrcascsthc
valuc o for dccrcascs cntropy in` in thc abovc cntropy critcrion )
loworkablcorcohcrcntvaluc-addcdpropcrtyschcmchasyctbccn
dcviscd, and any such schcmc prcsumably would fall to objcctions
similartothosc) thatfcllthcthcoryofHcnryGcorgc
!t will bc implausiblc to vicw improving an objcct as giving full
owncrship to it, if thc stock of unowncd objccts that might bc
improvcd is limitcd or an bjcct` s coming undcr onc pcrson` s
owncrship changcs thc situation ofall othcrs. Whcrcas prcviously
thcywcrc atlibcrty in Hohfclds scnsc) to uscthcobjcct, thcynow
no longcr arc. Jhis changc in thc situation ofothcrs by rcmoving
thcirlibcrtytoactonaprcviouslyunowncdobjcct) nccdnotworscn
thcir situation. !f! appropriatc a grain ofsandfromConcy !sland,
nooncclscmaynowdoas thcywillwith t/a/ grainofsand. Butthcrc
I g RCBERTNCZI CK
arcplcntyofothcrslcftforthcmt odothcsamcwith.Cri f not grains
of sand, thcn othcr things . Altcrnativcly, thc things do with thc
grain of sand appropriatc might improvc thc position ofothcrs,
countcrbalancing thcir loss of thc libcrty to usc that grain. Jhc
crucialpointiswhcthcrappropriationofanunowncdobjcctworscns
thcsituationofothcrs .
Lockc`sproviso that thcrcbc ' cnough and as good lcftin common
forothcrs` scct. ) ismcanttocnsurcthatthcsituationofothcrsis
notworscncd. fthisprovisoismct, is thcrcanymotivationforhis
furthcr condition of non-wastc!) t is oftcn said that this proviso
oncc hcld but now no longcr docs. But thcrc appcars to bc an
argumcntforthcconclusionthatifthcprovisonolongcrholds,thcn
it cannot cvcr havc hcld so as to yicld pcrmancnt and inhcritablc
propcrty rights onsidcr thc hrst pcrson for whom thcrc is not
cnough and as good lc to appropriatc. Jhc last pcrson to
appropriatc lcft without his prcvious libcrty to act on an objcct,
and soworscncd ` s situation. So ` s appropriation is not allowcd
undcr Lockc` s proviso. Jhcrcforc thc ncxt to last pcrson Z to
appropriatclcft in a worscposition, for s act cndcd pcrmissiblc
appropriation. Jhcrcforcsappropriationwasn` tpcrmissi blc. But
thcn thc appropriator two from last, cndcd pcrmissiblc ap
propriationandso,sinccitworscncdsposition, sappropriation
wasn` t pcrmissi blc. And soon back to thc hrst appropriatorA ofa
pcrmancntpropcrtyright.
Jhis argumcnt, howcvcr, procccds too quickly. Somconc may bc
madc worsc oh by anothcr`s appropriation in two ways. hrst, by
losing thc opportunity to improvc his situation by a particular
appropriationoranyonc,andsccond,bynolongcrbcingablctousc
frccly without appropriation) whathc prcviously could. A s/riagra/
rcquircmcntthat anothcrnot bc madc worscohbyanappropriation
would cxcludc tc hrst way if nothing clsc countcrbalanccs thc
diminution in opportunity, as wcll as thc sccond. A rakrr
rcquircmcnt would cxcludc thc sccond way though not thc hrst.
Withthcwcakcrrcquircmcnt,wccannotzipbacksoquicklyfrom
to A, as in thc abovc argumcnt, for though pcrson can nolongcr
arcria/r, thcrc may rcmain somc for him to esr as bcforc. n this
casc s appropriation would not violatc thc wcakcr ockcan
condition. With lcss rcmaining that pcoplc arc at libcrty to usc,
uscrsmightfaccmorcinconvcnicncc,crowding, ctc. . inthatwaythc
situationofothcrsmightbcworscncd,unlcssappropriationstoppcd
farshortofsuch apoint. ) tis arguablcthatnoonclcgitimatclycan
complainifthcwcakcrprovisionis satishcd. Howcvcr, sincc this is
lcssclcarthaninthccascofthcmorcstringcntproviso,ockcmay
havc intcndcd this stringcnt proviso by cnough and as good`
DI STRIBLTIVEjLSTI CE I I _
rcmaining, and pcrhaps hc mcant thc nonwastc conditiontodclay
thccndpointfromwhichthcargumcntzipsback.
s thc situation ofpcrsons who arc unablc to appropriatc thcrc
bcing no morc acccssiblc and uscful unowncdobjccts) worscncd by
a systcm allowing appropriation and pcrmancnt propcrty! Hcrc
cntcr thc various familiar social considcrations favouring privatc
propcrty. it incrcascs thc social product by putting mcans of
productionin thc hands ofthosc who can uscthcm mostcmcicntly
prohtably) , cxpcrimcntation is cncouragcd, bccausc with scparatc
pcrsonscontrollingrcsourccs,thcrcis nooncpcrson orsmallgroup
whom somconcwith a ncwidcamustconvincc totryitout,privatc
propcrtycnablcs pcoplc to dccidc on thc pattcrn and typcs ofrisks
thcy wish to bcar, lcading to spccializcd typcs of risk bcaring,
privatc propcrty protccts futurc pcrsons by lcading somc to hold
back rcsourccs from currcnt consumption for futurc markcts, it
providcsaltcrnativc sourccs ofcmploymcnt for unpopular pcrsons
who don t havc to convincc any onc pcrson or small group to hirc
thcm, and so on. Jhcsc considcrations cntcr a Lockcan thcory to
supportthcclaim thatappropriationofprivatc propcrtysatishcsthc
intcnt bchind thc 'cnough and as good lcft ovcr proviso, aa/ as a
utilitarianjustihcation ofpropcrty. Jhcy cntcr to rcbut thc claim
that bccausc thc proviso is violatcd, no natural right to privatc
propcrty can arisc by a Lockcan proccss. Jhc diculty in working
such an argumcnt to show thc proviso is satishcd is in hxing thc
appropriatc basclincfor comparison. Lockcan appropriation makcs
pcoplcnoworscolIthanthcywouldbc/au' Jhisqucstionofhxing
thc basclinc nccds morc dctailcd invcstigation than wc arc ablc to
givcithcrc. t wouldbcdcsirablctohavcancstimatcofthcgcncral
cconomic importanccoforiginalappropriationfora socicty, inordcr
toscc how much lccway thcrc is for dilIcring thcorics ofappropria-
tionandofthclocationofthcbasclinc. lcrhapsthisimportancccan
bc mcasurcd by thc pcrccntagc ofall incomc that is bascd upon
untransformcd raw matcrials and givcn rcsourccs rathcr than
humanactions) , mainlyrcntalincomcrcprcscntingthcunimprovcd
valuc ofthcland, and thc pricc ofraw matcrials ia si/a, and by thc
pcrccntagc of currcnt wcalth that rcprcscnts such incomc in thc
past.
' 3
' Comparc scct. 2 olKobcrt Faul Wols A Kclutation olKawls` Thcorcm on
]usticc,`jcamalcIhilcscyG [ Mar. t gGG) , t ;go. Wolscriticismdocsnotapply
toKawls' sconccptionundcrwhichthcbasclincishxcdbythcdicrcnccprinciplc.
' ' havcnot sccn a prccisccstimatc. Davidlricdmandiscusscs this issuc i n 7ht
Machiat c!rttdcm [Ncw York, t g;) , pp. xiv, xv, and suggcsts onctwcnticth [ol
nationalincomc) as an uppcr limitlor thc hrst two lactors mcntioncd. Howcvcr, hc
docsnotattcmpttocstimatcthcpcrccntagcolcurrcntwcalththatisbascduponsuch
incomcinthcpast.
RCBERT NCZI CK
Wc should notc that it i s not only pcrsons favouring ]rira/c
propcrty who nccd a thcory of how propcrty rights lcgitimatcly
originatc. Jhosc bclicving in collcctivc propcrtyfor cxamplc,
thoscbclicvingthatagroupofpcrsonslivinginanarcajointlyown
thctcrritory,oritsmincralrcsourccsalsomustprovidcathcoryof
howsuchpropcrtyrightsarisc, ofwhythcpcrsonslivingthcrchavc
rights to dctcrminc whatis doncwith thc land and rcsourccs thcrc
that pcrsons living clscwhcrc don` t havc with rcgard to thc samc
landandrcsourccs .
d
` bIL PL Ib 1 bb \ _\b L
F . A . VON HAYEK
oC gtC3t 8 thC unCCtt3nt C mCtt, DCth tCm t8 n3tut3l
CD8Cutt, 3nC tCm thC 8Cll-CCnCCt C C3Ch nCVCu3l, th3t nC
CCtCtmn3tC tulC C CCnCuCt CCulC CVCt CCW tCm t.
13VC umC
YCl3tC, hCWCVCt, h38 nC QtnCQlC, nCthCt Ct hm WhC
tCCCVC8 t, nCt Ct hm WhC C8ttDutC8 t [CnC WIll Ql3CC t hCtC
3nC 3nCthCt thCtC] , DCC3u8C t CCQCnC8 Cn thC m3tCt3l CCntCnt
Cl thC Wll, WhCh 8 CCQCnCCnt uQCn Q3ttCul3t l3Ct8 3nC
thCtClCtC nC3Q3DlC Cl 3 gCnCt3l tulC.
mm3nuCl b3nl
THECONCEPT OF

SOCI ALjLSTI CE

Whilc in thc pcccding chaptc had to dcfcnd thc conccption of

justicc as thc indispcnsablc foundation and liitation ofall law,
ust now turn against an abusc of thc wod which thrcatcns to
l. A. vonHayck, ' "SocialorDistributivcusticc`, omittingappcndix,lromLa,
Ltislatica aadLi/tr, Icl. H: 7ht Mirat cSccialjastict [Kout|cdgc London t g8z) .
Kcprintcdb y pcrmissionolKout|cdgc.
Thc rst quotation is takcn rom David Humc, Aa aai Ccactmia tht
Friacilts cMcrals, scct. ! ! ! , part !!, hcrks iv. t 8;, and oughtto bc givcn hcrc in its
contcxtthc
mostobviousthoughtwouldbe, to assign thelargestpossessionsto the mostextensivevirtue,
and give every one the powerofdoinggood proportioned to his incIination . . . . But were
manind to execute such a law, so great is the uncertainty ofmerit, both rom its natural
obscurity, and rom the sel|-conceit o|each individua, that no determinate rule ofconduct
would eer foIIow from i t, and the total dissoIution of society must be the immedate
consequence.
Thc sccond quotation is trans|atcd rom !mmanuc| ant Dtr Strtit dtr !akalttta
[ ;g8) , scct z, para. G, notc z) and rcads in thc origina|. 'Woh|ahrt abcr hat kcin
Prinzip, wcdcrr dcn dcrsiccmpngt, nochr dcn dcrsic austci|t [dcrcincsctzt
sic hicrin, dcr andcrc dari n) wcil cs dabci auldas Mattialt dcs Willcns ankommt,
wc|chcscmpirischundsocincral|gcmcincnKcgc|unhigist. 'AnEng|ishtrans|ation
othis cssay in which thc passagc is rcndcrcd somcwhat dicrcnt|ywi|| bc ound in
Kaat'sFclitical hritias,cd. H.Kciss,tr.H. . Nisbctt[Cambridgc, t g;o) , 8, notc.
r r 8 F . A. VCNHAEK
dcstroy thc conccption ofl aw which madc it thc safcguard of
individual frccdom t is pcrhaps not surprising that mcn should
havcapplicd

to thcjointchcctsofthcactionsofmanypcoplc, cvcn
whcrc thcsc wcrc ncvcr forcsccn or intcndcd, thc conccption of
justicc which thcy had dcvclopcd with rcspcct to thc conduct of
individuals towards cach othcr Social j usticc or somctimcs
'cconomicj usticc) camc to bcrcgardcd as an attributc which thc
actions` ofsocicty, or thc ' trcatmcnt ofindividuals and groups by
socicty, ought to posscss. As primitivc thinking usually docs whcn
hrstnoticingsomc rcgular proccsscs, thc rcsults ofthc spontancous
ordcring ofthc markct wcrc intcrprctcd as ifsomc thinking bcing
dclibcratcly dircctcd thcm, or as ifthc particular bcnchts or harm
dihcrcnt pcrsonsdcrivcdfrom thcm wcrc dctcrmincd bydclibcratc
acts of will, and could thcrcforc bc guidcd by moral rulcs Jhis
conccption of 'social j usticc is thus a dircct conscqucncc ofthat
anthropomorpism orpcrsonihcation bywhich navc thinkingtrics
to account for all sclf-ordcring proccsscs. t is a sign of thc
immaturity of our minds that wc havc not yct outgrown thcsc
primitivc conccpts and still dcmand from an impcrsonal proccss
whichbrings about agrcatcrsatisfactionofhum dcsircs thanany
dclibcratc humanorganizationcouldachicvc, thatitconformto thc
moralprcccptsmcnhavccvolvcdforthcguidanccofthcirindividual
actions.
Jhc usc ofthc tcrm ' socialj usticc`in this scnscisofcomparativcly
rcccnt datc, apparcntly not much oldcr than a undrcd ycars Jhc
cxprcssion was occasionally uscd carlicr to dcscribc thc organizcd
chortstocnforccthcrulcsof justindividualconduct,anditistothc
prcscnt day somctimcs cmploycdin lcarncd discussion to cvaluatc
thc chccts ofthc cxisting institutions ofsocicty But thc scnsc in
whichitisnowgcncrally uscdand constantlyappcalcdtoinpublic
discussion, and in which it will bc cxamincd in this chaptcr, is
csscntially thc samc as that in which thc cxprcssion distributivc
justicc` hadlongbccncmploycd tsccms tohavcbccomcgcncrally
currcntin this scnsc at thctimcwhcn andpcrhapspartlybccausc)
john Stuart Mill cxplicitly trcatcd thc two tcrms as cquivalcnt in
suchstatcmcntsasthat.
Cl. P. H. WIckstccd, 7ht CcmmcaStastcIcliticalccacm [London, g t o) 8q
' !tIsidlctoassumcthatcthIcallydcsIrablcrcsultswillncccssarIlybcproduccdbyan
cthIcallyindIcrcntInstrumcnt.
` Cl. G. dclVccchiojastict Edinburgh, t gz) , ; nthccIghtccnthccnturythc
cprcssion'socaljusticcwasoccasionallyuscdtodcscribcthccnlorccmcntolrulcsol
just conductwIthin a givcn socicty so c.g. by Edward Gibbon DtcliataadFallctht
Kcmaamirt,ch. [WorldsClassicscdn. iv. G;) .
c. g. by ]ohnKawls,A 7htcgcjastict[CambrIdgc,Mass. , g; t ) .

SCCI AL

CR DI STRI BLTI VEjLSTI CE I I g

8CCCt 8hCuC ttC3t 3l CQu3ll WCll WhC h3VC CC8CtVCC CQu3ll WCl C t,
th3t 8 WhC h3VC CC8CtVCC CQu3 WCl 3D8ClutC. h8 8 thC hghC8t
3D8tt3Ct 8t3nC3tC C 8CC3 3nC C8ttDutVC ]u8t!CC, tCW3tC8 WhCh 3
n8llutCn8, 3nC thC Cl!Ctt8 C 3 VttuCu8 CtZCn8 8hCulC DC m3CC n thC
utmC8t CCgtCC tC CCnVCtgC
orthat.
t !8 unVCt83ll CCn8CCtCC ]u8t th3t C3Ch QCt8Cn 8hCuC CDt3n th3t
[WhCthCt gCCC Ct CV!l) Wh!Ch hC CC8CtVC8, 3nC un]u8t th3t hC 8hCulC CDt3n 3
gCCC, Ct DC m3CC tC unCCtgC 3n CVl, WhCh hC CCC8 nCt CC8CtVC. h8 8
QCth3Q8 lhC CC3tC8t 3nC mC8t CmQh3tC Ctm n WhCh thC CC3 C ]u8lCC 8
CCnCCVCC D lhC gCnCt3l mnC. ^8 t nVCVC8 thC CC3 C CC8Ctt thC QuC8tCn
3t8C8 C Wh3t CCn8ttutC8 CC8Ctt.`
t is signi cant that thc rst ofthcsc two passagcs occurs in thc
dcscription of onc of hvc mcanings ofjusticc which Mill distin
guishcs, ofwhichfourrcfcr to rulcsofjustindividual conductwhilc
this onc dchncs a factual statc ofaairs which may but nccd not
havc bccn brought about by dclibcratc human dccision. Yct Mill
appcars to havc bccn whollyunawarc ofthc circumstancc that in
this mcaning it rcfcrs to situations cntircly dicrcnt from thosc to
which thc four othcr mcanings apply or that this conccption of
'socialjusticc`lcads straighttofull-hcdgcdsocialism
Such statcmcnts which cxplicitly conncct 'socialanddistributivc
justicc` with thc ' trcatmcnt` by socicty ofthc individuals according
to thcir ' dcscrts` bring out most clcarly its dicrcncc from plain
justicc, andatthcsamctimcthccauscofthcvacuityofthcconccpt.
thcdcmandfor 'socialj usticc`isaddrcsscdnottothcindividualbut
to socictyyct socicty, in thc strict scnsc in which it must bc
distinguishcd from thc apparatus of govcrnmcnt, is incapablc of
acting for a spccihc purposc, and thc dcmand for 'social j usticc`
thcrcforc bccomcs a dcmand that thc mcmbcrs of socicty should
organic thcmsclvcs in a manncrwhichmakcs it possiblc to assign
particularsharcsofthcproductofsocictytothcdicrcntindividuals
orgroups. Jhcprimaryqucstionthcnbccomcswhcthcrthcrccxists
` ]hnStuarti, /tilitariaaism [Londn 8 ) , ch. j,p g in . F. F|amcnatz,
cd. , 7htalish /tilitariaas[Cford, gg) , j.
Ibi d. and o8rcspcctivc|y. C a|s]. S. i||`s rcvicw ofl. W. Ncwman,
LtctartscaIcliticalccacm, orgina||ypub|ishcd in r 8j in thc htstmiasttrKteitand
rcpub|ishcd in Cclltcttd hcrks, vo|. v [Toronto and London, r g) , . 'thc
distncton bctwccn rich and poor, so s|ight|y conncctcd as it s with mcrit and
dcmcrit, or cvcn with ccrtion and want of ccrtion, is obvious|y unjust. ` A|so
IriaciltscIcliticalccacmbook, ch. r , , cd. W ].Ash|cy[London r gog) , zrr .
'Thc proportioning ofrcmuncration to work donc is rca||yjust on|y in so far as thc
morcorcssofthcworksa mattcr ofchoicc whcnit dcpcnds onnatura|dicrcnccs
ofstrcngthandcapacity, thisprincipcofrcmuncrationisitsc|faninjustcc,itgvcsto
thoscwhohavc.`
I 2D F. A. VCNHAYEK
amoral dutytosubmittoa powcrwhichcancoordinatcthccorts
of thc mcmbcrs of socicty with thc aim of achicving a particular
pattcrnofdistributionrcgardcdasjust.
fthccxistcnccofsuch a powcristakcnforgrantcd, thcqucstion
ofhow thc availablc mcansfor thcsatisfactionofnccdsoughtto bc
sharcd out bccomcs indccd a qucstion ofjusticcthough not a
qucstion to which prcvailing morals providc an answcr. Lvcn thc
assumption from which most of thc modcrn thcorists of social
justicc start, namclythatitwould rcquirccqualsharcsfor all inso
far as spccial considcrations do not dcmand a dcparturcfrom this
principlc,wouldthcnappcartobcjustihcd.' Butthcpriorqucstion
is whcthcr it is moral that mcn bc subjcctcd to thc powcrs of
dircctionthatwould havc tobccxcrciscdin ordcrthat thc bcnchts
dcrivcdbythcindividualscouldbcmcaningfullydcscribcdasj ustor
unjust.
t has ofcoursc to bc admittcd that thc manncr in which thc
bcnchts and burdcns arc apportioncd by thc markct mcchanism
would in many instanccs havc to bc rcgardcd as vcry unjust it
wcrcthc rcsult ofa dclibcratc allocation to particular pcoplc. But
this is not thc casc. Jhoscsharcsarcthc outcomc ofa proccss thc
ccct of which on particular pcoplc was ncithcr intcndcd nor
forcsccn by anyonc whcn thc institutions hrst appcarcdinsti tu
tions which wcrcthcn pcrmittcd to continuc bccausc it was found
thatthcyimprovcforallormostthcprospcctsofhavingthcirnccds
satishcd Jo dcmandjusticc from such a proccss is clcarlyabsurd,
and to singlc out somc pcoplc in such a socicty as cntitlcd to a
particularsharccvidcntlyunj ust.
THE CCN_LEST CF PLBLIC I MAGI NATI CN BY

SCCI ALjLSTI CE

Jhc appcal to ' socialjusticc` has ncvcrthclcss by now bccomc thc

most widcly uscd and most chcctivc argumcnt in political discus
sion. Almost cvcry claim for govcrnmcnt action on bchalf of
particulargroups is advanccd in its namc, and ifit can bcmadc to
appcar that a ccrtain mcasurc is dcmandcd by social justicc ,
oppositiontoitwillrapidlywcakcn. lcoplcmaydisputcwhcthcror
not thc particular mcasurc is rcquircd by ' socialjusticc` . But that
' Scc c.g. A. M. onor, 'Socia|]usticc' in Mc6ill Lajcaal, 8 t gGz) an
rcviscvcrsioninK. S. Summcrs c. ) , ssasiaLtalFhilcsch [ Cor, t gG8) , Gzo
thc rcprint 'hcrst othctwopropostionsowhich thcprincip|cosocia|justicc
consists isthccontcntionthatallmtaccasidtrtdmtrtg0 mtaaadaartrcmthtirccadac
crrhcict hatt a rlaim |c aa taal shart ia all thcst |hias, htrt ralltd adtaa|ats, hirh art
tatralg dtsirtd aad art iaart ccadaritt tc tll-/tia. ' s W. G. Kunciman Klatitt
DtritatieaaadSecial jastictLonon, t gGG zG .

SCCI AL

CR DI STRI BLTI VEjLSTI CE I 2 I

this is thc standard which ought to guidc political action, and that
thccxprcssionhas a dchnitcmcaning, is hardlycvcrqucstioncd. n
conscqucncc, thcrc arc today probably no political movcmcnts or
politicianswhodonotrcadilyappcalto' socialjusticc` in supportof
thcparticularmcasurcswhichthcyadvocatc.
t also can scarcclybcdcnicd that thcdcmandfor ' socialjusticc`
has alrcadyin a grcatmcasurc transformcd thc socialordcr and is
continuingtotransformitinadircctionwhichthoscwhocallcdforit
ncvcr forcsaw. Jhough thc phrasc has undoubtcdly hcpcd oc-
casionallyto makc thc law morc cqual for all, whcthcrthcdcmand
for justicc in distribution has in any scnsc madc socictyjustcr or
rcduccddiscontcntmustrcmaindoubtful.
Jhc cxprcssion of coursc dcscribcd from thc bcginning thc
aspirationswhichwcrcat thchcart ofsocialism. Although classical
socialism has usually bccn dchncd by its dcmand for thc socialia-
tion of thc mcans of production, this was for it chichy a mcans
thoughttobccsscntialinordcrtobringabouta'just`distributionof
wcalth and sincc socialists havc latcr discovcrcd that this
rcdistributioncould ina grcat mcasurc, and against lcss rcsistancc
bcbroughtaboutbytaxation andgovcrnmcntscrviccshnanccdby
it , and havc in practicc oftcn shclvcd thcir carlicr dcmands, thc
rcaliationof ' social j usticc`hasbccomcthcirchicfpromisc. tmight
indccdbcsaidthat thc maindicrcncc bctwccn thcordcrofsocicty
atwhichclassicallibcralismaimcdandthcsortofsocictyintowhich
it is now bcing transformcd is that thc formcr was govcrncd by
principlcs ofjust individual conduct whilc thc ncw socicty is to
satisfy thc dcmandsfor ' socialjusticc`or, in othcrwords, thatthc
formcr dcmandcd just action by thc individuals whilc thc lattcr
morc and morc placcs thc duty of justiccon authoriticswithpowcr
tocommandpcoplcwhattodo.
Jhcphrasccouldcxcrciscthisccctbccauscithasgraduallybccn
takcn ovcr from thc socialist not only by all thc othcr polit|cal
movcmcnts butalsoby most tcachcrs and prcachcrs ofmorality. t
sccmsinparticulart ohavc bccn cmbraccdbyalargcscctionofthc
clcrgyofallChristiandcnominations,who,whilcincrcasinglylosing
thcir faith in a supcrnatural rcvclation, appcar to havc sought a
rcfugc and consolationin a ncw ' social` rcligion which substitutcsa
tcmporal for a cclcstial promisc ofjusticc, and who hopc that thcy
can thus continuc thcir striving to do good. Jhc Koman Catholic
Church cspccially has madc thc aim of 'socialjusticc` part ofits
omcialdoctrinc

butthcministcrsofmostChristiandcnominations
C. cspccia||y thc cncyc|ica|s _aadratsima aaa t g) and Ditiai rtdtmtaris
[ g;) andjohanncsMcssncr,umcgidcrsozia|cnGccchtigkcit' inthcvolumc
Ditsa;ialt Irat aaddtrKatali;ismas [adcrborn, g ssucd to commcmoratc thc
orticthavcrsayothccncyclicalKtramNataam.
I 22 F. A. VCNHAEK
appcar to vi cwith cach othcr with such ocrs ofmorc mundanc
aims-which alsosccm to providc thc chicffoundationfor rcncwcd
ccumcnicalchorts.
Jhc various modcrn authoritarian or dictatorial govcrnmcnts
havc ofcoursc nolcss proclaimcd ' socialj usticc` as thcirchicfaim.
Wchavcitonthcauthorityof MrAndrci Sakharovthatmillionsof
mcn in Kussia arc thc victims ofa tcrror that ' attcmpts to conccal
itsclfbchindthcsloganofsocialj usticc` .
Jhc commitmcnt to 'socialj usticc has in fact bccomc thc chicf
outlct for moral cmotion, thc distinguishing attributc of thc good
man, and thc rccognizcd sign of thc posscssion of a moral
conscicncc. Jhough pcoplc may occasionally bc pcrplcxcd to say
which of thc conhicting claims advanccd in its namc arc valid,
scarcclyanyoncdoubtsthatthc cxprcssion has a dchnitc mcaning,
dcscribcs a high idcal, and points to gravc dcfccts ofthc cxisting
social ordcr which urgcntly call for corrcction. Lvcn though until
rcccntlyoncwouldhavcvainlysought in thccxtcnsivclitcraturcfor
an intclligiblc dchnition ofthc tcrm,thcrc still sccms to cxist littlc
Thc tcrm 'socialjusticc` [orrathcrits Italiancquivalcnt) sccms to havc bccn
rst uscd in its modcrn scnsc by Luigi Taparcli d`Acglio, Saic ttcrtticc di dirittc
aataralt [Palcrmo, t 8qo) and to havc bccn madc morc gcncrally known by Antonio
KosminiScrbati,L ccstitaticatstccadclagiastiziasccialt [ Milan, t 8q8 . lormorcrcccnt
discussions c. N. W. Willoughby, Sccialjastict [NcwYork, t gog) , Stcphcn Lcacock,
7bt /asclotd Kiddlt cSccialjastict [London and Ncw York, t gzo) , ]ohn A. Kyan,
Distri/atiotjastict [Ncw York, t g G) , L. T. Hobhousc, 7bt ltmtats cSccialjastict
[London and NcwYork, t gzz) , T. N. Carvcr,ssas iaSccialjas|ict [ Harvard, t gzz) ,
W. Shiclds,Sccialjastict, 7btHtcgaadMtaaiagctbt 7trm [NotrcDamc, Ind. t g )
cncvuto Donati ' Chc cosa c giustizia socialc`, Arcbioic iaridicc, t jq [ gq;) , C. dc
Pasquicr, ' LaNotiondcjusticcsocialc', ZtitscbrrScbtiztriscbts Ktcb| [ gjz) , P.
Antoinc, 'ucstcc la justicc socialc`, ArcbiotsdtFbilcscbit, zq [ gG t ) , lor a morc
complctclistothisitcraturcsccG.dclVccchiog jtictg j-g
In spitc othc abundancc owritings on thc subjcct, whcn about tcn ycars ago I
wrotc thc rst drat othis chaptcr, I ound itstill vcry dicult to nd any scrious
discussion o what pcoplc mcant whcn thcy wcrc using this tcrm. ut almost
immcdiatcly atcrwards a numbcr o scrious studics o thc subjcct appcarcd,
particularlythc twoworksquotcd in notc ; abovcas wcll as K. W aldwin, Sccial
jastict [xord and London, gGG) , and K. Kcschcr, Distri/atiotjastict [Indianapolis,
t gGG) . MuchthcmostacutctrcatmcntothcsubjcctistobcoundinaGcrmanwork
by thc Swiss cconomist mil ng, hirtscba aad6trtcb|ikti| [Tbingcn, t gG) and
many scnsiblccommcntsin H. . Acton, 7bt Mcrals ctbtMarkt| [London, g;t ) ,
particularly p. ; 'Povcrty and misortunc arc cvils but not injusticcs'. Vcry
importantis alsocrtranddc ]ouvcncl, 7bttbicscKdistri/atica [Cambridgc, gj t )
aswcllasccrtainpassagcsi n hisScotrtia [London, t gj;) , twoowhichmayhcrcbc
quotcd. P. qo 'Thcjusticcnowrccommcndcd is aquaitynot oa man and man's
actions, butoaccrtaincongurationothingsinsocialgcomctry,nomattcrbywhat
mcansitisbroughtabout.]usticcisnowsomcthingwhichcxistsindcpcndcntlyo just
mcn P. Gq. No proposition is likclicr to scandalisc our contcmporarcs thanthis
onc itisimpossiblctocstablishajustsocialordcr. Yctitowslogicallyromthcvcry
idcao justicc, onwhichwchavc,notwithout diculty, thrown light. Todoj usticcis
toapply, whcnmakingasharcout,thcrclcvantscrial ordcr. utitis impossiblcor

SCCI AL

CR DI STRI BLTI VEjLSTI CE I 2_

doubt, cithcr among ordinarypcoplcoramongthclcarncd,thatthc
cxprcssionhas adchnitcandwcllundcrstoodscnsc.
Butthcncar-univcrsalacccptanccofabclicfdocsnotprovcthatit
is valid or cvcn mcaningful any morc than thc gcncral bclicf in
witchcs or ghosts provcd thc validity ofthcsc conccpts. What wc
havc to dcal with in thc casc of ' socialjusticc is simply a quasi-
rcligious supcrstitionofthckindwhichwcshouldrcspcctfullylcavc
in pcacc so long as it mcrcly makcs thosc happy who hold it, but
whichwc must hght whcn it bccomcs thc prctcxt ofcocrcingothcr
mcn. And thc prcvailing bclicf in social justicc` is at prcscnt
probablythcgravcstthrcattomostothcrvalucsofafrcccivilization.
Whcthcr Ldward Gibbon was wrong or not, thcrc can bc no
doubtthatmoral andrcligiousbclicfscandcstroya civilizationand
that, whcrc such doctrincs prcvail, not only thc most chcrishcd
bclicfs but also thc most rcvcrcd moral lcadcrs, somctimcs saintly
hgurcs whosc unsclhshncss is bcyond qucstion, may bccomc gravc
dangcrs tothcvalucswhichthcsamcpcoplcrcgardasunshakcablc.
Againstthisthrcatwccanprotcctoursclvcsonlybysubjcctingcvcn
ourdcarcstdrcamsofabcttcrworldtoruthlcss rationaldisscction.
t sccms to bc widcly bclicvcd that ' socialj usticc` isj ust a ncw
moral valucwhichwcmustadd tothoscthatwcrc rccognizcdinthc
past, andthatitcanbchttcdwithinthccxistingframcworkofmoral
rulcs. Whatis notsumcicntlyrccognizcdisthatinordcrtogivc this
phrasc mcaning a complctc changc of thc wholc charactcr of thc
social ordcr will havc to bc ccctcd, and that somc of thc valucs
which uscd to govcrn it will havc to bc sacrihccd. t is such a
transformation ofsocicty into onc ofa fundamcntally dicrcnt typc
whichiscurrcntlyoccurringpicccmcalandwithout awarcncssofthc
outcomc to which it must lcad twas in thc bclicfthatsomcthing
likc social justicc` could thcrcby bc achicvcd, that pcoplc havc
placcd in thc hands ofgovcrnmcnt powcrs which it can now not
rcfuscto cmploy in ordcrtosatisfy thc claims ofthccvcr-incrcasing
numbcr of spccial intcrcsts who havc lcarnt to cmploy thc opcn
scsamcof'socialjusticc' .
thc human intc||igcncc t o cstab|ish a rc|cvant scria| ordcr for a|| rcsourccs in a||
rcspccts.Mcnhavcnccdstosatisfy, mcritstorcward,possibi|iticstoactua|izccvcnif
wc considcr thcsc thrccaspcctson|y and assumc thatwhat is not thc cascthcrc
arc prccisc iadicia which wc can apply to thcsc aspccts, wc still could not wcight
corrcct|yamongthcmclvcthcthrccctsofiadiciaadoptcd.
Thc at onc timc vcry famous and inucntia| cssay by Gustav Schmo||cr on 'ic
Gcrcchtigkcit in dcr Vo|kswirtschaft in that author'sahr/achir Ialksuirtschattc.,
vo|. v 8g) is intc||cctua||y most disappointinga prctcntious stcmcnt of thc
charactcristic mudd|c of thc dogoodcr forcshadowing somc unp|casant |atcr
dcvc|opmcnts. Wcknownowwhatitmcansifthcgrcatdccisionsarc to bc|cft tothc
'jcwci|igcVo|ksbcwustcinnachdcrCrdnungdcrwckc,dicimAugcnblicka|sdic
richtigccrschcint'
! 2g F. A. VCNHAEK
bclicvc that 'socialjusticc` will ultimatcly bc rccognizcd as a
will-o`-thc-wispwhichhas lurcdmcn toabandonmanyofthcvalucs
which inthcpasthavcinspircdthcdcvclopmcntofcivilizationan
attcmpttosatisfyacravinginhcritcdfromthctraditionsofthcsmall
group but which is mcaninglcss in thc Grcat Socicty offrcc mcn
!nfortunatcly, this vaguc dcsirc which has bccomc onc of thc
strongcst bonds spurring pcoplc ofgood will to action, not only is
boundtobcdisappointcd. Jhiswouldbcsadcnough But likcmost
attcmptsto pursucan unattainablcgoal, thcstrivingfor itwillalso
producchighly undcsirablc conscqucnccs, and inparticularlcad to
thc dcstruction of thc indispcnsablc cnvironmcnt in which thc
traditional moral valucs alonc can hourish, namcly pcrsonal
frccdom.
THE I NAPPLI CABLIT CF THECCNCEPT CF I NjLSTI CE TC THE
RESLLTS CFA SPCNTANECLS PRCCESS
l t is now ncccssary clcarly to distinguish bctwccn two wholly
dihcrcnt problcms which thc dcmand for ' socialjusticc` raiscs in a
markctordcr.
Jhc hrst is whcthcr within an cconomic ordcr bascd on thc
markct thc conccpt of socialjusticc` has any mcaning or contcnt
whatcvcr.
Jhc sccond is whcthcr it is possiblc to prcscrvc a markct ordcr
whilc imposing upon it in thc namc of' socialj usticc` orany othcr
prctcxt) somc pattcrn ofrcmuncration bascd on thc asscssmcnt of
thcpcrformanccorthcnccdsofdihcrcntindividualsorgroupsbyan
authorityposscssingthcpowcrtocnforccit.
Jhcanswcrtocachofthcscqucstionsisaclcarno.
Yctit isthcgcncral bclicfinthcvalidityofthcconccptof' social
justicc` which drivcs all contcmporary socictics into grcatcr and
grcatcr chorts of thc sccond kind and which has a pcculiar sclf
accclcrating tcndcncy. thc morc dcpcndcnt thc position of thc
individuals or groups is sccn to bccomc on thc actions of
govcrnmcnt, thc morc thcy will insist that thc govcrnmcnts aim at
somc rccognizablc schcmc of distributivc justicc, and thc morc
govcrnmcnts try to rcalizc somc prcconccivcd pattcrn ofdcsirablc
distribution, thcmorcthcymustsubjcct thcpositionofthcdihcrcnt
individuals and groups to thcir control. So long as thc bclicf in
'socialjusticc` govcrns political action, this proccss must progrcs-
sivclyapproachncarcrandncarcrtoatotalitariansystcm.
Wc shall at hrst conccntratc on thc problcm ofthc mcaning, or
rathcr lack ofmcaning, of thc tcrm ' socialjusticc` , and only latcr

SCCI AL

CR DI STRI BLTI VEjLSTI CE ! 2_

considcr thc clIccts which thc corts to imposc 00_ prcconccivcd
pattcrn of distribution must havc on thc structurc of thc socicty
subjcctcdtothcm.
Jhc contcntion thatin a socicty offrcc mcn as distinctfromany
compulsory organization) thc conccpt of social justicc is strictly
cmpty and mcaninglcss will probably appcaras quitc unbclicvablc
to most pcoplc. Arc wc not all constantly disquictcd by watching
how unjustly lifc trcatsdicrcntpcoplcand by sccingthcdcscrving
sucrand thcunworthyprospcr!And dowc notallhavca scnscof
ntncss, and watch itwith satisfaction, whcn wc rccognizc a rcward
tobcappropriatctoclIortorsacrincc
Jhc hrst insight which should shakc this ccrtainty is that wc
cxpcricncc thc samc fcclings also with rcspcct to dicrcnccs in
human fatcs for whichclcarlyno human agcncy is rcsponsiblc and
which it would thcrcforc clcarly bc absurd to call injusticc. Yct wc
do cry out against thc injusticc whcn a succcssion of calamitics
bcfalls onc family whilc anothcr stcadily prospcrs, whcn a
mcritorious cortis frustratcd by somcunforcsccablc accidcnt, and
particularlyifofmanypcoplcwhosccndcavourssccmcquallygrcat,
somc succccd brilliantly whilc othcrs uttcrly fail. t is ccrtainly
tragic to scc thc failurcofthc most mcritorious corts ofparcnts to
bring up thcir childrcn, ofyoung mcn to build a carccr, or ofan
cxplorcr or scicntist pursuing a brilliant idca. And wc will protcst
againstsuchafatcalthoughwcdonotknowanyoncwhoistoblamc
forit,oranywayinwhichsuchdisappointmcntscanbcprcvcntcd.
t is no dicrcnt with rcgard to thc gcncral fccling ofinjusticc
about thc distribution ofmatcrial goods in a socicty offrcc mcn.
Jhough wc arc in this casc lcss rcady to admit it, our complaints
about thc outcomc ofthc markct as unjustdonotrcallyasscrt that
somcbodyhasbccnunjust, and thcrcisnoanswcrto thcqucstionof
u/c has bccn unjust. Socicty has simply bccomc thc ncw dcity to
which wc complain and clamour for rcdrcss ifit docs not fulnl thc
cxpcctations it has crcatcd. Jhcrc is no individual and no co-
opcrating group ofpcoplc against which thc sucrcr would havc a
just complaint, and thcrc arc noconccivablcrulcsofj ustindividual
conduct which would at thc samc timc sccurc a functioning ordcr
andprccntsuchdisappointmcnts
Jhconlyblamcimplicit inthosccomplaints is thatwc tolcratc a
systcm in which cach is allowcd to choosc his occupation and
thcrcforc nobody can havc thc powcr and thc duty to scc that thc
rcsultscorrcspondtoourwishcs. lorinsuchasystcminwhichcach
is allowcd to usc hisknowlcdgcfor his own purposcs thcconccptof
'socialjusticc` is ncccssarily cmpty and mcaninglcss, bccausc in it
nobody`s will can dctcrminc thc rclativc incomcs of thc dicrcnt
F. A. VCN HAEK
pcoplc,orprcvcntthatthcybcpartlydcpcndcntonaccidcnt. ' Social
justicc` can bc givcn a mcaning only in a dircctcd or ' command'
cconomy such as an army) in which thc individuals arc ordcrcd
whattodo, andanyparticularconccptionof' socialjusticc'couldbc
rcalizcd only in such a ccntrally dircctcd systcm. t prcsupposcs
thatpcoplc arcguidcdbyspccihcdircctionsandnotby rulcsof just
individual conduct. ndccd, no systcm of rulcs of just indi
vidual conduct, and thcrcforc no frcc action of thc individuals
could producc rcsults satisfying any principlc of distributivc
justicc.
Wc arc ofcoursc not wrong in pcrcciving that thc chccts ofthc
proccsscsofafrccsocictyonthcfatcsofthcdicrcntindividualsarc
not distributcd according to somc rccognizablc principlc ofjusticc.
Whcrc wc go wrong is in concludingfrom this that thcy arc unjust
andthatsomcbodyistobcblamcdforthis. nafrccsocictyinwhich
thc position ofthc dihcrcnt individuals and groups is not thc rcsult
ofanybody's dcsignor could, within such a socicty, bc altcrcd in
accordanccwithagcncrallyapplicablcprinciplcthcdicrcnccsin
rcward simply cannot mcaningfully bc dcscribcd asjustor unjust.
Jhcrc arc, no doubt, many kinds of individual action which arc
aimcd at alIccting particular rcmuncrations and which might bc
callcd just or unjust. But thcrc arc no principlcs of individual
conduct which would producc a pattcrn ofdistribution which as
such could bc callcdjust, and thcrcforc also no possibility for thc
individual to know what hc would havc to do to sccurc a just
rcmuncrationofhisfcllows.
THERATI CNALE CF THE ECCNCMI C GAME IN WHI CHCNL THE
CCNDLCT CFTHE PLAERS BLTNCTTHE RESLLT CAN BEjLST
Wchavc sccn carlicr thatjusticc i sanattributc ofhuman conduct
whichwc havclcarnt to cxact bccausc a ccrtainkind ofconduct is
rcquircd to sccurc thc formation and maintcnancc ofa bcnchcial
ordcr of actions. Jhc attributc ofj usticc may thus bc prcdicatcd
about thc intcndcd rcsults of human action but not about
circumstanccs which havc not dclibcratcly bccn brought about by
mcn. justicc rcquircs that in thc ' trcatmcnt' ofanothcr pcrson or
pcrsons, i . c. in thc intcntional actions ahccting thc wcll-bcing of
othcr pcrsons, ccrtain uniform rulcs of conduct bc obscrvcd. t
clcarly has noapplication t othc manncr i nwhich thc impcrsonal
proccssofthc markctallocatcscommandovcrgoods and scrviccsto
particular pcoplc this can bc ncithcrjust nor unjust, bccausc thc
rcsults arc not intcndcd orforcsccn and dcpcnd on a multitudc of

SCCI AL

CR DI STRI BLTI VEjLSTI CE t z ;

circumstanccs not known in thcir totality to anybody Jhc conduct
ofthc individuals in that proccss may wcll bc just or unjust, but
sincc thcir wholly just actions will havc conscqucnccs for othcrs
which wcrc ncithcr intcndcd nor forcsccn, thcsc clIccts do not
thcrcbybccomcjustorunjust.
Jhcfact is simplythatwcconscnttorctain,andagrcctocnforcc,
uniform rulcs for a proccdurc which has grcatly improvcd thc
chanccs ofall to havc thcir wants satisncd, but at thc pricc ofall
individualsandgroupsincurringthcriskofunmcritcdfailurc. With
thc acccptanccofthproccdurc thc rccompcnscofdilIcrcntgroups
and individuals bccomcs cxcmpt from dclibcratc control. !t is thc
only proccdurc yct discovcrcd in which information widcly dis
pcrscd among millions of mcn can bc clIcctivcly utilizcd for thc
bcncht of alland uscd by assuring to all an individual libcrty
dcsirablc for itsclfon cthical grounds. !t is a proccdurc which of
courschasncvcrbccn' dcsigncd' butwhichwchavclcarntgradually
toimprovcaftcrwchad discovcrcd howit incrcascd thccmcicncyof
mcninthcgroupswhohadcvolvcdit.
!t is a proccdurc which, as Adam Smith and apparcntly bcforc
him thc ancicnt Stoics) undcrstood

in all important rcspccts

cxccpt that normally it is not pursucd solcly as a divcrsion) is
wollyanalogoustoagamc,namclyagamcpartlyofskillandpartly
of chancc. Wc shall latcr dcscribc it as thc gamc of catallaxy. !t
procccds, likc all gamcs, according t orulcs guiding thc actions of
individual participants whosc aims, skills, and knowlcdgc arc
dilIcrcnt, with thc conscqucncc that thc outcomc will bc unprcdict-
ablcandthat thcrcwill rcgularly bcwinncrs andloscrs. Andwhilc,
asinagamc,wcarcrightininsistingthatitbcfairand thatnobody
chcat, it would bc nonscnsical to dcmand that thc rcsults for thc
dilIcrcntplaycrs bcjust. Jhcywillofncccssity bcdctcrmincdpartly
by skill and partly by luck. Somc ofthc circumstanccs which makc
thcscrviccsofapcrsonmorcorlcssvaluablc tohisfcllows,orwhich
maymakcit dcsirablc thathc changcthc dircctionofhisclIorts, arc
notofhumandcsignorforcsccablcbymcn.
Wcshallin thcncxtchaptcrhavctorcturntothcrationalcofthc
discovcry proccdurc which thcgamcofcompctition in a markct in
clIcctconstitutcs.Hcrcwcmustcontcntoursclvcswithcmphasizing
C AdamSmith, 7ht 7hteaMetalStatimtats [ondon, 8o ,vol. ii,partV!!,
scct. i i , ch. , p. g8. ' Human lic thc Stoics appcart ohavc considcrcd asa gamco
grca skil, inwhich, howcvr, thcrc was a mixturcochancc orowhat is vugarly
undcrstood to bc chancc.` Scc a|so Adam crguson, Itiacilts aMetalaad Ialitical
Scitact[Ednburgh, ;gz) , i. ;. ThcStocsconccivcdohumanIicundcrthc imac o
a Gamc, at which thc cntcrtainmcnt and mcrit othc playcrs consstcd in playing
attcntivc|yand wclI whcthcr thc stac was gcatosmall. ' !n a notc cguson rccrs
tothcDiscaatstsaLictttasprcscrvcdbyArian,boo!!, ch. _.
F. A. VCNHAEK
that thc rcsults for thc dicrcnt individuals and groups of a
proccdurc for utilizing morc information than any onc pcrson or
agcncy can posscss, must thcmsclvcs bc unprcdictablc, and must
ocn bc dicrcnt from thc hopcs and intcntionswhich dctcrmincd
thc dircction and intcnsity ofthcir striving, and that wc can makc
ccctivcuscofthatdispcrscdknowlcdgconlyifasAdamSmithwas
alsooncofthchrsttosccclcarly)
I I
wcallowthcprinciplcofncgativc
fccdback to opcratc, which mcans that somc must sucrunmcritcd
disappointmcnt.
Wc shall alsoscclatcr that thcimportancc for thcfunctioningof
thcmarkct ordcrofparticularpriccs orwagcs, andthcrcforc ofthc
incomcsofthcdicrcntgroupsandindividuals, isnotducchichy to
thc cccts ofthc priccs on all ofthosc who rcccivc thcm, but to thc
cccts ofthcpriccs on thoscfor whom thcyact assignals tochangc
thcdircctionofthcircorts. Jhcirfunctionisnotsomuchtorcward
pcoplc for what thcy/acr donc as to tcl thcmwhat in thcirown as
wcll as in gcncral intcrcst thcy ca// to do Wc shall thcn also scc
that, to hold out a sumcicnt inccntivc for thosc movcmcnts which
arc rcquircd to maintain a markct ordcr, it will oftcn bc ncccssary
that thc rcturn ofpcoplc s corts doac/ corrcspond to rccognizablc
mcrit, butshouldshowthat,inspitcofthcbcstclIortsofwhichthcy
wcrc capablc, and for rcasons thcy could not havc known, thcir
clIorts wcrc cithcr morc or lcss succcssful than thcy had rcason to
cxpcct ln a spontancous ordcr thc qucstion of whcthcr or not
somconc has donc thc 'right` thing cannot always bc a mattcr of
mcrit,but mustbcdctcrmincdindcpcndcntlyofwhcthcrthcpcrsons
conccrncdoughtorcoudhavcknownwhatwasrcquircd.
Jhc long and thc short ofit all is that mcn can bc allowcd to
dccidcwhatworkto doonlyifthcrcmuncration thcycan cxpcct to
gctforitcorrcspondstothcvalucthcirscrviccs havctothoscofthcir
fcllows who rcccivc thcm, and that //rsr ca/ars a/ic/ //rir srrcicrs ai//
/acr /c //rir //cas ai// cra /acr ac rr/a/icas /c //rir iadicidaa/ mrri/s cr
arrds. cward for mcrit carncd and indication of what a pcrson
should do, bothinhisownandinhisfcllows` intcrcst,arcdicrcnt
things. ltisnotgoodintcntionsornccdsbutdoingwhatinfactmost
bcnchts othcrs irrcspcctivc ofmotivc, which will sccurc thc bcst
rcward. Among thosc who try to climb Mount Lvcrcst or to rcach
I
C|. G. Hardin, Naturt aadMaa's Iatt Ncw York, gG ) , __. !na |rcc markct,
says Smith inccct priccsarcrcgulatcd byncgativc|ccdback. ' Thc much ridicu|cd
mirac|c' thatthcpursuito|scl|-intcrcstscrvcsthcgcncra|intcrcstrcduccstothcsc||
cvidcntproposition that an ordcr in which thc action olthc c|cmcnts is tobcguidcd
by cccts o|which thcy cannot know can bc achicvcd onIy i|thcy arc induccd to
rcspond to signa|s rcccting thc cccts o|thosc cvcnts. Whatwas |ami|iar to dam
Smith has bc|atcd|y bccn rcdiscovcrcd byscicntihc|ashion undcr thc namcolsc||
organizingsystcms' .

SCCI AL

CR DI STRI BLTI VEjLSTI CE I 2Q

thc Moon, wc also honour not thoscwho madc thc grcatcst clIorts,
butthoscwhogotthcrchrst.
Jhc gcncral ailurc to scc that in this conncction wc cannot
mcaningully spcakothcjusticc orinjusticc ofthc rcsults is partly
ducto thcmislcadinguscof thctcrm' distributionwhichincvitably
suggcsts a pcrsonal distributing agcnt whosc will or choicc
dctcrmincs thcrclativcpositionofthc dicrcntpcrsonsorgroups.
I 2
Jhcrci s ocourscnosuchagcnt, and wc uscan impcrsonalproccss
to dctcrminc thcallocation obcnchtsprccisclybccauscthrough its
opcration wc can bring about a structurc o rclativc priccs and
rcmuncrations that will dctcrminc a sizc and composition ofthc
total output which assurcs that thc rcal cquivalcnt of cach
individual s sharc that accidcnt or skill assigns to him will bc as
largcaswcknowtomakcit
!twouldscrvclittlcpurposctocnquirchcrcatgrcatcrlcngthinto
thc rclativc importancc ofskill and luck in actually dctcrmining
rclativc incomcs. Jhis will clcarly dicr a grcat dcal bctwccn
dilIcrcnt tradcs, localitics, and timcs, and in particular bctwccn
highlycompctitivcandlcsscntcrprisingsocictics. ! amonthcwholc
inclincd to bclicvc that within any onc tradc or profcssion thc
corrcspondcncc bctwccn individual ability and industry is highcr
than is commonly admittcd, but that thc rclativc position ofall thc
mcmbcrs ofa particular tradc or procssion comparcd with othcrs
will morc otcn bc alIcctcd by circumstanccs bcyond thcir control
and knowlcdgc. Jhis may also bc onc rcason why what is callcd
socialinjusticcisgcncrallyrcgardcdasagravcraultothccxisting
ordcrthan thccorrcspondingmisfortuncs of individuals. But thc
dccisivc point is not that thc pricc mcchanism docs on thc wholc
bringit about that rcwards arc proportioncd to skill and cort, but
thatcvcnwhcrcitisclcarto us thatluckplaysagrcatpart, andwc
havcnoidcawhysomcarcrcgularlyluckicringucssingthanothcrs,
it is still in thcgcncralintcrcst to procccdon thcprcsumption that
thcpastsucccssofsomcpcoplcinpickingwinncrsmakcsitprobablc
that thcy will also do so in thc futurc, and that it is thcrcforc
worthwhilctoinduccthcmtocontinucthcirattcmpts.
'
Scc L. von MiscsHumaaActiaa YaIc t gg) jjnotc 'Thcrcisinthcopcration
ofthc markct cconomy nothing which couId propcrIy bc caIcd distribution. Goods
arcnotrstproduccd and thcn distibutcd, as would bcthccascinasocialiststatc. `
C a|so M. K. Kothbard, 'Towards a Kcconstuction of \tility and Wclarc
Economics' in M. Scnnhol cd. ) , 0aFtttdam aadFttt Lattttist Ncw ork, t gj) ,
t .
' ` Cf. W . G. Kunciman, Rtlatiot Dttioatiaa, . 'C|aims fo sociaI justicc arc
c|aims on bchaIfofa group, and thc pcrson c|ativc|ydcprivcd within an individua|
catcgorywiI|, ifhcis thcvictimofan unjustincqua|ity, bc avictimon|yofindividua|
iusticc`
F. A. VCNHAEK
THEALLEGED NECESSI T CF A BELI EF I N THEjLSTI CECF
REWARDS
lt has bccn argucd pcrsuasivcly that pcoplc will tolcratc mor
incqualitics of thc matcrial positions only ifthcy bclicvc that thc
dihcrcnt individuals gct on thc wholc what thcy dcscrvc, that thcy
did in fact support thc markct ordcronly bccausc and so long as)
thcy thought that thc dihcrcnccs of rcmuncration corrcspondcd
roughly to dihcrcnccs of mcrit, and that in conscqucncc thc
maintcnanccofafrccsocictyprcsupposcsthcclicfthatsomcsortof
'socialjusticc`is bcingdonc.Jhcmarkct ordcr, howcvcr, docsnot
in fact owc its origin to such bclicfs, norwas originallyj ustihcd in
this manncr. Jhis ordcr could dcvclop, alcr its carlicr bcginnings
had dccycd during thc Middlc Agcs and to somc cxtcnt bccn
dcstroycdbythcrcstrictionsimposcdbyauthority,whcnathousand
ycars ofvain chorts to discovcr substantivclyj ust priccs or wagcs
wcrc abandoncd and thc latc schoolmcn rccognizcd thcm to bc
cmpty formulac and taught instcad that thc priccs dctcrmincd by
justconductofthc partics inthc markct, i . c. thc compctitivc priccs
arrivcd at without fraud, monopoly, and violcncc, was all that
j usticcrcquircd. ltwasfromthistraditionthatohnLockcandhis
' Sccrvingristol,'WhcnirtucLoscsa||hcrLovclincssSomcccctionson
Capita|ism and "Thc lrccSocicty , 7ht Ia/lic Iattrtst, z t [ t g;o) , rcprintcd in thc
authors0athtDtmccraticIdta iaAmtrica [cwYork, t g;z) , aswcl|asnDaniclcll
and!rvingristol[cds. ) , Caitalism 7cda[cwork, g;o) .
C ]. Hncr, hirtschatstthikaadMcaccltim tj. aadt6. jahrhaadtrt cna, t g t )
und 'DcrWcttbcwcrbi n dcrScho|astik', 0rdc, j [ t gjj) a|so MaxWcbcr, 0aLaia
ccacmaadSccit(y, cd. Max hcinstcin [Harvard t gj) , zgj . , buton thc lattcra|so
H. M. Kobcrtson,AstctscathtKistcccacmicIaditidaalism [Cambridgc, t g) and.
Grocthuyscn, 0riiats dt l'tsrit /cartcis ta !raact [Faris, t gz;) . lor thc most
important cxpositions ofthc conccption oajust pricc by thc latc sixtccnthccntury
Spanish]csuits scc particu|ar|y L. Mo|ina, Dt iastitia ttdtiart,vo|. ii, Dtccatracti/as
Co|ognc, t jg) ,disp.j;,no. jandcspccia|lydisp. j8, no. j, whcrc thcjustpricc is
dchncd as that which wi|| lorm 'quando absquc fraudc, monopo|iis, atquc aliis
vcrsutiics,communitcrrcsa|iquavcndiconsucvitprctioi na|iquarcgionc,aut|oco,it
habcndum cst pro mcnsura ct rcgu|a judicandi prcium iustum rci il|ius in ca
rcgionc` . About man`s inabi|ity to dctcrminc bclorchand what ajust pricc wou|d bc
scc a|so particu|ar|y]ohanncs dc Sa|as, CcmmtatariiiastcaadamstcaadatD. 7hcmasdt
ccatracti/as Lyon t G t ;) , 7r. dt tmt. tt Itad. ! n. G, p. g. '. . . quas cxactc
comprchcndcrc, ct pondcrarc Dci cst, nothominumand]. dcLugo, Disataticatsdt
ias|i|ia tt iart [Lyon, t j) , vo|. ii, d. zG, s. , n. o 'prctium iustummatcmaticum,
ct so|i Dco notum.` Scc a|so L. Mo|ina, Dtiastitia, disp. jj, no. g. omncsqucrci
pub|icacpartcsius habcntconsccndcndi adgradum supcriorcm, si cuiusquc sors id
tulcrit ncquccuiquamccrtusquidamgradusdcbitur,quidcsccndcrcctconsccndcrc
possit. ' !twould sccmthat H. M. Kobcrtson Astcts, t G) hardlycxaggcratcswhcn
hcwritcs' !twouldnotbcdicu|ttoclaimthatthcrc|igionwhichavourcdthcspirit
ofcapitalismwas ]csuitry,notCalvinism.

SCCI AL

CR DI STRI BLTI VEjLSTI CE

contcmporarics dcrivcd thc classical libcralconccptionof justiccfor
which, as has bccn rightly said, it was only ' thc way in which
compctition was carricd on, not its rcsults` , that could bcjustor
unjust.
!t isunqucstionablytructhat,particularlyamongthoscwhowcrc
vcry succcssful in thc markct ordcr, a bclicf in a much strongcr
moraljustihcation ofindividua succcss dcvclopcd, and that, long
alcrthcbasicprinciplcsofsuchanordcrhad bccnfully claboratcd
and approvcd by Catholic moral philosophcrs, ithad in thcAnglo
Saxon world rcccivcd strong support from Calvinist tcaching. ! t
ccrtainlyi s importanti nthcmarkctordcrorfrcccntcrpriscsocicty,
mislcadingly callcd ' capitalism ) that thc individuals bclicvc that
thcir wcll-bcing dcpcnds primarily on thcir own corts and
dccisions. !ndccd, fcwcircumstanccswilldomorc tomakca pcrson
cncrgcticandcmcicntthan thcbclicfthatitdcpcndschichyonhim
whcthcrhc willrcachthcgoals hc has scthimscl lor this rcason
this bclicf is ocn cncouragcd by cducation and govcrning opin-
ionit scms to mc, gcncrally much to thc bcncht ofmost ofthc
mcmbcrs of thc socicty in which it prcvails, who will owc many
important matcrial and moral improvcmcnts to pcrsons guidcd by
it. But it lcads no doubt also to an cxaggcratcd conhdcncc in thc
truth ofthis gcncralization which to thosc who rcgard thcmsclvcs
and pcrhaps arc) cqually ablc but havc failcd must appcar as a
bittcrirony andscvcrcprovocation
!t is probably a misfortunc that cspccially in thc SA popular
writcrs likc Samucl Smilcs and Horatio Algcr, and latcr thc
sociologist W G. Sumncr, havc dcfcndcd frcc cntcrprisc on thc
ground that it rcgularly rcwards thc dcscrving, and it bodcs ill for
thc futurc ofthc markct ordcr that this sccms to havc bccomc thc
onlydcfcnccofitwhichis undcrstoodby thcgcncralpublic. Jhatit
has largcly bccomc thc basis ofthc sclf-cstccm ofthc busincssman
oftcngivcshimanairofsclfrightcousncsswhichdocsnotmakchim
morcpopular.
!t is thcrcforc a rcal dilcmma to what cxtcnt wc ought to
cncouragcinthcyoungthc bclicfthatwhcn thcyrcallytrythcywill
succccd orshouldrathcr cmphasizc thatincvitablysomc unworthy
6
johnW. Chapman, justicc and lairncss, Namas II, jastict NcwYork, t g) ,
j his Lockcan conccptionhasbccn prcscrvcd cvcn byjohn Kaw|s, at|castinhis
car|icr work, 'Constitutiona| Libcrty and thc Conccpt ofjusticc' , Namas II, jastict
NcwYork g) t,,notc. !|onc assumcsthat|aw and govcrnmcntccctivc|yact
to kccp markcts compcttvc, rcsourccs ully cmploycd, propcty and wca|th widc|y
distributcd ovcr timc, and maintains a rcasonab|c socia| minimum, thcn, ifthcrc is
cualityooppotunity,thcrcsultingdistributionwill bcjustoratlcastnotunjst. ! t
w||havcrcsu|cdfromthcworkingo a ustsystcm asocialminimumi ssimp|ya
|ormo|rationa|insuranccandprudcncc
F . A. VCNHAEK
will succccd and somcworthy failwhcthcrwc ought toallow thc
vicws ofthosc groups to prcvail with whom thc ovcrconhdcncc in
thcappropriatcrcwardofthcablcandindustriousisstrongandwho
in conscqucncc will do much that bcnchts thc rcst, and whcthcr
withoutsuchpartlycrroncous bclicfs thclargcnumbcrswilltolcratc
actual dicrcnccs in rcwards which will bc bascd only partly on
achicvcmcntandpartlyonmcrcchancc.
THERE IS NC

VALLE TC SCCI ET

Jhc futilc mcdicval scarch for thcj ust pricc andj ust wagc, hnally
abandoncd whcn it was rccognizcd that only that ' natural` pricc
couldbcrcgardcdasjustwhichwouldbcarrivcdatinacompctitivc
markct whcrc it would bc dctcrmincd not by any human laws or
dccrccsbutwoulddcpcndonsomanycircumstanccsthatitcouldbc
knownbcforchand only by God,
,
' was notthccndofthcscarchfor
thatphilosophcrs`stonc. t wasrcvivcdinmodcrntimcs,not onlyby
thc gcncral dcmand for ' social justicc` , but also by thc long and
cqually abortivc corts to discovcr critcria ofjusticc in conncction
with thc proccdurcs for rcconciliation or arbitration in wagc
disputcs.lcarlyaccnturyofcndcavours bypublicspiritcdmcnand
womcn in many parts ofthc world to discovcr principlcs by which
j ustwagcratcscouldbcdctcrmincdhavc,asmorcandmorcofthcm
acknowlcdgc, produccdnotasinglc rulc whichwoulddothis

t is
somcwhat surprising in vicw ofthis whcn wc hnd an cxpcricnccd
arbitrator likc Lady Wootton, aftcr admitting that arbitrators arc
'cngagcd in thc impossiblc task ofattcmpting to doj usticc in an
cthicalvacuum` , bccausc' nobodyknowsinthiscontcxtwhatj usticc
is' , drawing from it thc conclusion that thc critcria should bc
dctcrmincd by lcgislation, and cxplicitly dcmand a political
dctcrminationofallwagcsandincomcs.Cnccanhardlycarryany
furthcrthcillusionthatlarliamcntcandctcrmincwhatisj ust, and !
don` tsupposc thc writcr would rcally wish to dcfcnd thc atrocious
principlcimplicdthatallrcwards shouldbc dctcrmincd bypolitical
powcr.
Anothcr sourcc ofthc conccption that thc catcgorics ofjust and
unj ust can bc mcaningfully applicd to thc rcmuncrations dctcr-
mincd by thc markct is thc idca that thc dicrcnt scrviccs havc a
dctcrmincd and asccrtainablc 'valuc tosocicty` , and that thc actual
' Sccpassagcsquotcdinnotc tjabovc.
8
Scc M logarty 7htjast hat[London, t gG t ) .
arbara Wootton, 7ht Secial Ieaadatiea e hatIeliy ondon, t gG, t and
t G andnowalsohcrIacemtsIc/iy,AaIaatstaadaIrccsa/[London, t g;) .

SCCI AL

CR DI STRI BLTI VEjLSTI CE I __

rcmuncration frcqucntly dihcrs from thc valuc. But though thc
conccption ofa 'valuc to socicty` is somctimcs carclcssly uscd cvcn
by cconomists, thcrc is strictly no such thing and thc cxprcssion
implics thc samc sort of anthropomorphism or pcrsonihcation of
socicty as thc tcrm 'socialj usticc` . Scrviccs can havc valuc only to
particular pcoplc or an organization) , and any particular scrvicc
will havc vcry dicrcnt valucs for dihcrcnt mcmbcrs of thc samc
socicty Jo rcgard thcm dicrcntly is to trcat socicty not as a
spontancous ordcr of frcc mcn but as an organization whosc
mcmbcrs arc all madc to scrvc a singlc hicrarchy ofcnds. Jhis
would ncccssarily bc a totalitarian systcm in which pcrsonal
frccdomwouldbcabscnt
Althoughitistcmptingtospcakofa 'valuctosocictyinstcadofa
man's valuc to his fcllows, it is in fact highly mislcadingifwc say,
c. g , thata manwhosupplicsmatchcstomillionsandthcrcbycarns
oo,oooa ycarisworthmorc ' to socicty' thana manwho supplics
grcat wisdom or cxquisitc plcasurc to a fcw thousand and thcrcby
carnso,oooaycar.LvcnthcpcrformanccofaBccthovcnsonata, a
painting by conardo or a play by Shakcspcarc havc no 'valuc to
socicty` but a valuc only to thosc who know and apprcciatc thcm.
Andithaslittlcmcaningtoasscrtthataboxcroracrooncrisworth
morctosocictythanaviolinvirtuosoora ballctdanccrifthcformcr
rcndcrsscrviccs to millions and thc lattcr to a much smallcrgroup.
JhcpointisnotthatthctrucvalucsarcdilIcrcnt, butthatthcvalucs
attachcd to thc dicrcnt scrviccs by dilIcrcnt groups ofpcoplc arc
incommcnsurablc,allthatthcsc cxprcssionsmcanismcrclythatonc
in fact rcccivcs a largcr aggrcgatc sum from a largcr numbcr of
pcoplcthanthcothcr.
2O
lncomcs carncd in thcmarkct by dilIcrcnt pcrsons will normally
not corrcspond to thc rclativc valucs ofthcir scrviccs to any onc
pcrson. Although, in sofar as any oncofa givcn group ofdihcrcnt
commoditics is consumcd by any onc pcrson, hc or shcwill buy so
muchofcachthatthcrclativcvalucstothcmofthclastunitsbought
will corrcspond to thcir rclativc priccs, many pairs ofcommoditics
will ncvcr bc consumcd by thc samc pcrson thc rclativc pricc of
articlcs consumcd only by mcn and ofaticlcs consumcd only by
womcnwillnotcorrcspond to thc rclativcvalucsofthcscarticlcsto
anybody.
hc rcmuncrations which thc individuals and groups rcccivc in
thc markct arc thus dctcrmincd bywhat thcscscrviccs arcwrth to
L
SucySaucut|c Hadi/tas, II, )wasightwhcnhcwrt
lorwhatisworthinanything
usouchoncyas'twilbring.
t ]
4
F. A. VCNHAEK
thosc who rcccivc thcm or, strictly spcaking, to thc las prcssing
dcmandforthcmwhichcanstillbcsatishcdbythcavailablcsupply)
andnotbysomchctitious'valuctosocicty` .
Anothcrsourccofthc complaintaboutthc allcgcdinjusticcofhis
principlcofrcmuncrationisthatthc rcmuncrationthus dctcrmincd
will oftcn bc much highcr than would bc ncccssary to inducc thc
rccipicnt to rcndcr thosc scrviccs. Jhis is pcrfcctly truc but
ncccssary ifallwhorcndcrthcsamc scrviccarctorcccivcthcsamc
rcmuncration, ifthckindofscrviccinqucstionisto bcincrcascdso
longasthcpriccstillcxcccdscosts, andifanyoncwhowishcstobuy
orscllitatthccurrcnpriccistobcablctodoso. Jhcconscqucncc
must bc that all but thc marginal scllcrs makc a gain in cxccss of
what was ncccssary to inducc thcm to rcndcr thc scrviccs in
qucstionjustasallbutthcmarginalbuycrswillgctwhatthcybuy
for lcss than thcy wcrc prcparcd to pay. Jhc rcmuncration ofthc
markct will thcrcforc hardly cvcr sccmj ust in thc scnsc in which
somcbody might cndcavour justly to compcnsatc othcrs for thc
cortsandsacrihccincurrcdforhisbcncht.
Jhcconsidcrationofthcdicrcntattitudcswhichdicrcntgroups
will takc to thc rcmuncration ofdicrcnt scrviccs incidcntally also
shows that thc largc numbcrs by no mcans grudgc all thc incomcs
highcr than thcirs, butgcncrallyonlythosccarncd by activitics thc
functionsofwhichthcydonotundcrstandorwhichthcycvcnrcgard
as harmful. havc ncvcr known ordinary pcoplc grudgc thc vcry
high carnings ofthcboxcr or torcro, thc football idol orthccincma
starorthcjazzkingthcysccmoftcncvcntorcvclvicariouslyinthc
displayofcxtrcmc luxury andwastc ofsuch hgurcs comparcdwith
which thosc ofindustrial magnatcs or hnancial tycoons palc. t is
whcrcmostpcoplcdonotcomprchcnd thc uscfulncssofan activity,
and frcqucntly bccausc thcy crroncously rcgard it as harmful thc
'spcculator`oftcn combincd with thc bclicf that only dishoncst
activiticscanbringsomuchmoncy) , andcspcciallywhcrcthclargc
carnings arc uscd to accumulatc a fortunc again out of thc
crroncous bclicfthat it would bc dcsirablc that it should bc spcnt
rathcrthaninvcstcd) thatthc outcry aboutthcinjusticcofitariscs .
YctthccomplcxstructurcofthcmodcrnGrcatSocictywouldclcarly
not work if thc rcmuncrations of all thc dicrcnt activitics wcrc
dctcrmincd by thc opinion which thc majority holds of thcir
valucor indccd if thcy wcrc dcpcndcnt on any onc pcrson` s
undcrstanding or knowlcdgc of thc importancc ofall thc dicrcnt
activiticsrcquircdforthcfunctioningofthcsystcm.
Jhc mainpoint is not that thc masscs havc in mostinstanccs no
idca ofthc valucs which a man` sactivitics havc to his fcllows, and

SCCI AL

CR DI STRI BLTI VEjLSTI CE t

]
5
that itisncccssarilythcirprcjudiccswhichwoulddctcrmincthcsc
ofthcgovcrnmcnt` spowcr ltisthatnobodyknowscxccptinsofar
as thc markct tclls him. lt is truc cnough that our cstccm of
particularactiviticsolcndihcrsfrom thc valucgivcnto thcmby thc
markct andwccxprcss thisfccling by anoutcry about thcinjusticc
ofit.Butwhcnwcaskwhatoughttobcthcrclativcrcmuncrationsof
a nurscanda butchcr, ofacoal mincrandajudgcatahighcourt, of
thcdccpscadivcrorthc clcancrofscwcrs, ofthc organizcrofa ncw
industryand ajockcy,ofthcinspcctoroftaxcs and thcinvcntorofa
lifc-savingdrug ofthcjctpilotor thc profcssorofmathcmatics, thc
appcal to ' social justicc` docs not givc us thc slightcst hclp in
dccidingandifwcuscititis nomorcthananinsinuationthatthc
othcrsoughttoagrccwithourvicwwithoutgivinganyrcasonfort.
! t might bc objcctcd that, although wc cannot givc thc tcrm
' socialjusticc` a prccisc mcaning, this nccd not bc a fatal objcction
bccausc thc position may bc similar to that which ! havc carlicr
contcndcd cxists with rcgard tojusticc propcr. wc might not know
what is sociallyjust` yct know quitc wcll what is 'socially unjust` ,
and by pcrsistcntly climinating social injusticc` whcncvcr wc
cncountcr it, gradually approach social justicc` Jhis, howcvcr,
docs not providc a way out ofthc basic diculty. Jhcrc can bc no
tcst bywhichwccandiscovcrwhatis 'socially unj ust` bccausc thcrc
isnosubjcctbywhichsuchaninj usticccanbccommittcd, andthcrc
arc no rulcs ofindividual conduct thc obscrvancc ofwhich in thc
markct ordcr would sccurc to thc individuals and groups thc
position which as such as distinguishcd from thc proccdurc by
whichitisdctcrmincd) wouldappcarj usttous. ltdocsnotbclong
tothccatcgoryofcrrorbuttothatofnonscnsc,likcthctcrm' amoral
stonc
THE MEANI NG CF

SCCl AL

Cnc might hopc to gct somc hclp in thc scarch for thc mcaning of
' socialjusticc` by cxamining thc mcaning ofthc attributc ' social ` ,
1
Cn thc gcncra| prob|cm ofrcmuncration accordng to mcrit, apart from thc
passagcs byDad Humcandmmanuc|antp|accd at thhadofthischaptcr,scc
chapcr fmy book 7ht Caastitatiaa aLi/tt( ondon andChcag g and cf
also Mao Fantaloni, `atto cconmico' n Ltattmi di Lcaaamia , z ols, Faua
t g , i. l O l .
Etresono e proposiionicheconvienecomprnderebene.
Laprima cheilmeritounaparolauoadsenso.
La seconda che lconcetto di giustizia unpolisensoche ipresta a uanti paraogisi si
ogonoeamphibologia.
La terzaC che|aremuneraionenonpuesserecommsuratadaunaproduttivimarginae)
capace d determinazione isolamente, o senza |a simul tanea dterminazione delIa produt
tiitdegialtiat toricon iquaientra inunacominazionedicomplmentarit.
F. A. VCNHAEK
but thc attcmpt todo so soon lcads into a quagmirc ofconfusion
ncarly as bad as that which surrounds ' social justicc tscl

Criginally 'socia had of coursc a clcar mcaning analogous to

formations lic natona, ' triba, or 'organizationa , namcly that
ofpcrtaining to, orcharactcristicofthc structurc and opcrations of
socicty nthis scnscj usticcclcarlyisa social phcnomcnonand thc
addition of'socia to thc noun a plconasm such as ifwc spocof
social languagc-though in occasional carly uscs it might havc
bccnintcndcdtodistinguishthcgcncrallyprcvailingvicwsof justicc
fromthathcldbyparticularpcrsonsorgroups
But 'social justicc as uscd today is not ' socia in thc scnsc of
'social norms , i c. somcthng which has dcvclopcd as a practicc of
individual action in thc coursc ofsocial cvolution, not a product of
socicty or ofa social proccss, but a conccpton to bc imposcd upon
socicty !t was thc rcfcrcnccof'social to thc wholcofsocicty, or to
thcintcrcsts ofall itsmcmbcrswhichlcdto its gradually acquirng
a prcdominant mcaning ofmoral approbation. Whcn it camc into
gcncralusc during thc thrdquartcrofthclast ccnturytwasmcant
to convcyanappcal to thc stillrulingclasscs toconccrnthcmsclvcs
morc with thc wclfarc of thc much morc numcrous poor whosc
intcrcsts had not rcccivcd adcquatc considcration. Jhc 'social
qucstion` was poscd as an appcal to thc conscicncc of thc uppcr
classcs to rccognizc thcir rcsponsibility for thc wclfarc of thc
ncglcctcd scctions ofsocictywhoscvoiccs had tillthcncarricdlittlc
wcightinthc councilsofgovcrnmcnt. ' Socialpolicy orSacia/a/i/ik
in thc languagc of thc country thcn lcading in thc movcmcnt)
bccamcthcordcrofthcday,thcchicfconccrnofallprogrcssivcand
goodpcoplc,and' social`camcincrcasinglytodisplaccsuchtcrmsas
' cthical`orsimply'good` .
Butfromsuchanappcaltothcconscicnccofthcpublictoconccrn
thcmsclvcs with thc unfortunatc oncs and rccognizc thcm as
mcmbcrs of thc samc socicty, thc conccption gradually camc to
mcan that 'socictoughtto hold itsclfrcsponsiblcfor thcparticular
1
` Cn thc history o thc tcrm sociaI` scc arl Wasscrrab Sczialaisstaschat aad
sczialt Irat [Lcipzig, go Lcopo|d von Wicsc, DtrLi/tralismas ia Itraatahtit aad
Zakaa [crlin, t g t ;) , and Scial 6tist, Kaltartll [ Colognc t gG) Waldcmar
immcrmann 'Das SozialcimgcschichtlichcnSinn undcgriswandcI`inStadita
zarSciclcit, Itsta/trL.tcahitst [ Mainz, g8 L. H. . Gcck, C/trdasiadriata
dts hcrtts 'sczial'iaditdtatschtSracht [Gttingcn, t gG) and KuthCrummcncrl, ur
Wortgcschichtc von sozial bi szur cngIischcn ulung unpublishcd cssay or
thcStatccxaminationinphilo|ogy[onn, gG . C. alsomycssayWhatisSocial!
WhatdocsitMcan!` inacorrcctcdEng|ishvcrsioni nmyStadits iaIhilcscjy, Iclitics
aadccamics LondonandChicago, t gG;) .
`` C. G. dclVccchio, tict,;
` cry instructivc on this is Lcopold von Wicsc, Dtr Li/tralismas i a Itraatahtit
aadZakaacrlin, t g ; t j.

SCCI AL

CR DI STRI BLTI VEjLSTI CE i

3
/
matcrial position of all its mcmbcrs, and for assuring that cach
rcccivcd what was duc to him. lt implicd that thc proccsscs of
socicty should bc dclibcratcly dircctcd toparticular rcsults and, by
crsonifying socicty, rcprcscntcd it as a subjcct cndowcd with a
conscious mind, capablc ofbcing guidcd in its opcraion by moral
principlcs. ' Social bccamc morc and morc thc dcscription ofthc
prccmincnt virtuc, thc attributc in which thc good man cxccllcd
andthcidcalbywhichcommunalactionwastobcguidcd
But whilc this dcvclopmcnt indcnnitcly cxtcndcd thc hcld of
application ofthc tcrm social , it did not givc i tthc rcquircd ncw
mcaning. lt cvcn so much dcprivcd it of its original dcscriptivc
mcaning thatAmcricansociologistshavc found itncccssaryto coin
thc ncw tcrm ' socictal in its placc. lndccd, it has produccd a
situation in which ' social can bc uscd to dcscribc almost any
action as publicly dcsirablc and has at thc samc timc thc ccct of
dcprivinganytcrmswithwhichitiscombincd ofclcarmcaning.lot
only 'social justicc` but also 'social dcmocracy` , social marct
cconomy`

or thc social statc oflaw` or rulc oflawin Gcrman

sczia/rr Krc//ss/aa/) arc cxprcssions which, though justicc,
dcmocracy, thc markct cconomy or thc Krc//ss/aa/ havc by thcm
sclvcspcrfcctlygoodmcanings, thcaddi tionofthcadjcctivc ' social
macs thcm capablc of mcaning almost anything onc lics. Jhc
word has indccd bccomc onc of thc chicfsourccs ofconfusion of
political discoursc and can probably no longcr bc rcclaimcd for a
uscfulpurposc.
Jhcrc is apparcntly no cnd to thc violcncc that will bc donc to
languagctofurthcrsomcidcalandthccxamplcof'socialjusticc`has
rcccntly givcn risc to thc cxprcssion 'globaljusticc` lts ncgativc,
global injusticc , was dcncd by an ccumcnical gathcring of
Amcrican rcligious lcadcrsas'charactcrizcdbyadimcnsionofsin in
thc cconomic, political, social, scxual, and class structurcs and
systcmsofglobal socicty lt would sccm as ifthc conviction that
' Charactcristiclormanydiscussionsofthcissucbysocial phiosophcrs is W. A.
lrankcna ThcConccpt o Socia| usticc` in K. . randt cd. ) Seciajastict Ncw
York t gG) , ,whoscargumcntrcstson thc assumption that socicty`acts,whichisa
mcaninglcss crm il applicd to a spontancous ordcr. Yct this anthropomorphic
intcrprctationolsocictysccmstobconctowhichuti|itariansarcparticu|ar|ypronc. . .
'' rcgrct this usagc though by mcans ofitsomc ofmy fricnds inGcrmany and
morc rcccntly also in England) hac apparcntly succccdcd in making palatab|c to
widcrcirclcsthcsortolsocialordcrlorwhich amp|cading.
' C thc Statcmcnt o Conscicncc` rcccivcd by thc Aspcn Consu|tation on
Goba|]usticc', an 'ccumcnical gathcring ofAmcrican rcligious cadcrs` at Aspcn,
Colorado,;]unc g;,whichrccognizcdthat'goba|inj usticcischaractcriscd bya
dimcnsion olsin in thc cconomic, po|itica|, socia racial, scua| and c|as structurcs
andsystcmsogobalsocicty' . AsteIestitatt _aatttt NcwYork) no , thirdquartcr
g;)
F . A. VCNHAEK
oncis arguingina good causc produccd morc sloppy thinkingand
cvcnintcllcctual dishoncstythanpcrhapsanyothcrcausc.

SCCI ALjLSTI CE

AND E_LALI T
Jhcmostcommonattcmptstogivcmcaningtothc conccptof' social
j usticc` rcsort to cgalitarian considcrations and arguc that cvcry
dcparturc from cquality of matcrial bcnchts cnjoycd has to bc
j ustihcd by somc rccognizablc common intcrcst which thcsc
dicrcnccs scrvc.

Jhis is bascd on a spccious analogy with thc

sitationinwhichsomchmanagcncyhastodistributc rcwards, in
which casc indccd justicc would rcquirc that thcsc rcwards bc
dctcrmincd in accordancc with somc rccognizablc rulc ofgcncral
applicability. But carnings in a markctsystcm, though pcoplc tcnd
to rcgard thcm as rcwards, do not scrvc such a function. Jhcir
rationalc ifoncmayuscthistcrmforarolcwhichwasnotdcsigncd
butdcvclopcd bccauscitassistcd humancndcavorwithout pcoplc
ndcrstandinghow) , israthcrtoindicatctopcoplcwhatthcyought
to do ifthc ordcr is to bc maintaincd on which thcy all rcly. Jhc
priccswhichmustbcpaidinamarkctcconomyfordicrcntkindsof
labour and othcr factors ofproduction ifindividual corts arc to
match,althoughthcywillbcacctcdbycort,diligcncc,skill, nccd,
ctc. , cannot conform to any onc of thcsc magnitudcs, and
considcrationsofjusticc justdonotmakcscnscwithrcspccttothc
dctcrmination ofa magnitudc which docs not dcpcnd on anyonc`s
will or dcsirc, but on circumstanccs whichnobody knows in thcir
totality.
Jhccontcntionthatalldicrcnccsincarningsmustbcjustihcdby
somc corrcsponding dicrcncc i dcscrts is onc which would
ccrtainly not havc bccn thought to bc obvious in a community of
farmcrs or mcrchants or artisans, that is, in a socicty in which
succcss or failurc wcrc clcarly sccn to dcpcnd only in part on skill
and industry, and in part on purc accidcnt which might hit any
z
Sccparticu|arlyA. . Honor, Socialusticc' . Thcabsurdityol thccontcntion
thatinaGrcatSocictyitnccdsmora|ustihcationilA has morcthan, asilthiswcrc
thc rcsu|t olsomc human articc, bccomcs obvious whcn wc considcr not only thc
c|aboratcandcompcxappaatusolgovcnmcntwhichwou|dbcrcquircdtopcvcnt
this butaIso thatthisapparatuswou|d havc toposscss powcr to dircctthccortsol
a|lcitizcnsandtoclaim thcproductsolthosccorts

` CncolthclcwmodcrnphiIosophcrstosccthiscIcar|yandspcakoutp|ain|ywas
K.G. Co|lingwood. Scchis cssayon Economicsas aphi|osophica|scicncc,`thicsG
[ gzG , csp.p. ]q: Austpicc,austwagcaustratcolintcrcst,isacontradictionin
tcrms.Thcqucstionolwhatapcrsonoughttogctincturnlorhisgoodsandlabouris
aqucstionabso|utc|ydcvoidolmcaning. '

SCCI AL

CR DI STRI BLTI VEjLSTI CE l

3J
onc-although cvcn in such socictics individuals wcrc known to
complain to God or fortunc about thc injusticc ofthcir fatc. But,
thoughpcoplcrcscntthatthcirrcmuncrationshouldinpartdcpcnd
on purcaccidcnt,thatis infactprccisclywhatitmustifthcmarkct
ordcris toadjustitsclfpromptly tothcunavoidablcandunforcsccn
changcs in circumstanccs, and thc individual is to bc allowcd to
dccidcwhat todo. Jhc nowprcvalcntattitudccould arisconlyin a
socictyin which largcnumbcrs workcd asmcmbcrsoforganizations
inwhichthcywcrcrcmuncratcdat stipulatcdratcsfortimcworkcd
Such communitics will not ascribc thc dicrcnt fortuncs of its
mcmbcrstothcopcrationofanimpcrsonalmcchanismwhich scrvcs
to guidc thc dircctions of clIorts, but to somc human powcr that
oughttoallocatcsharcsaccordingtomcrit
Jhc postulatc ofmatcrial cquality would bc a natural starting
pointonly ifitwcrc a ncccssary circumstancc that thc sharcs ofthc
dicrcntindividualsorgroupswcrcinsuchamanncrdctcrmincd by
dclibcratc human dccision ln a socicty in which this wcrc an
unqucstioncd fact,justiccwouldindccddcmandthatthcallocation
of thc mcans for thc satisfaction of human nccds wcrc ccctcd
accordingto somcuniformprinciplcsuchasmcritornccd orsomc
combinationof thcsc) , andthat,whcrcthcprinciplcadoptcddidnot
justify a dicrcncc thcsharcsofthc dicrcntindividualsshould bc
cqual hcprcvalcntdcmandformatcrialcqualityisprobablyoftcn
bascd on hc bclicfthat thc cxisting incqualitics arc thc ccct of
somcbody`sdccision-abclicf whichwould bcwhollymistakcnina
gcnuinc markct ordcr and has still only vcry limitcd validity in thc
highly intcrvcntionist mixcd` cconomy cxisting in most countrics
today. his now prcvalcnt form of cconomic ordcr has in fact
attaincd its charactcr largcly as a rcsult ofgovcrnmcntal mcasurcs
aimingatwhatwasthoughttobcrcquircdbysocialjusticc` .
Whcn thc choicc, howcvcr is bctwccn a gcnuinc markct ordcr,
whichdocs not andcannotachicvc a distributioncorrcsponding to
anystandardofmatcrialjusticc, and asystcminwhichgovcrnmcnt
uscsitspowcrstoputsomcsuchstandardintoccct, thcqucstion is
nowhchcrgovcrnmcntoughttocxcrcisc,j ustlyorunjustly,powcrs
it mustcxcrciscinanycasc,butwhcthcrgovcrnmcntshouldposscss
and cxcrcisc additional powcrswhichcanbc uscd todctcrmincthc
sharcs ofthc dilIcrcnt mcmbcrs ofsocicy. Jhc dcmand for social
jusicc , in othcr words, docs not mcrcly rcquirc govcrnmcnt to
obscrvcsomcprinciplcofaction accordingtouniformrulcsin thosc
actions which it must pcrform in any casc, but dcmands hat it
undcrtakc additional activitics, and thcrcby assumc ncw rcspon-
sibilitics-tasks which arc not ncccssary for maintaining law and
F . A. VCNHAEK
ordcr and providing for ccrtain collcctivc nccds which thc markct
couldnotsatisfy.
Jhcgrcat problcmiswhcthcr this ncwdcmand for cqualitydocs
not conhict with thc cquality of thc rulcs of conduct which
govcrnmcnt mustcnforcconall inafrccsocicty. Jhcrcis, ofcoursc
a grcat dicrcncc bctwccn govcrnmcnt trcating all citizcns accord
ing to thc samc rulcs in all thc activitics it undcrtakcs for othcr
puposcs, and govcrnmcnt doingwhatis rcquircd inordcr to placc
thc dicrcnt citizcns in cqual or lcss uncqual) matcrial positions .
ndccd, thcrc may arisc a sharp conhict bctwccn thcsc two aims.
inccpcoplcwilldicrinmanyattributcswhichgovcrnmcntcannot
altcr, to sccurc for thcm thc samc matcrial position would rcquirc
that govcrnmcnt trcat thcm vcry diccntly. ndccd, to assurc thc
samc matcrial position to pcoplc who dicr grcatly in strcngth,
intclligcncc, skill, knowlcdgc, and pcrscvcrancc as wcll as in thcir
physical andsocial cnvironmcnt, govcrnmcntwouldclcarlyhavc to
trcat thcm vcry dicrcntly to compcnsatc for thosc disadvantagcs
and dcncicncics it could not dircctly altcr. trict cquality of thosc
bcnchtswhichgovcrnmcntcouldprovidcfor all, onthcothcrhand,
would clcarly lcad toincqualityofthcmatcrialpositions
his, howcvcr,isnot thc only and not cvcn thc chicfrcasonwhya
govcrnmcntaimingtosccurcfor its citizcnscqualmatcrialpositions
oranydctcrmincdpattcrnofmatcrialwclfarc) would havc to trcat
thcmvcryuncqually. t would havc todo so bccausc undcrsuch a
systcm it would havc to undcrtakc to tcll pcoplc what to do. Cncc
thcrcwardsthc individualcancxpcct arc no longcr an appropriatc
indication of how to dircct thcir corts to whcrc thcy arc most
nccdcd, bccausc thcsc rcwards corrcspond not to thc valuc which
thcirscrviccshavcfor thcirfcllowsbutto thcmoralmcritordcscrt
thc pcrsons arc dccmcd to havc carncd, thcy losc thc guiding
function thcy havc in thc markct ordcr and would havc to bc
rcplaccd by thc commands of thc dirccting authority. A ccntral
planning omcc would, howcvcr, havc to dccidc on thc tasks to bc
allottcd to thc dicrcntgroupsorindividuals wholly on groundsof
cxpcdicncy or cmcicncy and, in ordcr to achicc its cnds, would
havc to imposc upon thm vcry dicrcnt dutics and burdcns. Jhc
individuals might bc trcatcd according to uniform rulcs so far as
thcir rcwards wcrc conccrncd, but ccrtainly notwith rcspcct to thc
dicrcnt kinds of work thcy would havc to bc madc to do. n
assigning pcoplc t o thcir dicrcnt tasks, thc ccntral planning
authority would havc to bc guidcd by conidcrations ofcmcicncy
and cxpcdicncy and not by principlcs ofjusticc orcquality. lo lcss
than in thc markct ordcr would thc individuals in thc common
intccst havc to submit ogrcatincqualityonly thcsc incqualitics

CCI AL

CR DI STRI BLTI EjLSTI CE

wouldbcdctcrmincdnotbythcintcractionof individualskillsi nan
impcrsonal proccss but by thc uncontradictablc dccision of
authority.
As is bccomingclcarincvcrincrcasinghcldsofwclfarcpolicy an
authority instructcd to achicvc particularrcsultsfor thc individuals
must bc givcncsscntally arbitrarypowcrs to makc thc individuals
dowhatsccmsncccssarytoachicvcthcrcquircdrcsult lullcquality
for most cannot butmcan thc cqual submission ofthc grcat masscs
undcr thc command ofsomc litc whomanagcs thciraairs. Whilc
an cqualityofrightsundcra limitcdgovcrnmcntispossiblcand an
csscntial condition of individual frccdom a clai m for cquality of
matcrialpositioncanbcmctonlybyagovcrnmcntwithtotalitarian
powcrs.
Wcarcofcoursc not wrongwhcnwc pcrccivc thatthccccts on
thc dilcrcnt individuals and groups ofthc cconomic proccsscs ofa
frcc socicty arc not distributcd according to somc rccognizablc
principlc ofjusticc Whcrc wc go wrong is in concluding from this
that thcy arc unjust and that somcbody is rcsponsiblc and to bc
blamcdforthis. nafrccsocictyinwhichthcpositionofthcdicrcnt
individuals and groups is not thc rcsult of anybodys dcsign-or
could within such a socicty not bc altcrcd in accordancc with a
principlcofgcncralapplicability-thcdicrcnccsinrcwardscannot
mcaningfully bc dcscribcd as just or unjust. Jhcrc arc no doubt
many inds of individual actions which arc aimcd at accting
particular rcmuncrations and which might bc rcgardcd as unjust.
Bu thcrc arc no principlcs of individual conduct which would
produccapattcrnofdistribution whchas such could bccallcdjust
andthcrcforc also nopossibility forthcindividualtonowwhathc
wouldhavctodotosccurcajustrcmuncrationofhisfcllows
Cur wholc systcm of morals is a systcm of rulcs of individual
conductandinarcatSocictynoconductguidcd by suchrulcs or
by dccisions ofthc individualsguidcd by such rulcs could producc
for thc individuals rcsults which would appcar to us as just in thc
scnscinwhichwcrcgarddcsigncdrcwardsasj ustorunjust. simply
` lthcrcisanyoncactwhich alI scrious studcnts othcclaimsorcquaIityhavc
rccognizcd it is that matcriaI cqua|ity and Iibcrty arc irrcconci|ablc. C A. dc
Tocqucvi||c, Dtmacta iaAmttica, book , ch. t [Ncw York, gG cdn. , vol ii, 8
dcmocraticcommunitics 'cal| orcqua|ity in rccdom, andithcy cannotobtainthat,
thcystilIcalIorcqua|ityins|avcry'Wi|liam S. Sorlcy, 7ht MatalLtaadhtMatal
hatth Cambridgc, t g t t ) , t t o 'Equalityis gaincd only by constantintcrcrcnccwith
|ibcrty ormorc rcccntlyGcrhard cibho|z, ' Dic cdrohung dcr lrcihcit durch dic
Macht dcr Gcsctzgcbcr`, in Ittihtit dttIttsalichktt Stuttgart, t gj8) , 8o ' lrcihcit
crzcugtnotwcndig\ng|cichhcitundG|cichhcitnotwcndig\nrcihcit , arcmcrc|y a
cw instanccs which rcadi|y hnd in my notcs. Yct pcopIc who c|aim to bc
cnthusiasticsupportcrsolibcrtysti||clamourconstant|yormatcria|cquality.
F . A. VCNHAEK
bccausc in such a socicty nobody has thcpowcr or thcknowlcdgc
whichwould cnablchimto cnsurc thatthoscahcctcd byhis actions
willgctwhathcthinks rightfor thcmtogct . lorcouldanyoncwho
is assurcd rcmuncration according to somc principlc which is
acccptcdas constituting' socialjusticc` bcallowcdtodccidcwhathc
is to do. rcmuncration indicating how urgcnt it was that a ccrtain
workshouldbcdonccouldnotbcjustinthisscnsc,bccauscthcnccd
for work ofa particular kind would oftcn dcpcnd on unforcsccablc
accidcntsandccrtainlynotonthcgoodintcntionsorclIortsofthosc
ablc to pcrform it. And an authority thathxcd rcmuncrations with
thc intcntion of thcrcby rcducing thc kind and numbcr of pcoplc
thought ncccssary in cach occupation could not makc thcsc
rcmuncrations 'just` , i . c. proportionatc to dcscrt, or nccd, or thc
mcrits ofanyothcrclaimofthc pcrsons conccrncd, but would havc
toolIcrwhatwas ncccssarytoattractorrctainthcnumbcrofpcoplc
wantcdincachkindofactivity.

E_LALI T CF CPPCRTLNI T

t is ofcoursc not tobcdcnicd that in thc cxistingmarkctordcrnot

only thc rcsults but also thc initial chanccs ofdihcrcnt individuals
arc oftcnvcry dicrcnt, thcy arc ahcctcd by circumstanccs ofthcir
physicaland socialcnvironmcntwhicharcbcyondthcircontrolbut
inmanyparticularrcspcctsmightbcaltcrcdbysomcgovcrnmcntal
action. Jhc dcmand for cquality of opportunity or cqual starting
conditions S/ar/grrrc//igkri/) appcals to, andhas bccnsupportcdby,
many who in gcncral favour thc frcc markct ordcr. So far as this
rcfcrs tosuch faciliticsandopportuniticsasarcofncccssityahcctcd
by govcrnmcntal dccisions such as appointmcnts to public omcc
and thc likc) , thc dcmand was indccd onc ofthc ccntral points of
classical libcralism, usually cxprcsscd by thc rcnch phrasc 'la
carrircouvcrtcauxtalcnts` . Jhcrcisalsomuch tobcsaidinfavour
of thc govcrnmcnt providing on an cqual basis thc mcans for thc
schooling ofminors who arc noyctfully rcsponsiblc citizcns, cvcn
though thcrc arc gravc doubts whcthcr wc ought to allow
govcrnmcnttoadministcrthcm.
But all this would still bc vcry far from crcating rcal cquality of
opportunity, cvcn for pcrsons posscssing thc samc abilitics . Jo
achicvc this govcrnmcnt would havc to control thc wholc physical
and human cnvironmcnt ofall pcrsons, and havc to cndcavour to
providc at lcast cquivalcnt chanccs for cach, and thc morc
govcrnmcnt succccdcd in thcsc cndcavours, thc strongcr would
bccomc thclcgitimatcdcmand that,onthcsamc principlc, anystill

SCCI AL

CR DI STRI BLTI VEjLSTI CE

rcmag handicaps must bc rcmovcdor compcnsatcd for by
putting cxtra burdcn on thc still rclativcly favourcd. This would
havc to go on until govcrnmcnt litcrally controllcd cvcry cir-
cumstanccwhich could alIcctanypcrson`s wcllbcing. Attractivc as
thc phrascofcquality ofopportunityatnrstsounds,onccthcidcais
cxtcndcd bcyond thc facilitics which for othcr rcasons havc to bc
providcd bygovcrnmcnt,itbccomcsawholly illusory idcal, andany
attcmptconcrctclytorcalizcitapttoproduccanightmarc.

SCCI ALjLSTI CE

AND FREEDCM !NDER THE LAW

Thcidca thatmcn ought to bc rcwardcd in accordancc with thc
asscsscd mcritsordcscrtsofthcirscrviccs' tosocictyprcsupposcsan
authority which notonly distributcs thcsc rcwards butalso assigns
tothcindividualsthctasksforthcpcrformanccofwhich thcywillbc
rcwardcd. n othcr words if'socialjusticc is to bc brought about,
thc individuals must bc rcquircd to obcy not mcrclygcncral rulcs
butspccincdcmandsdircctcdto thcmonly.Thctypcofsocialordcr
inwhich thcindividualsarcdircctcdtoscrvcasinglcsystcmofcnds
isthcorganizationandnotthcspontancousordcrofthcmarkct,that
is, not a systcminwhichthc individual is frcc bccauscbound only
bygcncralrulcsof justconduct,butasystcminwhichallarcsubjcct
tospccincdircctionsbyauthority.
tappcarssomctimcs to bcimagincdthatamcrcaltcrationofthc
rulcs of individual conduct could bring about thc rcalization of
'socialjusticc' . Butthcrccanbcnosctofsuchrulcs,noprinciplcsby
which thcindividuals could sogovcrn thcirconductthatina Grcat
Socicty thcjoint clIcct ofthcir activitics would bc a distribution of
bcncnts which could bc dcscribcd as matcrially just, or any othcr
spccihc and intcndcd allocation of advantagcs and disadvantagcs
among particular pcoplc or groups . n ordcr to achicvc 00_
particularpattcrn ofdistribution through thc markct proccss, cach
produccrwouldhavctoknow, notonlwhomhiscortswillbcncht
or harm , but aso how wcl oall thc othcr pcoplc actually or
potcntially acctcd by his activitics will bc as thc rcsult of thc
scrviccsthcyarcrcccivingfromothcrmcmbcrsofthcsocicty.Aswc
havc sccn carlicr, appropriatc rulcs ofconduct can dctcrminc only
thcformalcharactcrofthcordcrofactiviticsthatwillformitsclf, but
not thc spccihc advantagcs particular groups or individuals will
dcrivcfromit.
This rathcr obvious fact still nccds to bc strcsscd sincc cvcn
cmincntjurists havc contcndcd that thc substitution of social` or
l gg F. A. VCNHAEK
distributivc for individual or commutativcjusticc nccd notdcstroy
thcfrccdomundcr thc lawofthcindividua. Jhus thcdistinguishcd
Gcrman lcgal philosophcr Gustav Kadbruch cxplicitly maintaincd
that ' thc socialist community woud also bc a Kc//ss/aa/ i. c. thc
Kulc ofLaw would prcvail thcrc , although a Kc//ss/aa/ govcrncd
notby commutativc butbydistributivcj usticc' . Andoflranccitis
rcportcd that ' it has bccn suggcstcd that somc highly placcd
administrators should bc givcn thc pcrmancnt task ofpronounc
ing on thcdistributionofnationalincomc, asjudgcs pronounccon
lcgal mattcrs .

Such bclicfs, howcvcr, ovcrlook thc fact that no

spccihc pattcrn of distribution can bc achicvcd by making thc
individuals obcy rulcs ofconduct, but that thc achicvcmcntofsuch
particularprcdctcrmincdrcsultsrcquircsdclibcratccoordinationof
all thc dicrcnt activitics in accordancc with thc concrctc cir
cumstanccs oftimc andplacc. lt prccludcs,inothcrwords, thatthc
scvcral individuals act on thc basis ofthcir own knowlcdgc and in
thc scrvicc ofthcir own cnds, which is thc csscncc offrccdom, but
rcquircs thatthcybcmadctoactinthcmanncrwhichaccordingto
thc knowlcdgc of thc dirccting authority is rcquircd for thc
rcalizationofthccndschoscnbythatauthority.
Jhcdistributivcjusticcatwhichsocialismaimsisthusirrcconcil
ablcwiththcrulcoflaw,andwiththatfrccdomundcrthcawwhich
thcrulcoflawisintcndcd to sccurc. Jhcrulcsofdistributivcj usticc
cannotbcrulcsforthcconducttowardscquals, butmustbcrulcsfor
thc conduct of supcriors towards thcir subordinatcs . Yct though
somc socialists havc long ago thcmsclvcs drawn thc incvitablc
conclusion that thcfundamcntal principlcsofformallawby which
cvcry casc must bcjudgcd according to gcncral rational principlcs
. . . obtains only for thc compctitivcphascofcapitalism, and thc
communists, so long as thcy took socialism scriously, had cvcn
proclaimcd that communismmcansnotthcvictoryofsocialistlaw,
but thcvictoryofsocialism ovcranylaw, sinccwiththcaboitionof
classcs with antagonisticintcrcsts, law wil disappcar altogcthcr` ,
whcn, morc thanthirty ycars ago, thc prcscnt authormadc this thc
` ustav Kadbruch, Kchtshilasahit Stuttgart t gjG) 8; Auch das sozia|is
tischccmcinwcscn wird a|socin Kcchtsstaatscin, cin Kcchtsstaatfrci|ich, dcrstatt
vondcrausg|cichcndcnvondcraustci|cndcncrcchtigkcitbchcrrschtwird.
` Scc M. uvcrgcr 7hcIdtaaIalitics ndianapo|s, gGG) , zo
`` ar|Mannhcim,MaaaadSacit(viaaaAcaKcaastractiaaondon go) t 8o.
` F. ]. Stuchka FrcsidcntfthcSovictSuprcmcourt)inavclatdiaaStattaad
Laa in Kussian, Mscow, t gz; , quotcd byV. sovski,SaeittCieilLaa AnnArbor,
Mich. , t g8 , i . ;o. hc work ofE. Faschukans thc Sovict author who has most
consistcnt|ydcvc|opcdthcidcaofthcdisappcaranccof|awundcrsocia|ism, hasbccn
dcscribcd by ar| orschnArchiesaialistischcrLittratar, iii lrankfurt, t gGG) as thc
on|yconsistcntdcvc|opmcntofthctcachingofar|Mar.

SCCl AL

CR Dl STRI BLTl VEjLSTl CE

ccntral point of a discussion of thc political clccts of socialist
cconomicpolicics,itcvokcdgrcatindignationandviolcntprotcsts.
But thc crucia point is implicd cvcn in adbruch` s own cmphasis
on thc fact that thc transition from commutativc to distributivc
justiccmcansaprogrcssivc displaccmcntofprivatc bypublicaw,

sincc public law consists not ofrulcs ofconduct for privatc citizcns
but ofrucs oforganization for public ocials. !t is, as adbruch
himsclfstrcsscs, a law that subordinatcs thc citizcns to authori ty
Cnlyifoncundcrstandsbylaw notthcgcncrarulcsofjust conduct
only butany commandi ssucd by authority or any authorization of
such commands by a lcgislaturc) , can thc mcasurcs aimcd at
distributivc justicc bc rcprcscntcd as compatiblc with thc ruc of
aw. But this conccpt is thcrcby madc to mcan mcrc lcgality and
ccascs to ocr thc protcction of individual frccdom which it was
originallyintcndcdtoscrvc
Jhcrc is no rcason why in a frcc socicty govcrnmcnt should not
assurc to al protcction againstscvcrc dcprivationin thc form ofan
assurcd minimum incomc, or a hoorbclowwhichnobodynccd to
dcsccnd. Jo cntcr into such an insurancc againstcxtrcmc misfor-
tuncmaywcll bcinthcintcrcstofall, oritmay bcfcltto bc a clcar
moral duty ofal to assist, within thc organizcd community, thosc
who cannot hclp thcmsclvcs So ong as such a uniform minimum
incomc is providcd outsidc thc markct to all thosc who, for any
rcason,arc unablc to carninthcmarkctanadcquatcmaintcnancc,
this nccd not lcad to a rcstriction offrccdom, or conhict with thc
ulcofLaw. Jhcproblcmswithwhichwc archcrcconccrncdarisc
only whcn thc rcmuncrationfor scrviccs rcndcrcd i sdctcrmincd by
`` 7/t Raadta Stdam London and Chicago, t g , ch. lor discussions ofthc
ccntralthcsisolthatbookbylawycrs sccW. lricdmann, 7/tIlaaatdStattaadt/tRalt
aLau Mclbournc, t g8 , rcprintcd in thc samc author's Lau aadSacial C/aar ia
Caattmatatitaia London, t g t ) Hans clscn Thc loundations ofDcmocracy',
Lt/ics bb I g) Koscoc Found, Thc Ku|c ofLaw and thc Modcrn Wc|farc Statc',
Iaadr/ilt LauRtitu, ; t g HarryW. joncs, Thc Kulc ofLawand thc Modcrn
Wclfarc Statc', Clam/ia Lau Rtitu, 8 g8) A. L. Goodhart, Thc Kulc olLaw
andAbso|utcSovcrcignty', |aictsi IraaslcaaiaLauRtciru, to , t g8 .
`' G. KadbruchRtc/ts/ilasa/it, l zb.
`' Kadbruch's conccptions olthcsc mattcrs arc conciscly summcd up byKoscoc
Found in hisintroductionto K. H. Gracs,Statasia t/t CmmaaLau London, g)
p. ) Kadbruch 'starts witha distinction bctwccn commutativcjustcc,a corrccting
justicc whichgivcs back to onc what has bccn takcnaway|rom him or gics him a
substantialsubstitutc, and distributivcjusticc,adistributiono|thcgoodsolcxistcncc
notcquallybutaccordingtoaschcmcofvalucs. Thusthcrcisacontrastbctwccnco
ordinating |aw, which scurcs intcrcsts by rcparation and thc likc, trcating all
indivduals as cqual, and subordnatng law, which prclcrs somc or thc intcrcsts ol
somcaccordingtoitsmcasurco|vauc. Fubliclawhcsays,isalawofsubordination,
subordinatingindividual topubliintcrcstsbut notthcintcrcstsofothcrindividuals
withthoscpublicintcrcsts. '
F. A . VCNHAEK
authority, and thc impcrsonal mcchanism of thc markct which
guidcsthcdircctionofindividualcortsisthussuspcndcd.
lcrhaps thcactcstscnscofgricvanccaboutinj usticcinhictcdon
onc, not by particular pcrsons but by thc ' systcm` , is that about
bcingdcprivcdofopportunitics fordcvclopingonc`s abiliticswhich
othcrs cnjoy. lor this any dicrcncc of cnvironmcnt, social or
physical, may bc rcsponsiblc, and at lcast somc ofthcm may bc
unavoidablc. Jhc most important of thcsc is clcarly inscparablc
from thc institution ofthc family. Jhis not only satiscs a strong
psychological nccd but in gcncral scrvcs as an instrumcnt for thc
transmission ofimportant cultural valucs. Jhcrc can bc no doubt
thatthoscwhoarccithcrwhollydcprivcdofthisbcnct,orgrcwup
in unfavourablc conditions, arc gravcly handicappcd, and fcw will
qucstion that itwould bcdcsirablc that somc public institution so
far as possiblc should assist such unfortunatc childrcn whcn
rclativcs and ncighbours fail . Yct fcw will scriously bclicvc
althoughllatodid) thatwccanfullymakcupforsuchadccicncy,
and trustcvcnfcwcrthat, bccauscthisbcnctcannotbcassurcdto
all, it should, in thc intcrcst ofcquality, bc takcn from thsc who
now cnjoy it lor docs it sccm to mc that cvcn matcrial cquality
could compcnsatc for thoscdicrcnccsinthc capacityofcnjoymcnt
and ofcxpcricncing a livcly intcrcst in thc cultural surroundings
whichasuitablcupbringingconfcrs.
Jhcrc arc ofcoursc many othcr irrcmcdiablc incqualitics which
mustsccm as unrcasonablc as cconomic incqualitics but which arc
lcss rcscntcd than thc lattcr only bccausc thcy do not appcar to bc
manmadcorthcconscqucnccofinstitutionswhichcouldbcaltcrcd.
THE 5PATI AL RANGE CF

5CCI ALjL5TI CE

Jhcrc can bc littlc doubt that thc moral fcclings which cxprcss
thcmsclvcsinthcdcmandfor ' socialj usticc`dcrivcfromanattitudc
which in morc primitivc conditions thc individual dcvclopcd
towards thc fcllow mcmbcrs of thc small group to which hc
bclongcd. Jowards thc pcrsonally known mcmbcr of onc's own
group itmaywcll havc bccn a rccognicd duty to assisthimand to
adj ust onc` s actions to his nccds. Jhis is madc possiblc by thc
knowlcdgc of his pcrson and his circumstanccs. Jhc situation is
wholly dicrcnt in thc Grcat or Cpcn Socicty. Hcrc thc products
and scrviccs ofcach bcnct mostly pcrsons hc docs not know. Jhc
grcatcr productivity ofsuch a socicty rcsts on a division oflabour
cxtcnding far bcyond thc rangc any onc pcrson can survcy. Jhis
cxtcnsionofthcproccssofcxchangcbcyondrclativclysmallgroups,

5CCI AL

CR DI 5TRIBLJIVE jL5TI CE t
Z
and including largc numbcrs ol pcrsons not known to cach othcr,
has bccn madc possiblc by conccding to thc strangcr and cvcn thc
lorcigncrthcsamcprotcctionolrulcsol justconductwhichapplyto
thcrclationstothcknownmcmbcrsolonc`sownsmallgroup.
Jhisapplicationolthcsamcrulcs oljustconducttothcrclations
toallothcrmcnisrightlyrcgardcdasoncolthcgrcatachicvcmcnts
ol a libcral socicty. What is usually not undcrstood is that this
cxtcnsionolthcsamcrulcstothcrclationstoallothcrmcn bcyond
thc most intimatcgroup such as thc lamily and pcrsonal lricnds)
rcquircs an attcnuation at lcast ol somc ol thc rulcs which arc
cnlorccd in thcrclations toothcrmcmbcrs olthc smallcrgroup. Il
thclcgalduticstowardsstrangcrsorlorcigncrsarctobcthcsamcas
thosctowards thc ncighbours or inhabitants olthc samcvillagc or
town,thclattcrduticswillhavctobcrcduccdtosuchascanalsobc
applicd to thcstrangcr. No doubt mcn will always wish to bclong
also to smallcrgroups and bc willingvoluntarily to assumcgrcatcr
obligations towards scll-choscn lricnds or companions. But such
moralobligationstowardssomccanncvcrbccomccnlorccdduticsin
a systcm ollrccdom undcr thc law, bccausc in such a systcm thc
sclcction ol thosc towards whom a man wishcs to assumc spccial
moral obligations must bclclt tohimand cannot bcdctcrmincd by
law. A systcm olrulcs intcndcdloranCpcn Socicty and, at lcast in
principlc, mcant to bc applicablc to all othcrs, must havc a
somcwhatsmallcrcontcntthanonctobcapplicdinasmallgroup.
Espccially a common agrccmcnt on what is thc duc status or
matcrialpositionolthcdilIcrcntmcmbcrsislikclytodcvcloponlyin
thc rclativcly small group in which thc mcmbcrs will bc lamiliar
withthccharactcrandimportanccolcachothcrsactivitics. !nsuch
small communitics thc opinion about appropriatc status will also
still bc associatcd with a lccling about what onc scllowcs to thc
othcr, and not bc mcrcly a dcmand that somcbody providc thc
appropriatc rcward. cmands lor thc rcalization ol 'socialjusticc'
arc usually as a mattcr ol coursc, though olcn only tacitly,
addrcsscdtonationalgovcrnmcntsasthcagcncicswhichposscssthc
ncccssarypowcrs. But itisdoubtlulwhcthcrinany but thcsmallcst
countrics standards can bc applicd nationally which arc dcrivcd
lrom thc condition ol thc particular locality with which thc
individual is lamiliar, and lairly ccrtain that lcw mcn would bc
willingtoconccdctolorcigncrsthcsamcrighttoaparticularincomc
thatthcytcndtorccognizcinthcirlcllowcitizcns.
!t is tructhat inrcccntycarsconccrnaboutthcsulIcringollargc
numbcrs in thc poor countrics has induccd thc clcctoratcs ol thc
wcalthicrnations toapprovcsubstantialmatcrialaid tothclormcr,
butitcanhardlybc saidthatinthisconsidcrationsoljusticcplaycd
. A. VCN HAYEK
asignibcantrolc. !t isindccddoubtIulwhcthcranysubstantialhclp
would havc bccn rcndcrcd il compcting powcr groups had not
strivcn todrawasmanyaspossiblcoIthcdcvclopingcuntricsinto
thcirorbit.Anditdcscrvcsnoticcthatthcmodcrntcchnologywhich
has madcsuchassistanccpossiblccoulddcvcloponlybccauscsomc
countricswcrcablctobuildupgrcatwcalthwhilcmostolthcworld
sawlittlcchangc.
Yct thc chicIpoint is that, ilwc look bcyond thc limits olour
nationalstatcs, and ccrtainly ilwcgobcyondthc limits olwhatwc
rcgard as ourcivilization,wc nolongcrcvcndcccivcoursclvcs that
wc know what would bc 'sociallyjust` , and that thoscvcrygroups
within thc cxisting statcs which arc loudcst in thcir dcmands lor
'socialjusticc`, such as thc tradc unions, arc rcgularly thc brst to
rcjcct such claims raiscd on bchall ol lorcigncrs. Applicd to thc
intcrnational sphcrc, thc complctc lack ola rccognizcd standard ol
'social justicc`,orolanyknownprinciplcsonwhich such astandard
could bcbascd, bccomcs at oncc obvious, whilc onanational scalc
most pcoplc still think that what on thc lcvcl ol thc lacc-to-Iacc
socicty is to thcm a lamiliar idca must also havc somc validity lor
nationaI poIitics or thc usc olthc pocrs olgovcrnmcnt. !n lact, it
bccomcs on this lcvcl a humbug-thc clIcctivcncss olwhich with
wcll-mcaning pcoplc thc agcnts oIorganizcd intcrcsts havc lcarnt
succcsslullytocxploit.
Jhcrcis inthisrcspcctaIundamcntaldilIcrcnccbctwccnwhatis
possiblc in thcsmallgroup and in thcCrcatSocicty. !n thc small
groupthcindividualcanknowthcclIcctsolhisactionsonhisscvcral
Icllows,andthcrulcsmayclIcctivclylorbidhimtoharmthcminany
manncrandcvcn rcquirchimtoassist thcminspccibcways. !n thc
Crcat Socicty many oIthc clIccts oIa pcrson`s actions on various
lcllows must bc unknown to him. !t can, thcrclorc, not bc thc
spccib c clIccts in thc particular casc, but only rulcs which dcbnc
kinds ol actions as prohibitcd or rcquircd, which must scrvc as
guidcs to thc individual. !n particular, hc will oltcn not know who
thc individualpcoplc will bc who will bcncbt by what hcdocs, and
thcrclorcnotknow whcthcrhcissatislyingagrcat nccdoraddingto
abundancc. Hc cannot aim atjust rcsults ilhc docs notknow who
willbcalIcctcd.
! ndccd thc transitionlrom thcsmallgrouptothcCrcator Cpcn
Socicty-andthctrcatmcntolcvcryothcrpcrsonasahumanbcing
rathcr than as cithcr a known lricnd or an cncmy-rcquircs a
rcductionolthcrangcolduticswcowctoallothcrs.
!lapcrson`slcgalduticsarctobcthcsamctowardsall,including
thcstrangcrand cvcn thclorcigncr andgrcatcr only whcrc hchas
voluntarilycntcrcdintoobligations, orisconncctcdby physicaltics

5CCIAL

CR DI5TRIBLTIVE jL5TI CE
asbctwccn parcnts and childrcn) , thc lcgally cnlorccablc dutics to
ncighbour and lricnd must not bc morc than thosc towards thc
strangcr. Jhat is, all thosc dutics which arc bascd on pcrsonal
acquaintancc and lamiliarity with individual circumstanccs must
ccasc to bc cnlorccablc. Jhc cxtcnsion ol thc obligation to obcy
ccrtain rulcs oljust conduct to widcr circlcs and ultimatcly to all
mcn must thus lcad to an attcnuation ol thc obligation towards
lcllowmcmbcrs olthc samc small group. Cur inhcritcd orpcrhaps
inpartcvcninnatcmoral cmotions arcinpartinapplicablc toCpcn
Socicty which is an abstract socicty), and thc kind ol 'moral
socialism` that is possiblc in thc small group and olcn satishcs a
dccply ingraincd instinct may wcll bc impossiblc in thc Crcat
Socicty. Somcaltruisticconductaimcdatthcbcnchtolsomcknown
lricndthatinthcsmallgroupmightbchighlydcsirablc,nccdnotbc
so inthcCpcn Socicty, andmaythcrccvcnbcharmlul as c.g. thc
rcquircmcntthatmcmbcrsolthcsamctradcrclrainlromcompcting
withcachothcr) .
!tmayathrstsccmparadoxicalthatthcadvanccolmoralsshould
lcad to a rcduction ol spccihc obligations towards othcrs. yct
whocvcr bclicvcs that thc principlc olcqual trcatmcnt olall mcn,
whichisprobablythconlychancclorpcacc,ismorcimportantthan
spccial hclp to visiblc sulIcring, must wish it. !t admittcdly mcans
that wc makc our rational insight dominatc ovcr our inhcritcd
instincts. Butthcgrcatmoraladvcnturconwhich modcrnmanhas
cmbarkcd whcn hc launchcd into thc Cpcn Socicty is thrcatcncd
whcn hc is rcquircd to apply to all his lcllow mcn rulcs which arc
appropriatconlytothclcllowmcmbcrsolatribalgroup.
CLAIM5 FCR CCMPEN5ATICN FCR DI 5JA5TEFLL jCB5
Jhcrcadcrwillprobablycxpcctmcnowtocxaminci ngrcatcrdctail
thc particular claims usually justihcd by thc appcal to 'social
justicc` . But this, as bittcrcxpcricncc has taught mc, would bc not
only an cndlcss but also a bootlcss task. Altcr what has bccn said
alrcady,itshouldbcobviousthatthcrcarcnopracticablcstandards
ol mcrit, dcscrts, or nccds, on which in a markct ordcr thc
" CI. Bertrand dejouvenel, Secctcinp [ChIcago, i gj;) , i gb. 'Jhe smaII socIety, as
the mIIIeu In vhIch man Is hrst Iound, retaIns Ior hIm an InhnIte attractIon, he
undoubtedIy goes to It to renev hIs strength, but . . . any attempt to graII the same
Ieatures on a Iarge society Is utopIan and Ieads to tyranny. With that admItted, It Is
cIear that as socIal relatIons become vIder and more varIous, the common good
conceIved as recIprocaI trustIuIness cannot be sought In methods vhIch the modeI oI
the smaII, cIosed socIety InspIres, such a modeI Is, In the contrary, entIreIy
mIsIeading.'
. A. VON HAEK
distribution oImatcrial bcncbts could bc bascd, andstill lcss any
principlcbywhich thcsc dilIcrcntclaims could bcrcconcilcd. l shall
thcrcIorcconbncmysclIto considcringtwoargumcnts inwhich thc
appcal to 'socialjusticc` is vcry commonly uscd. Jhc b rst casc is
usually quotcd inthcorctical argumcnt to illustratc thc injusticc oI
thcdistributionbythcmarkctproccss,thoughlittlc isdoncaboutit
in practicc, whilc thc sccond is probably thc most Ircqucnt typc oI
situaton n whch thc appcal tosocialjusticc lcads to govcrnmcnt
action.
Jhccircumstanccwhichisusuallypointcdouttodcmonstratcthc
injusticc oIthc cxsting markct ordcr is that thc most unplcasant
jobs arc commonly aIso thc worst paid. ln a just socicty, it is
contcndcd, thosc who havc to dig coaI undcrground or to clcan
chmncysorscwcrs, orwhopcrIorm othcrunclcan or mcnial tasks,
should bc rcmuncratcd morc highly than thosc whosc work is
plcasurablc.
!t is oIcoursc truc that it would bc unjust Ipcrsons, although
cqualIy ablc as othcrs to pcrIorm othcr tasks, wcrcwithout spccial
compcnsation assigncd by a supcrior to such distastcIul dutics. !I,
c. g. , nsuch anorganizationas anarmy, two mcn oIcquaI capacity
wcrc madc to pcrIorm dlIcrcnt tasks, onc oIwhich was attractivc
andthcothcrvcryunplcasant,justiccwouIdclcarlyrcquircthatthc
oncwhohadrcguIarlytopcrIormthcunplcasantdutyshouldinsomc
waybcspccialIycompcnsatcdIor it.
Jhc situation is cntircly dlIcrcnt, howcvcr, whcrc pcopIc carn
thcir Iivng by scIling thcr scrviccs towhocvcrpays bcstIor thcm.
Hcrcthc sacribcc broughtby a particular pcrson in rcndcring thc
scrvicc is wholly irrcIcvant and all that counts is thc marginal)
valuc thc scrvccs havc to thosc to whom thcy arc rcndcrcd. Jhc
rcasonIorthssnotonlythatthcsacribccsdilIcrcntpcoplcbringn
rcndcringthcsamckindoIscrviccwlloItcnbcvcrydilIcrcnt,orthat
itwillnotbcpossiblc totakcaccountoIthcrcasonwhysomcwillbc
capablc oIrcndcrng only lcss valuablc scrviccs than othcrs. But
thosc whosc apttudcs, and thcrcIorc also rcmuncrations, will bc
smalIinthcmorcattractivcoccupationswilloItcnhnd thatthcycan
carn morc than thcy could othcrwisc by undcrtaking unplcasant
tasksthatarcscorncdby thcirmorcIortunatcIcIlows.JhcvcryIact
thatthcmorcunplcasantoccupationswllbcavodcdbythoscwho
canrcndcrscrviccs thatarcvalucdmorchghIyby thcbuycrs, wlI
opcn to thosc whosc sklls arc Iittlc vaIucd opportunitics to carn
morcthanthcyothcrwisccould.
JhatthoscwhohavctoolIcrtothcrIcllowslittlcthatisvaluablc
mayhavctoncurmorcpainandclIorttocarncvcnapittanccthan
othcrswhopcrhapsactuallycnjoyrcndcrngscrviccsIorwhchthcy

SOCI AL

OR DISTRIBLJIVE jLSJI CE
arc wcll paid, i s a ncccssary concomitant olany systcm in which
rcmuncrationisbascdonthcvalucsthcscrviccshavctothcuscrand
not on an asscssmcnt olmcritcarncd. !t must thcrclorc prcvail in
any social ordcr inwhich thc individual is lrcc to choosc whatcvcr
occupationhccanhndandisnotassigncdtooncbyauthority.
Jhconlyassumptiononwhichitcouldbcrcprcscntcdasjustthat
thc mincr working undcrground, or thc scavcngcr, or slaughtcr-
housc workcrs, should bc paid morc highly than thosc cngagcd in
morcplcasantoccupations,wouldthusbcthatthiswasncccssaryto
induccasucicntnumbcrolpcrsonstopcrlormthcsctasks,orthat
thcyarcbysomchumanagcncydclibcratclyassigncdtothcsctasks.
But whilc in a markct ordcr it may bc a mislortunc to havc bccn
bornandbrcdinavillagcwhcrclormostthconlychanccolmaking
alivingishshingorlorthcwomcnthcclcaningolhsh) , itdocs not
makcscnsctodcscribcthisasunjust.Whoissupposcdtohavcbccn
unjust!cspccially whcn it is considcrcd that, il thcsc local
opportunitics had not cxistcd, thc pcoplc in qucstion would
probably ncvcr havc bccn born at all, as most olthc population ol
such a villagc will probably owc its cxistcncc to thc opportunitics
whichcnablcdthciranccstorstoproduccandrcarchildrcn.
THE RESENTMENJ OF THE LOSS OF ACCLSTOMED POSITIONS
Jhcappcalto'socialjusticc'whichinpracticchasprobablyhad thc
grcatcst inucncc is not onc which has bccn much considcrcd in
litcrary discussion. Jhc considcrations ol a supposcd 'social
injusticc' whichhavclcd to thc mostlar-rcaching intcrlcrcncc with
thclunctioningolthcmarkctordcrarcbascdonthcidcathatpcoplc
arcto bc protcctcd againstan unmcritcd dcsccntlromthcmatcrial
position to which thcy havc bccomc accustomcd. No othcr
considcration ol 'social justicc' has probably cxcrciscd as
widcsprcad an inucncc as thc 'strong and almost univcrsal bclicl
that it is unjust to disappoint lcgitimatc xpcctations ol wcalth.
Whcn dilIcrcnccs olopinion arisc, it is always on thc qucstion ol
whatcxpcctationsarclcgitimatc. ' !tisbclicvcd,asthcsamcauthor
says, 'that itis lcgitimatc cvcn lor thclargcstclasscstocxpcct that
novcrygrcatandsuddcnchangcswillbcmadctothcirdctrimcnt` .
Jhc opinion thatlong-cstablishcdpositions crcatc a justcxpccta-
tion that thcy will continuc scrvcs olcn as a substitutc lor morc
substantial critcria ol 'social justicc' . Whcrc cxpcctations arc
disappointcd, and in conscqucncc thc rcwards ol clIort oltcn
" )dvIn Cannan, 7hc Hi:te e!eca/ Eatcs in n/and, :nd cdn. London, i gi :) ,
i b:.
. A. VCN HAYEK
disproportionatctothcsacrihccincurrcd,thiswillbcrcgardcdasan
injusticc without any attcmpt to show that thosc alIcctcd had a
claim in justicc to thc particular incomc which thcy cxpcctcd. At
lcast whcn a largc group olpcoplc hnd thcir incomc rcduccd as a
rcsult ol circumstanccs which thcy could not havc altcrcd or
lorcsccn,thisiscommonlyrcgardcdasunjust.
Jhclrcqucntrccurrcnccolsuchundcscrvcd strokcsolmislortunc
alIcctingsomcgroupis,howcvcr, aninscparablcpartolthcstccring
mcchanismolthcmarkct. itis thcmanncr inwhich thc cybcrnctic
principlcolncgativclccdbackopcratcs tomaintain thcordcrolthc
markct. !t is only through such changcs which indicatc that somc
activitics ought to bc rcduccd, that thc clIorts ol all can bc
continuouslyadjustcdtoagrcatcrvarictyollactsthancanbcknown
to any onc pcrson or agcncy, and that thc utilization oldispcrscd
knowlcdgcisachcvcdonwhich thc wcll-bcingolthc CrcatSocicty
rcsts. Wc cannot rcly on a systcm in which thc individuals arc
induccd torcspond tocvcntsolwhichthcydonotandcannotknow
without changcs ol thc valucs ol thc scrviccs ol dilIcrcnt groups
occurringwhicharcwhollyunrclatcdtothcmcritsolthcirmcmbcrs.
!t is a ncccssary part ol that proccss ol constant adaptation to
changing circumstanccs on which thc mcrc maintcnancc ol thc
cxisting lcvcl ol wcalth dcpcnds that somc pcoplc should havc to
discovcrbybittcrcxpcricnccthatthcyhavcmisdircctcd thcirclIorts
andarclorccdtolookclscwhcrclorarcmuncrativcoccupation.And
thcsamcapplicstothcrcscntmcntolthccorrcspondingundcscrvcd
gains that will accruc to othcrs lor whom things havc turncd out
bcttcrthanthcyhadrcasontocxpcct.
Jhcscnscolinjurywhichpcoplclcclwhcnanaccustomcdincomc
isrcduccdoraltogcthcrlostislargclythc rcsultolabcliclthatthcy
havc morallydcscrvcd that incomc and that, thcrclorc so long as
thcyworkasindustriouslyandhoncstlyasthcydidbclorc, thcyarc
injusticc cntitlcd to thc continuancc ol that incomc. But thc idca
thatwchavcmorallydcscrvcdwhatwchavchoncstlycarncdinthc
past is largcly an illusion. What is truc is only that it would havc
bccn unjust il anybody had takcn lrom us what wc havc in lact
acquircdwhilcobscrvingthcrulcsolthcgamc.
!t is prcciscly bccausc in thc cosmos ol thc markct wc all
constantlyrcccivc bcnchtswhichwchavcnotdcscrvcdinanymoral
scnsc that wc arc undcr an obligation also to acccpt cqually
undcscrvcd diminutions ol our incomcs. Cur only moral titlc to
what thc markct givcs us wc havc carncd by submitting to thosc
rulcswhichmakcsthclormationolthcmarkctordcrpossiblc.Jhcsc
rulcs imply that nobody is undcr an obligation tosuppIy us with a
particular incomc unlcss hc has spccihcally contractcd to do so. !l

SOCIAL

OR DI STRI BLTI VE jLSTI CE i
5

wc wcrc all to bc consistcntly dcprivcd, as thc sociaIists proposc to

do, oIalI 'uncarncd bcncbts` which thcmarkctconlcrs upon us, wc
wouldhavctobcdcprivcdolmostolthc bcnchtsolcivilization.
!t is clcarlymcaninglcsstorcply, as is oltcn donc, that, sinccwc
owc thcsc bccbts to 'socicty`, 'socicty` should also bc cntitIcd to
aIlocatc thcsc bcncbts to thosc who in its opinion dcscrvc thcm.
Socicty, onccmorc, isnotanactingprsonbutan ordcrlystructurc
olactionsrcsultinglromthcobscrvationolccrtainabstractrulcsby
its mcmbcrs.Wc allowcthc bcncbtswcrcccivclromthcopcration
oIthis structurcnottoanyonc`s intcntion toconlcrthcmonus, but
to thc mcmbcrs ol socicty gcncrally obcying ccrtain ruIcs in thc
pursuitolthcirintcrcsts,rulcswhichincludcthcrulcthatnobodyis
tococrccothcrsinordcrtosccurcIorhimscllorlorthirdpcrsons) a
particularincomc. Jhis imposcs upon us thcobligationto abidc by
thcrcsultsolthcmarkctalsowhcnit turns againstus.
JhcchanccwhichanyindividuaIinoursocictyhasoIcarningan
incomcapproximatingthatwhichhchasnowisthcconscqucnccol
most individuals obcying thc rulcs which sccurc thc lormation oI
that ordcr. And though this ordcr providcs lor most good prospccts
Ior thc succcsslul cmploymcnt oI thcir skills, this succcss must
rcmain dcpcndcnt aIso on what lrom thc point ol vicw ol thc
individualmustappcarasmcrcluck.Jhcmagnitudcolthcchanccs
opcntohimarcnotoIhismakingbutthcrcsultolothcrssubmitting
to thc samcrulcs olthcgamc. Jo ask lor protcction againstbcing
displaccd lrom a position onc has long cnjoycd, byothcrswho arc
now lavourcd by ncw circumstanccs, mcans to dcny to thcm thc
chanccstowhichonc`sownprcscntpositionisduc.
Any protcction olan accustomcd position is thus ncccssarily a
priviIcgc which cannotbc grantcd to all andwhich, ilit hadalways
bccnrccognizcd,wouldhavcprcvcntcd thoscwhonowclaim itlrom
cvcr rcaching thcposition Ior which thcynowdcmand protcction.
Jhcrc can, in particular, bc no right to sharc cquaIly in a gcncral
incrcasc ol incomcs il this incrcasc or pcrhaps cvcn thcir
maintcnancc at thc cxisting lcvcl) is dcpcndcnt on thc continuous
adjustmcntolthcwholcstructurcolactiviticstoncwandunlorcsccn
circumstanccs that will altcr and oltcn rcducc thc contributions
somcgroupscanmakcto thcnccdsolthcirIcllows.Jhcrccanthus
bci njusticcnosuchclaimsas, c. g. ,thoscolthcAmcricanlarmcrIor
'parity',orolanyothcr group to thcprcscrvationolthcir rclativc or
absolutcposition.
Jhc satisIaction olsuch claims by particuIargroupswouId thus
notbcjustbutcmincntlyunjust,bccauscitwouldinvoIvcthcdcnial
tosomcoIthcchanccstowhichthoscwhomakcthisclaimowcthcir
position. lor thisrcasonithas always bccnconccdcdonIy to somc
F. A. VON HAYEK
powcrluIlyorganizcdgroupswhowcrcinthcpositiontocnlorccthcir
dcmands. Mucholwhatistodaydoncinthcnamcol' socialj usticc'
is thus notonlyunj ustbutalsohighlyunsocialin thc truc scnsc ol
thc word. it amounts simply to thc protcction ol cntrcnchcd
intcrcsts. Jhough it has comc to bcrcgardcdas a 'scial problcm'
whcn sumcicntly largc numbcrs clamour lor protcction ol thcir
accustomcdposition, itbccomcs a scrious problcmchic y bccausc,
camouagcd as a dcmand lor 'social justicc', it can cngagc thc
sympathyolthc public. . . . undcr thc cxisting typc oldcmocratic
institutions, it is in practicc incvitablc that lcgislaturcs with
unlimitcdpowcrsyicld tosuch dcmandswhcnmadc bysumcicntly
largc groups. Jhis docs not altcr thc lact that to rcprcscnt such
mcasurcsassatislying'socialjusticc'islittlcmorcthanaprctcxtlor
making thcintcrcstolthcparticulargroups prcvail ovcr thc gcncral
intcrcst olall. Jhough it is now usuaI to rcgard cvcry claim olan
organizcd group as a 'social problcm', it would bc morc corrcct to
say that, though thc long run i ntcrcsts ol thc scvcral individuals
mostlyagrccwiththcgcncralintcrcst, thcintcrcstsolthcorganizcd
groups almost invariably arc in conict with it. Yct it is thc lattcr
whicharccommonlyrcprcscntcdas 'social' .
CONCLLSI ONS
Jhcbasiccontcntonolthischaptcr, namclythatnasocictyollrcc
mcn whosc mcmbcrs arc allowcd to usc thcir own knowlcdgc lor
thcir own purposcs thc tcrm 'social justicc' is whoIly dcvod ol
mcaningorcontcnt,isonc which byits vcrynaturccannotbcratcd.
A ncgativc asscrtion ncvcr can. Cnc may dcmonstratc lor any
numbcr olparticular instanccs that thc appcal to 'sociaIjusticc' in
noway assists thcchoiccswchavc tomakc. But thc contcntionthat
inasocctyollrccmcn thc tcrmhasnomcanngwhatcvcrcanonly
bc issucd as a challcngc whch will makc it ncccssary lor othcrs to
rccctonthcmcanngolthcwordsthcyusc,andasanappcalnotto
uscphrascsthcmcaningolwhichthcydonotknow.
So long as onc assumcs that a phrasc sowdcly uscd must havc
somc rccognizablc mcaning onc may cndcavour to provc that
attcmpts tocnlorccitinasocictyollrccindividualsmstmakcthat
socicty unworkablc. But such clIorts bccomc rcdundant oncc it s
rccognizcd that such a socicty lacks thc lundamcntaI prccondition
lor thcapplicationolthcconccptoljusticc to thc manncrinwhich
matcrial bcnchts arcsharcdamongits mcmbcrs, namclythatthisis
dctcrmincd by ahumanwill-orthat thc dctcrmination olrcwards
by human will could producc aviablc markct ordcr. Cnc docs not

SOCI AL

OR DISTRIBLJIVE jUSJI CE I __
havctoprovcthatsomcthingisimpracticablcwhich cannotcxist.
What ! hopctohavcmadcclcaris thatthcphrasc'socialjusticc`
is not, as mostpcoplcprobablyIccl, an innoccntcxprcssionoIgood
will towards thc lcssIortunatc, but that it hasbccomca dishoncst
insinuation that onc ought to agrcc to a dcmand oIsomc spccial
intcrcstwhichcangivcnorcal rcasonIor it. !Ipolitical discussion is
to bccomc honcst it is ncccssary that pcoplc should rccognizc that
thc tcrm is intcllcctually disrcputablc, thc mark oIdcmagogy or
chcapjournalismwhichrcsponsiblcthinkcrsoughttobcashamcdto
usc bccausc, oncc its vacuity is rccognizcd, its usc is dishoncst. !
may, as a rcsult oIlong cndcavours to tracc thc dcstructivc cl!cct
which thc invocation oI 'social justicc` has had on our moral
scnsitivity, and oIagain and again bnding cvcn cmincnt thinkcrs
thoughtlcsslyusingthc phrasc,havc bccomcundulyallcrgic to it,
ut ! havc comc toIccl stronglythatthcgrcatcst scrvicc ! canstill
rcndcrto my Icllow mcnwouldbc that ! could makcthc spcakcrs
andwritcrs amongthcm thoroughlyashamcdcvcragain to cmploy
thctcrm'socialjusticc` .
JhatinthcprcscntstatcoIthcdiscussionthccontinucduscoIthc
tcrm is not only dishoncst and thc sourcc oI constant political
conIusion, butdcstructivcoImoralIccling,isshownbythcIactthat
again and again thinkcrs, including distinguishcd philosophcrs,
alcrrightlyrccognizingthatthctcrmjusticcinitsnowprcdominant
mcaningoIdistributivc orrctributivc)justiccismcaninglcss,draw
Irom this thc conclusion that thc conccpt oIjusticc itsclIis cmpty,
WhIIc onc has bccomc uscd to hndIng thc conIuscd minds oI socIaI phIIosophcrs
taIkIng about `socIaI justIcc', It grcatIy paIns mc II hnd a dIstInguIshcd thInkcr IIkc
thc historIan !ctcr cyI [ncecntcts in Histe London, i gbg), gj8) thoughtIcssIy using
thc tcrm. j. M. Kcyncs [ 7hc cenemic Censcqccnccs eMt. Chcrchill London, i gz) ,
Cellcctcd htitins, I x. zzg) aIso vrItcs unhcsItatIngIy that 'on grounds oI socIaI justIcc
no casc can bc madc Ior rcducIng thc vagcs oI thc mIncrs.'
` CI. c. g. WaItcr KauImann, hithect Ccilt and jcsticc [cv York, i g;g) , vho, aItcr
rIghtIy rcjcctIng thc conccpts oI dIstrIbutIvc and rctrIbutivc justIcc, bcIIcvcs that thIs
must Icad hIm to rcjcct thc conccpt oI j ustIcc aItogcthcr. But thIs Is not surprIsIng
aItcr cvcn 7hc 7imcs London) In a thoughtIuI IcadIng artIcIc i Mar. i gj;) apropos
thc appcarancc oI an LngIIsh transIatIon oI joscI !Icpcr's ju:ticc Iondon, i gj ;) had
obscrvcd that 'roughIy, It may bc saId that In so Iar as thc notIon oI justIcc contInucs
to Inhucncc poIItIcaI thInkIng, It has bccn rcduccd to thc mcaning oI thc phrasc
distrIbutIvc j ustIcc and that thc Idca oI commutatIvc justIcc has aImost cntIrcIy
ccascd to Inhucncc our caIcuIatIons cccpt In so Iar It Is cmbodIcd I n Iavs and
customs-In thc maIms Ior Instancc oI thc Common Lav-vhIch arc prcscrvcd
Irom shccr conscrvatIsm.' 5omc contcmporary socIaI phIIosophcrs Indccd bcg thc
vhoIc issuc by so d;]nin 'justIcc' that It IncIudcs en( dIstrIbutIvc justIcc. 5cc c.g.
BrIan M. Barry, 'justIcc and thc Common

ood', Ana(sis, ig t gbi ) , 8o. 'aIthough

Humc uscs thc cxprcssIon ruIcs oI justIcc to covcr such thIngs as propcrty ruIcs,
usticc` is ne anegticalg tied te "dcsett" and "nccd', so that onc couId quItc propcrIy say
that somc oI vhat Humc caIIs "ruIcs oI justicc' vcrc unj ust` ItaIIcs addcd) . CI. ibId.
8g.
F. A. VON HAYEK
andwhoinconscqucnccjcttisononcoIthcbasicmoralconccptions
onwhichthcworkingoIasocictyoIIrccmcnrcsts. Butitisjusticcin
this scnsc which courts oIjusticc administcr and which is thc
original mcaning oI justicc and must govcrn mcn`s conduct iI
pcaccIulcocxistcncc oIIrccmcn is to bc possiblc. Whilcthc appcal
to 'social justicc` is indccd mcrcly an invitation to givc moral
approvaltodcmandsthathavcnomoraljustihcation,andwhicharc
inconictwiththatbasicrulcoIaIrccsocictythatonlysuchrulcsas
can bcapplicdcquallytoall should bccnIorccd,justiccinthcscnsc
oIrulcs oIjustconduct is indispcnsablc Ior thc intcrcoursc oIIrcc
mcn.
Wc arc touching hcrc upon a problcm which with all its
ramihcations is much too bigto try to bccxamincdhcrcsystcmati-
cally, but which must at lcast bc mcntioncd bricy. !t is that wc
can`t havc any morals wc likc or drcam oI. Morals, to bc viablc,
mustsatisIyccrtainrcquircmcnts, rcquircmcntswhich wc may not
bcablctospcciIybutmayonlybcablctohndoutbytrialandcrror.
What is rcquircd is not mcrcly consistcncy, or compatibility oIthc
rulcsaswcllas thcactsdcmandcdbythcm.AsystcmoImoralsalso
must producc a Iunctioning ordcr, capablc oI maintaining thc
apparatusoIcivilizationwhichitprcsupposcs.
Wc arc not Iamiliar with thc conccpt oInon-viablc systcms oI
morals and ccrtainly cannot obscrvc thcm anywhcrc in practicc
sincc socictics whichtrythcmrapidly disappcar. But thcyarcbcing
prcachcd,oItcnbywidclyrcvcrcdsaintlyhgurcs,andthcsocicticsin
dccay which wc can obscrvc arc oItcn socictics which havc bccn
listcningtothctcachingoIsuchmoralrcIormcrsandstillrcvcrcthc
dcstroycrs oIthcir socicty as good mcn. Morc oItcn, howcvcr, thc
gospcl oI'socialjusticc' aims at much morc sordid scntimcnts. thc
dislikcoIpcoplcwhoarcbcttcrolIthanoncsclI, orsimplcnvy,that
'mostanti-socialand cviloIallpassions` asjohn Stuart Millcallcd
it, that animosity towards grcat wcalth which rcprcscnts it as a
'scandal' that somc should cnjoy richcs whilc othcrs havc basic
nccds unsatishcd, and camouagcs undcr thc namc oIjusticcwhat
hasnothingtodowithjusticc.Atlcastall thoscwhowishtodcspoil
thc rich, not bccausc thcy cxpcct that somc morc dcscrving might
cnjoythatwcalth, butbccauscthcyrcgard thcvcrycxistcnccoIthc
richas anoutragc, notonlycannotclaimanymoraljustihcationIor
thcir dcmands, but indulgcinawholly irrationalpassionand inIact
harmthosctowhoscrapaciousinstinctsthcyappcal.
Jhcrc can bc no moral claim to somcthing that would not cxist
butIor thc dccision oIothcrsto risk thcirrcsourccsonits crcation.
What thosc who attack grcat privatcwcalth do not undcrstand is
thatitisncithcrbyphysicalclIortnorbythcmcrcactoIsavingand
. 5. MIII, On t,cd.McCaIIum CxIord, g6),yo.

SOCI AL

OR DISJRI BLJI VE jLSJI CE t
Z
invcsting, but by dirccting rcsourccs to thc most productivc uscs
thatwcalthischicy crcatcd. Andthcrccan bcnodoubtthat most
ol thosc who havc built up grcat lortuncs in thc lorm ol ncw
industrialplants and thc likchavc thcrcby bcnchtcd morc pcoplc
through crcating opportunitics lor morc rcwarding cmploymcnt
than il thcy had givcn thcir supcruity away to thc poor. Jhc
suggcstionthatinthcsc cascs thosctowhominlact thcworkcrsarc
most indcbtcd do wrong rathcr than grcatly bcncbt thcm is an
absurdity. Jhough thcrc arc undoubtcdly also othcr and lcss
mcritoriouswaysolacquiringlargc lortuncs whichwc canhopc to
controlbyimprovingthcrulcsolthc gamc) , thc most clIcctivc and
important is by dirccting invcstmcnt to points whcrc thcy most
cnhancc thc productivity ollabour-a taskin which govcrnmcnts
notoriously lail, lor rcasons inhcrcnt in non-compctitivc burcau
craticorganizations.
But it is not only by cncouraging malcvolcnt and harmlul
prcjudiccs that thc cult ol 'socialjusticc' tcnds to dcstroy gcnuinc
moral lcclings. !t also comcs, particularly in its morc cgalitarian
lorms,into constantconictwithsomcolthcbasicmoralprinciplcs
on which any community ol lrcc mcn must rcst. Jhis bccomcs
cvidcnt whcn wc rccct that thc dcmand that wc should cqually
cstccm all our lcllow mcn is irrcconcilablc with thc lact that our
wholc moral codc rcsts on thc approval or disapproval ol thc
conduct olothcrs, and that similarly thc traditional postulatc that
cach capablc adult is primaril rcsponsiblc lor his own and his
dcpcndants' wcllarc, mcaning that hc must not through his own
lault bccomca chargc tohislricndsorlcllows, is incompatiblcwith
thc idca that 'socicty' or govcrnmcnt owcs cach pcrson an
appropriatcincomc.
Jhough all thcsc moral principlcs havc also bccn scriously
wcakcncdbysomcpscudo-scicntihclashionsolourtimcwhichtcnd
to dcstroy all morals-and with thcm thc basis ol individual
lrccdom-thc ubiquitous dcpcndcncc on othcr pcoplc's powcr,
which thc cnlorccmcnt ol any imagc ol 'social justicc' crcatcs,
incvitably dcstroys that lrccdom olpcrsonal dccisions on which all
moralsmustrcst. !nlact, thatsystcmaticpursuitolthcinis ataas
ol'socialjusticc'whichwccall socialism isbascd throughoutonthc
atrocious idca that political powcr ought to dctcrminc thcmatcrial
position olthc dilIcrcnt individuals and groupsan idca dclcndcd
by thc lalsc asscrtion that this must always bc so and socialism
Cn the destructIon oI moraI vaIucs by scIcntIhc crror sec my discussIon In my
inaugural lecture as VisIting ProIessor at the \niversity oI Salzburg, Dic 1rrtiimer dcs
Kenstrcktitismc: cnd dic Crcndlaen leitimcr Kritik cscllschalichcr Cclilde [Munich, i g;o,
nov reprinted Ior thc Walter !ucken InstItute at lrciburg i . Brg. by j. C. B. Mohr,
Jbingen, i g;j).
F. A. VON HAEK
mcrclywishcstotransIcrthispowcrIromthcprivilcgcdtothcmost
numcrousclass. !twasthcgrcatmcritoIthcmarkctordcras it has
sprcad during thc last two ccnturics that it dcprivcd cvcryonc oI
such powcr which can bc uscd only in arbitrary Iashion. ! t had
indccdbroughtaboutthc grcatcstrcductionoIarbitrary powcr cvcr
achicvcd. JhisgrcatcsttriumphoIpcrsonalIrccdomthcscductionoI
'socialjusticc` thrcatcns again to takc Irom us. And i t will not bc
long bcIorc thc holdcrs oIthc powcr to cnIorcc 'socialjusticc` will
cntrcnch thcmsclvcs in thcir position by awarding thc bcncbts oI
'socialjusticc` as thc rcmuncrationIorthc conIcrmcntoIthatpowcr
and in ordcr to sccurc to thcmsclvcs thc support oI a practorian
guard which will makc it ccrtain that thcir vicw oIwhat is 'social
justicc`willprcvail.
BcIorclcavingthcsubjcct ! want topointoutonccmorcthat thc
rccognition that in such combinations as 'social`, 'cconomic`,
'distributivc` , or 'rctributivc` justicc thc tcrm 'justicc`, is wholly
cmptyshouldnotlcadustothrowthcbabyoutwiththcbathwatcr.
Notonlyas thc basis oIthc lcgal rulcs oIjust conduct is thcjusticc
which thc courts oIjusticc administcr cxcccdinglyimportant, thcrc
unqucstionably also cxists a gcnuinc problcm oIjusticc in conncc-
tionwiththc dclibcratc dcsign oIpolitical institutions, thcprobIcm
to which ProIcssorjohn Rawls has rcccntly dcvotcd an important
book.JhcIactwhich!rcgrctandrcgardas conIusingismcrclythat
inthisconncctionhccmploysthctcrm'social justicc`. But! havcno
basic quarrcl with an author who, bcIorc hc procccds to that
problcm,acknowlcdgcs thatthctaskoIsclcctingspccib csystcms or
distributions oI dcsircd things as just must bc 'abandoncd as
mistakcninprinciplc,anditis,inanycasc,notcapablcoIadcbnitc
answcr. Rathcr, thc principlcs oIjusticc dcbnc thc crucial con-
straintswhichinstitutionsandjointactiviticsmustsatisIyiIpcrsons
cngagingin thcm arc tohavc nocomplaints against thcm. !Ithcsc
constraints arc satisbcd, thc rcsulting distribution, whatcvcr it is,
may bcacccptcd asjust oratlcast not unjust). Jhis is morc or
lcsswhat!havcbccntryingtoargucinthischaptcr.
johnKawIs,ConstItutIonaILIbcrtyandthcConccptoI ustIcc`,omosI}jaticc
(Ncw York, t g6g), t z, whcrc thc passagc uotcdIs prcccdcd by thc statcmcntthat
'It Is thc systcm oIInstItutIons whIch has to bcjudgcd andjudgcd Irom a gcncraI
pointoIvIcw.` I am notawarcthat ProIcssorKawIs'sIatcrmorc widcIy rcad workA
7hco ojaticc contains a comparativcly clcar statcmcnt oIhc maIn poInt, whIch
maycxpIaInwhythIsworksccmsoItcn,butasItappcarstomcwrongIy,tohavcbccn
intcrprctcd as lcndIng support to socIaIist dcmands, c.g. by DanIcI cII, 'Cn
McrItocracyand EualIty`, FablicIntcrcst Autumn g:), :, whodcscrIbcs Kawls`s
thcory as 'thcmostcomprchcnsIvccIortinmodcrnphIIosophytojustiasociaIistic
cthIc'.
H
CR! J! _\E ! JHE CJHA
!RCRAMME
1PH1 NPH`
' Jhc cmancipation ol labour dcmands thc promotion ol thc
instrumcntsollabourtothccommonpropcrtyolsocictyandthcco-
opcrativcrcgulationolthctotallabourwithalairdistributionolthc
procccdsollabour.`
'Promotionolthcinstrumcntsollabourtothccommonpropcrty`
ought obviously to rcad thcir 'convcrsion into thc common
propcrty` , butthisonlyinpassing.
Whatarc'procccds ollabour`!Jhcproductollabouroritsvaluc!
Andinthclattcrcasc,isitthctotalvalucolthcproductoronlythat
part olthc valuc which labour has ncwly addcd to thcvaluc olthc
mcansolproductionconsumcd!
' Procccdsollabour`isalooscnotionwhichLassallchasputinthc
placcoldchnitccconomicconccptions.
Whatis'alairdistribution` !
onot thc bourgcois asscrt that thc prcscnt-day distribution is
'lair` !Andisitnot,inlact,thconly'lair`distributiononthcbasisol
thc prcscnt-day modc ol production! Arc cconomic rclations
rcgulatcd by lcgal conccptions or do not, on thc contrary, lcgal
rclations arisc lrom cconomic oncs! Havc not also thc socialist
scctariansthcmostvaricdnotionsabout'lair`distribution!
Jo undcrstandwhat is implicd in this conncction by thc phrasc
'lair distribution` , wc must takc thc hrst paragraph and this onc
togcthcr. Jhclattcrprcsupposcs asocictywhcrcin ' thcinstrumcnts
olIabourarccommonpropcrtyandthctotallabourisco-opcrativcly
rcgulatcd`,andlromthchrstparagraphwclcarnthat 'thc procccds
ollabour bclong undiminishcd with cqual right to aIl mcmbcrs ol
socicty` .
'Jo alI mcmbcrs olsocicty`! Jo thosc who do not work as wclI!
What rcmains thcn olthc ' undiminishcd procccds olIabour`!Cnly
to thosc mcmbcrs olsocicty whowork! What rcmains thcn olthc
'cqualright`olallmcmbcrsolsocicty!
KarlMarx, Critiac othc 6otha FrorammcIrom K. C. Tuckcr,Marx-LncIs Kcadcr
(Norton.NcwYork, i g;8) .KcprIntcdbypcrmIssIonoIthc pubIIshcrs.
Go KARL MARX
But'allmcmbcrsolsocicty` and 'cqualright` arc obviouslymcrc
phrascs. Jhc kcrncl consists in this, that inthis communist socicty
cvcryworkcrmust rcccivc thc ' undiminishcd` Lassallcan 'procccds
ollabour`.
Lctustakcbrstolallthcwords'procccdsollabour`inthcscnscol
thcproduct ollabour,thcnthcco-opcrativc procccds ollabour arc
thctata/ sacia/ radact.
lrom this mustnowbcdcductcd.
!irst, covcrlorrcplaccmcntolthcmcansolproductionuscdup.
Sccandjy, additionalportionlorcxpansionol production.
7hirdjy, rcscrvc or insurancc lunds to providc againstaccidcnts,
dislocationscauscdbynaturalcalamitics,ctc.
Jhcscdcductionslrom thc ' undiminishcdprocccdsollabour` arc
an cconomic ncccssity and thcir magnitudc is to bc dctcrmincd
accordingtoavailablcmcansandlorccs, andpartlybycomputation
olprobabilitics,butthcyarcinnowaycalculablcbycquity.
Jhcrc rcmains thc othcr part olthc total product, intcndcd to
scrvcasmcansolconsumption.
Bclorc this is dividcd among thc individuals, thcrc has to bc
dcductcdagain,lromit.
!irst, thc cncra/ casts aadministratian nat /c/anin ta radactian.
Jhispartwill, lromthcoutsct,bcvcry considcrablyrcstrictcd in
comparisonwithprcscnt-daysocictyanditdiminishcsinproportion
asthcncwsocictydcvclops.
Sccandjy, that ahich is intcndcd ar thc camman satiactian anccds, such
asschools,hcalthscrviccs,ctc.
lrom thc outsctthis partgrows considcrablyincomparisonwith
prcscnt-day socicty and itgrows in proportion as thc ncw socicty
dcvclops.
7hirdjy, ands ar thasc ana//c ta aark, ctc. , in short, lor what is
includcdundcrso-callcdomcialpoorrclicltoday.
Cnlynowdowccomctothc'distribution`whichthcprogrammc,
undcrLassallcaninucncc, alonchasinvicwinits narrowlashion,
namcly, tothatpartolthcmcans olconsumptionwhichis dividcd
amongthcindividualproduccrsolthcco-opcrativcsocicty.
Jhc' undiminishcdprocccdsollabour`havcalrcadyunnoticcably
bccomcconvcrtcdinto thc'diminishcdprocccds, althoughwhatthc
produccr is dcprivcd ol in his capacity as a privatc individual
bcncb ts him dircctly or indrcctly in his capacity as a mcmbcr ol
socicty.
just as thc phrasc olthc 'undiminishcd procccds ollabour` has
disappcarcd, so now docs thc phrasc ol thc procccds ol labour`
disappcaraltogcthcr.
CRITIQLE OF THE GOTHA PROGRAMME
Within thc coopcrativc socicty bascd on common owncrshp ol
thc mcans ol production, thc produccrs do not cxchangc thcir
products, just as littlc docs thc labour cmploycd on thc products
appcar hcrc as thc ta/ac ol thcsc products, as a matcral quality
posscsscd by thcm, sncc now, in contrast to capitalist socicty,
individuallabournolongcrcxistsinanindircctlashon butdrcctly
as a componcnt part olthc total labour. Jhc phrasc 'procccds ol
labour`, objcctionablc also today on account olits ambguty, thus
loscsallmcaning.
Whatwc havc todcalwithhcrcis a communist socicty, notas it
has dctc/acd on itsownloundatons, but, on thc contrary,j ustas t
cmcrcs lrom captalist socicty, which is thus in cvcry rcspcct,
cconomically, morally, and ntcllcctually, stll stampcd with thc
birth marks ol thc old socicty lrom whosc womb it cmcrgcs.
Accordingly, thc individual produccr rcccivcs back lrom so-
cicty-altcrthcdcductionshavcbccnmadc-cxactlywhathcgivcs
to it. What hc has gvcn to itis his individual quantum ollabour.
lor cxamplc, thc socal working day consists ol thc sum ol thc
individual hours ol work, thc individual labour timc ol thc
individualproduccristhcpartolthcsocialworkingdaycontrbutcd
byhim,hissharcin it. Hcrcccivcsaccrtibcatclromsocictythathc
has lurnshcd such and such an amount ollabour alcr dcducting
hislabourlorthccommonlunds), andwiththisccrtihcatchcdraws
lrom thc social stockolmcansolconsumptionas much as costs thc
samc amount ollabour. Jhc samc amount ollabour which hc has
givcntosocictyinonclormhcrcccivcsbacknanothcr.
Hcrcobviouslythcsamcprnciplcprcvailsasthatwhichrcgulatcs
thc cxchangc ol commoditcs, as lar as this s cxchangc ol cqual
valucs. Contcnt and lorm arc changcd, bccausc undcr thc altcrcd
circumstanccs no onc can givc anythng cxccpt his labour, and
bccausc, on thc othcr hand, nothing can pass to thc owncrship ol
indvduals cxccpt ndividual mcans olconsumpton. But, as lar as
thc dstribution ol thc lattcr among thc indivdual produccrs is
conccrncd, thc samc principlc prcvails as in thc cxchangc ol
commodty cquivalcnts. a gvcn amount ol labour in onc lorm is
cxchangcdlorancqualamountollabournanothcrlorm.
Hcncc,caa/ riht hcrcisstillinprnciplcccriht, although
principlc and practicc arc no longcr at loggcrhcads, whilc thc
cxchangc ol cquivalcnts in commodty cxchangc only cxists an thc
accrac andnotin thcndvdualcasc.
!n spitc ol this advancc, this caa/ riht is still constantly
stigmatizcd byabourgcois lmitaton. Jhc rightolthcproduccrss
raartiana/ tothclabourthcysupply,thccquaItyconsistsinthclat
thatmcasurcmcntismadcwithancaa/ standard, labour.
KARL MAR
Butoncmanis supcriortoanothcrphysicallyormcntallyandso
supplics morc labour inthcsamc timc, or can labourIor a longcr
timc, and labour, to scrvc as a mcasurc, must bc dchncd by its
duration or intcnsity, othcrwisc it ccascs to bc a standard oI
mcasurcmcnt. Jhis caa/ right is an uncqual right Ior uncqual
labour. !trccognizcs noclassdilIcrcnccs,bccausccvcryoncisonlya
workcr likc cvcryonc clsc, but it tacitly rccognizcs uncqual
individual cndowmcnt and thus productivc capacity as natural
privilcgcs.It is, thcr]erc, a riht eincaa/i(y, in its centcnt, /ikc ctc riht.
Right by its vcry naturc can consist only in thc application oIan
cqual standard, but uncqual individuals and thcy would not bc
dilIcrcntindividuals iIthcywcrc notuncqual) arc mcasurablc only
by an cqual standard in so Iar as thcy arc brought undcr an cqual
pointoIvicw,arctakcnIromoncdc]nitc sidconly,Iorinstancc,inthc
prcscntcasc,arcrcgardcdeng as aerkcrs and nothingmorcissccnin
thcm,cvcrythingclscbcingignorcd.lurthcr,oncworkcrismarricd,
anothcrnot, onchas morcchildrcn thananothcr, and so onand so
Iorth. Jhus, with an cqual pcrIormancc oIlabour, and hcncc an
cqual sharc i nthcsocial consumptionIund, oncwillinIactrcccivc
morc than anothcr, onc will bc richcr than anothcr, and so on. Jo
avoidallthcscdcIccts,rightinstcad oIbcingcqualwouldhavctobc
uncqual.
But thcsc dcIccts arc incvitablc in thc hrst phasc oIcommunist
socictyasitiswhcnithasjustcmcrgcdaItcrprolongcdbirthpangs
Iromcapitalistsocicty. Rightcanncvcrbchighcr thanthccconomic
structurc oI socicty and its cultural dcvclopmcnt conditioncd
thcrcby.
!n a highcr phasc oI communist socicty, aItcr thc cnslaving
subordination oI thc individual to thc division oI labour, and
thcrcwith also thc antithcsis bctwccn mcntal and physical labour,
has vanishcd, aItcrlabour has bccomc notonly a mcans oIliIc but
liIc`s primc want, aItcr thc productivc Iorccs havc also i ncrcascd
withthc all-round dcvclopmcntoIthcindividual,andallthcsprings
oI co-opcrativc wcalth how morc abundantly-only thcn can thc
narrow horizon oI bourgcois right bc crosscd in its cntircty and
socictyinscribconits banncr. Iromcachaccordingtohisability, to
cachaccordingtohisnccds!
! havc dcalt morc at lcngth with thc 'undiminishcd procccds oI
labour`, on thc onc hand, and with 'cqual right` and 'Iair
distribution` , on thc othcr, in ordcr to show what a crimc it is to
attcmpt, on thc onc hand, to Iorcc on our Party again, as dogmas,
idcas which in a ccrtain pcriod had somc mcaning but havc now
bccomc obsolctc vcrbal rubbish, whilc again pcrvcrting, on thc
othcr, thcrcalisticoutlook,which itcostsomuchclIortto instilinto
CRI TI QLE OF THE GOTHA PROGRAMME
thcPartybutwhichhasnowtakcnrooti nit,bymcansol idcological
nonscnsc about right and othcr trash so common among thc
dcmocratsandlrcnchSocialists.
_uitc apart Irom thc analysis so Iar givcn, it was in gcncral a
mistakc to makc a luss about so-callcd distri/atian and put thc
principalstrcssonit.
AnydistributionwhatcvcroIthcmcansolconsumption isonlya
conscqucncc ol thc distribution ol thc conditions ol production
thcmsclvcs.Jhclattcrdistribution,howcvcr,isaIcaturcoIthcmodc
olproductionitscll. Jhc capitalistmodcolproduction,lorcxamplc,
rcstsonthclactthatthcmatcrialconditions olproduction arcinthc
hands olnon-workcrs in thc lorm oIpropcrty in capital and land,
whilc thc masscs arc only owncrs oI thc pcrsonal condition oI
production, ollabour powcr. !Ithc clcmcnts olproduction arc so
distributcd, thcn thc prcscnt-day distribution oI thc mcans oI
consumption rcsults automatically. !I thc matcrial conditions oI
production arcthcco-opcrativcpropcrtyolthcworkcrs thcmsclvcs,
thcn thcrc likcwisc rcsults a distribution olthc mcans olconsump
tiondilIcrcntIromthc prcscntonc.Vulgarsocialism andlromitin
turn ascctionoIthcdcmocracy) has takcnovcrIromthc bourgcois
cconomists thc considcration and trcatmcnt ol distribution as
indcpcndcntolthc modc olproduction and hcncc thc prcscntation
olsocialism as turning principally on distribution. AItcr thc rcal
rclationhaslongbccnmadcclcar,whyrctrogrcssagain
L
]\SJ! CE A^ R! CHJS
SL'L^ L1
_
LS
jLSTICE
id Marx think that capitalism, and morc particularly thcwagc
rclation bctwccn capitalist andworkcr, was unjust!A livcly dcbatc
onthisqucstionhasrcccntlyourishcd,andbynowallthclogically
possiblc positions on thc issuc havc bccn ably and convincingly
dclcndcd,viz. .
, ) Marxthoughtthcrclationbctwccncapitalistandworkcrwas
just
,e) hcthoughtitwasunjust
) hc thought itwasbothjust and unjust-that is,justinonc
rcpcctandunjustinanothcr
,) hcthoughtitwasncithcrjustnorunjust.
Position ) , whichhascomc to bc known asthc JuckcrWood
thcsis, rclics on anumbcrolvcry tclling passagcs. ! n7hc Critiac a
thc 6atha Irarammc, in rcsponscto thcLasallcan dcmandlor ' alair
distributionolthcprocccdsollabour',Marxasks.
onotthcbourgcois asscrt thatthcprcscnt-daydistributionis'Fair'Andis
it not, in Fact thc on|y ' Fair' distribution on thc basis oF thc prcscntday
modc oFproduction Arc cconomicrclationsrcgu|atcdbylcga| conccptions
ordonot,onthccontra,lcga|rclationsariscFromcconomiconcs
Morcspccihcally,hcwrotcthatthccapitalist' scxtractionolsurplus
valuclromthcworkcrwas'bynomcansaninjusticc, /nrccht) ` tothc
lattcr.
Stcvcn Lukcs, 'justIcc ad KIghts', ch. oI Marxism and Moralig CxIord
\nIvcrsIty Prcss: CxIord, t g8j) , Stcvcn Lukcs i g8j. KcprIntcd bypcrmissIon oI
CxIord\nvcrsItyPrcss.
Scc K. C. Tuckcr, 7hc Marxian Kccolutiona Idca (W. W. Norton. Ncw Yok
i g6g).AlsoA. Wood, ThcMarxianCrItIucoIjusIcc: ` , FhilosohandFablic airs,
t /g SprIng g;:) , 'Max on KIght andjustIcc. A KcpIy to HusamI' , Fhileseh and
Fublic airs, 8/g SprIng t g;g), KarlMarx KoutIcdgc and Kcgan PauI. ondon,
t g8t ) .
` KarI Marx, Critiac e thc 6otha Frorammc t 8;j), Sclcctcd horks IorcIgn
anguagcsPublIshIngHousc:Moscow, i g6:) ,voI.II.
jLSTI CE AND RIOHTS
Jhc circumstancc, that on thc onc hand thc daily sustcnancc oFlabour
powcrcostsonlyhalFaday'slabour,whilconthcothcrhandthcvcrysamc
labour-powcr can workduring a wholc day, that conscqucntly thc valuc
whichitsuscduringoncdaycrcatcsisdoublcwhat [thccapitalist| paysFor
that usc, this circumstancc is, without doubt, a piccc oFgood luck For thc
buycrandbynomcansaninjusticctothcscllcr.
And in cbuttal ol Adolh Wagncr's suggcstion that hc, Marx,
thoughtthatthccaitalistrobsthcworkcr,hcwrotc.
Jhc obscurantist Falscly attributcs to mc thc vicwj that 'thc 1ar)laa cular
produccd by thc labourcrs ulor, was lcFt to thc capitalist cmploycrs in an
tm)ro)rr uu . Wcll, ! say thc dircct oppositc, namcly, that commodity
production is ncccssariy, at a ccrtain point, turncd into 'capitalistic'
commodityproduction, and that according to thc luu ojcular govcrningit,
'surplusvaluc'ispropcrlyductothccapitalstandnottothcabourcr.. . .
. . . inmyprcscntation,pro6tisol [asWagncrallcgcdj 'mcrclydrdarltou
or robbcry on thc labourcr' . n thc contrary, ! prcscnt thc capitalist as
thcncccssaryFunctionaryoFcapitalistproductionandshowvcrycxtcnsivcly
thathcdocsnotonly dcduct' or `rob, butForccsthc)rodarltou ojaar)laa cular,
thcrcForc thcdcductingonlyhclps toproducc,Furthcrmorc,! showindctail
thatcvcniFinthccxchangcoFcommoditcsou[) rqatculrula wcrc cxchangcd,
thccapitalist-as soon as hcpays thclabourcrthcrcal valucoFhislabour
powcrwouldsccurc with Full rights, i. c. thc rights corrcsponding to that
modcoFproduction,aar)laa-cular.
!n accordancc with this last thought, Marx statcd his morc
gcncralositionaboutthcissucaslollows.
JhcjusticcoFthctransactionsbctwccnagcntsoFproductionrcstsonthcFact
thatthcscariscasnaturalconscqucnccsoutoFthcproductionrclationships.
Jhcjuristic Forms in which thcsc cconomic transactions appcar as wiFul
actsoFthc partics conccrncd, as cxprcssions oFthcir common wil and as
contracts that may bc cnForccd by law against somc individual party,
cannot, bcingmcrcForms, dctcrmincthcircontcnt. Jhcymcrclycxprcssit.
Jhiscontcntisjustwhcncvcritcorrcsponds, isappropriatc, tothcmodcoF
production. !tis unjustwhcncvcrit contradicts thatmodc. lavcry on thc
basis oF capitalist production is unust likcwisc Faud in thc quality oF
commoditics.
Andhnally,hcstatcdthisositioncvcnmorcclcarlyin hacs, Iriccs
and Ira{t.
Jo clamour Fo rqaul or rcru rqatlublr rrlrtbaltou on thc basis oF thc wagcs
systcm is thc samc as to clamour Forrrdom on thc basis oFthc slavcry
Caita/ t 8G;) , tr. Moorc and AvclIng Iorcign Languagcs FubIIshIng Housc.
Moscov, i gg) ,i. i g,ranslationacndcd.
'Notcs on Adolph Wagncr i 8;g-8o tr. In crrcIICarvcr (cd. ) , Iat/ Marx.
7cxt: en Mcthed lackvcll.CxIord t g;), 8G.
Caita/ i 8G t;g),cd. EngcIs ForcIgn Languagcs FublshIngHosc: Moscov,
gG, II q.
I UU STEVEN LLKES
systcm.Whatyouthinkjustorcquitablcisirrccvant.Thcqucstioni s. what
isncccssaryandunavoidablcwithinagivcnsystcmoFproduction

Cnthc basis olassagcs such as thcsc allolwhch butthclasthc

citcs) Wood argucs that transactions arcjust ilthcy corrcsond or
arc aroriatc to, or arc lunctional to, thc rcvailing modc ol
roduction.judgcmcnts aboutjusticc arc not madc byrclcrcncc to
abstract or lormal rincilcs indccndcnt ol thc cxisting modc ol
roduction, indicating somc idcal to which social rcality could bc
adjustcd, rathcr thcy arc 'rational asscssmcnts ol thc justicc ol
sccihc acts and institutions, bascd on thcir concrctc lunctions
within a sccihcmodcolroduction'.' Thus, sincc thccxloitation
ol wagc labour by caital is csscntial to thc caitalist modc ol
roduction, thcrc is nothing unjust about thc transaction through
whichcaitalcxloitslabour, thcworkcrisaidthclullvalucolhis
labourowcr unlcss, olcoursc,hcisdclraudcd) , andthccaitalist,
insubscqucntlyaroriatingsurlus valuc, is notrcquircdtoay
thc workcr an cquivalcnt lor it, sincc undcr caitalism thc workcr
hasnorighttothclullvaluccrcatcdbyhislabour. Hcdidhavcsuch
a right undcr thc ctty-bourgcois systcm ol 'individual rivatc
rocrty' ,butthcvcry roductivc succcss olcaitalism rcquircd its
abolition.So,inshort,accordingtoWood,
asMarxintcrprctsit,thcjusticcoFcapitaisttransactionsconsistsmcrclyin
thcir bcing csscntia|y capit|ist, in thc corrcspondcncc oF capitalist
appropriationanddistributiontothoscstandardsoF justiccwhichscrvcthc
systcmitscl

Caitalist cxloitation 'alicnatcs, dchumaniscs and dcgradcs wagc

labourcrs' , but 'it docs not violatc any olthcir rights, and thcrc is
nothingaboutitwhichiswronglulorunjust'.
Position e) , hcld by Husami, Cohcn, and othcrs rclics on a
varicty olnolcss tcllngassagcsin which Marxlainlydocsscak
olcxloitationas'robbcry', 'usuration', 'cmbczzlcmcnt', 'lundcr' ,
'booty', 'thcl', 'snatching', and 'swindling'. Thus, thc 'ycarly
accruingsurlus roduct is| cmbczzlcd, bccausc cxtractcdwithout
rcturnolancquivalcnt,lromthcLnglishlabourcr' . Solorcxamlc
inthc 6randrissc Marxwrotc ol'thcthclolalicnlabourtimc i. c. ol
surlus valuc or surlus labour| on which thc rcscnt wcalth is

hac:,FiccsandFre[t ( i 86) , ScIcctcdherks,I.:6,transIatIonamcndcd.
' Wood,'ThcMarxIanCrItIqucoI justIcc`, i 6.
" 'Marx on Ight and]ustIcc`, t 8.
Wood,KarIMarx, g
. I. HusamI, 'Marx on DIstrIbutivc]usticc' , FhiIe:eh andFabIicA_air:, 8/i
(Autumn i g;8) ,g
' ' CaitaI,I. 6i , translatIonamcndcd.
jLSJICE AND RIOHTS
bascd' . AndinCaita/ hcwrotcolthcsurlusroductas
thc tributc annualy cxactcd From thc workingcass by thc capitaist cass.
Jhough thc lattcr with a portion oFthat tributc purchascs thc additiona
labour-powcr cvcn at its Ful pricc, so that cquivacnt is cxchangcd For
cquivacnt, yct thc transaction is For al that only thc old dodgc oFcvcry
conqucror who buys commoditics From thc conqucrcd with thc moncy hc
hasrobbcd thcmol
!nthclightol assagcssuchas thcsc,Cohcnmaintainsthat
sincc, asWoodwiagrcc, Marx didnotthinkthatbycapitaistcritcriathc
capitaliststcals, andsincchcdid thinkhcstcals, hcmusthavcmcant that
hcstcalsinsomcappropriatclynon-rcativistscnsc.Andsincctostcalis, in
gcncral, wrongy to takc what righty bclongs to anothcr, to stca is to
commit an injusticc, and a systcm which is 'bascd on thcFt` is bascd on
injusticc.
And Husam argucs that thosc who dclcnd Position r ) miss thc
satirical andironictoncolthcassagcs thcycitcints dclcncc, and
that, by arguing that thc onlyalicablcstandardoljusticc is that
aroriatc to thc cxisting cconomic systcm, thcy makc it
'i mossiblc lor thc orcsscd to critcisc thc injusticc ol thcir lilc
stuations' . 'AccordingtoHusami, Marx 'cvaluatcsrc-communist
systcms lrom thc standoint ola communist socicty' ibid. o) . lar
lrom adoting catalism's scll-cvaluation, hc 'rcgardcd caitalism
as unjust rcciscly bccausc, as an cxlotativc systcm, it docs not
roorton rcward to labour contribution, and bccausc it is not
oricntcdtosatislyhumannccds' ibid.;8) .Jhisjudgcmcnt,Husami
insists, 'is madc lrom thcMarxiancthicalstandoint which, Marx
hcld,wasarolctarianstandoint' ibid.;;) .
Jhc dclcndcrs ol Position ) must somchow cxlain away thc
'' 6randrissc dcr Kritik dcr olitischcn konomic (i 8;-8), tr. as Foandations thc
Critiac o Folitical Lconom (Koah Dra) by MartIn NIcoIaus (PcnguIn Har
mondsvorth, i g;g), ;o.
' Caital, I.j8:.ThcrcIsaIurthcrpassagcvhIchtcIIshcavIIyInIavouroIPosItIon
:) . !nthc 6randrisscMarxvrItcs 'ThcrccognItIon byIabour oIthcproductsas its
ovn, and thcjudgmcnt that its scparatIon Irom thc condItIons oI Its rcaIIatIon Is
Impropcr anchr) -IorcIbIy ImposcdIs an cnormous avarcncss [cnormcs Bc
ua::t:cin),ItscthcproductoIthcmodcoIprodctIonrcstIngon capItaI,andasmuch
thc kncIl to Its doom as, vith thc sIavc`savarcncss that hc cannot bc thcrocr{y o
anothcr,vIthhisconscIousncssoIhImscIIas apcrson, thccxIstcnccoIsIavcrybccomcs
amrcly artIbcIaI, vcgctatIvc cxIstcncc and ccascs to bcabIcto prcvaIIas thcbasIsoI
production' Gg) . HIghIyIntcrcstIngIy, Inthc i 8G -g Critiac, Marx rcproduccs this
passagc but rcpIaccs 'ungchrIg` Impropcr) by cIn nrccht` an InjustIcc) Zar
Kritikdcrolitischcn Ockonomic, MS i8Gl g, Marx-Lncls 6csamtausabc (DIct crIIn,
i g8:), G, ::8;). ! am gratcuI to]on Istcr Ior dravIng thIs sIgnIbcant pIccc oI
cvIdcncctomyattcntIon.
' G. ^. Cohcn,cvIcvoIWood,KarlMarx, Mind,g:/gG;uIy i g8g), g
'MaronDIstrIbutIvcjustIcc`,:.
i b8 STEVEN LLKES
assagcssuortingPosition , e), andviccvcrsa. Soiti snosurrsc
tohndWood suggcstingthatMarxthcrcuscs 'robbcry` inasccial
scnscthatdocsnotimlyinjusticc,andtohndHusamistrcssingthc
'ironic tonc` ol thc citcd assagcs conccrning thc justicc ol thc
caitalistwagc rclation. And indccditis thccascthatthc 'robbcry`
involvcd in caitalist cxloitation has somc sccial lcaturcs, ol
whichthrccarcworthnoting. lirst, as Marxhimscllobscrvcs, what
thc caitalist stcals hc himscll 'hcls crcatc` by 'lorcing thc
rodction olsurlus valuc' . ilit wcrc not lor thc caitalist, thcrc
would bcnothingto rob thcworkcrsol. Sccond, as Marxclscwhcrc
notcsincriticismolProudhon,thcirrobbcryisrobbcryaccordingto
bourgcois rocrty rights, not ncccssarily according to othcr
critcria.Andthird,asWoodointsout,ilthcrobbcryrclationislikc
thatolconqucrortoconqucrcd, 'itisnotsoclcarthatrobbcryhasto
bc unjust` Kar/ Marx, i ;8) , sincc it constitutcs a rcgular
roductionrclationsanctioncdbyrcvailingnormsol justicc.Andit
isalsothccascthatsomcolthcassagcsaboutthcallcgcdjusticcol
thc caitalist`s rclationto thcworkcrarc highlysatirical andironic.
Cn thc othcr hand, Marxdocslainly and lrcqucntly say that thc
rclationisoncolrobbcry, andhcalsolainlyandoccasionallysays,
somctimcsthatitisjust,andsomctimcsthatitisnotunjust.
Position ) , which has bccn ably dclcndcd by Cary Young,
rclics uondrawingadistinction,muchlavourcdbyMarx,bctwccn
thcshcrcolcxchangcorcirculationand thatoldircctroduction,
and thc corrclativc distinction bctwccn thc workcr as owncr and
scllcr ol labour owcr, and thc workcr as 'a living comoncnt ol
caitaI` , owncdbythccaitalist. Considcrthclollowingassagcs.
thc transFormation oFmoncy into capital brcaks down into two who|ly
distinct, autonomous sphcrcs, two cntirc scparatc proccsscs. Jhc 6rst
bcongs to thc rcam oFthc rtrralultou ojrommodtltra and is actcd out in thc
murkrl-)lurr. !t is thc aulr uud )arrhuar oj luboar-)ourr. Jhc sccond is thc
rouaam)ltou oj lhr luboar)ourr lhul hua brru urqatrrd, i. c. thc proccss oF
productionitsclF . . . . !nordcrtodrmoualrulr thcrcForc, that thcrclationship
bctwccn capitaist and workcr is nothing but a rcationship bctwccn
commodity owncrs who cxchangc moncy and commoditics with a Frcc
contract andto thcir mutualadvantagc, itsumccstoisoatc thc6rstproccss
andtoccavctoitsFormacharactcr.Jhissimpcdcviccisnosorcc, butit
containsthccntircriddcoFthcvugarcconomists. '
Sccondly,thcshcrcolcirculationorthc cxchangcolcommoditics,
G. Young, Thc IundamcntaI ContradIctIon oI CapItaIIst FroductIon`
FhilesehandFub/icA_airs, t g;) , ]ustIccandCapItaIIstFroductIonMarxand
ourgcoIs!dcoIogy` Canadianjeua/Fhi/osoh,8 g;8), 'DoIngMarx]ustIcc`, In
K. NcIIsonandS. C. Pattcncds. ) , MarxandMorali{v CanadIanAssoc.IorPubIshIng
InPhIIosophy.GucIph,CntarIo, t g8 i ) .
` ' Marx,'csuItsoI thc!mmcdIatcProccssoIProductIon' t 8Gg-),tr.InCaital, I
PcnguIn.Harmondsvorth, t g;),t ooe.
jLSTICE AND RI OHTS t Gg
within whosc boundarics thcsalc and purchascoFabour-powcrgocs on, is
inFactavcry Ldcn oFthc innatc rights oFman. Jhcrc aonc ruc Frccdom,
Lquaity, Propcrty and Bcntham. . . . Lquaity, bccausc cach cntcrs into
rcation with thc othcr, as with a simpcowncroFcommoditics, and thcy
cxchangc cquivalcnt For cquivacnt. . . . n caving this sphcrc oFsimpc
circuation or oFcxchangc oFcommoditics . . . wc think wc can pcrccivc a
changc in thc physiognomy oFour dramatis pcrsonac. Hc, who bcForc was
thcmoncyowncr nowstridcsi Frontascapitaist, thcposscssoroFlabour
powcrFolows ashisabourcr.Jhconcwith anairoFimportancc,smirking,
intcnt on busincss, thc othcr, timid and hoding back, likc onc who is
bringing his own hidc to markct and has nothingto cxpcct butahiding.
Marx, Lu)tlul, i. i ;6.)
Andhnally,
!t must bc acknowlcdgcd that our labourcr comcs out oF thc proccss oF
productionothcrthanhccntcrcd. !nthcmarkcthcstoodasthcowncroFthc
commodity 'labour powcr Facc to Facc with othcr owncrs oFcommoditics,
dcalcragainstdcalcr. . . . Jhc bargain concudcd, it is discovcrcd that hc
wasno'Frccagcnt`,thatthctimcForwhichhcisFrcctosclhisabour-powcr
is thc timcFor whichhcisForccd to scll it, that inFactthcvampircwil not
looscitshodonhim'solongasthcrcisamusclc,ancrvc,adropoFbloodto
bccxploitcd[thcquotationisFromLngcs| . !bid.o-.. )
Young criticizcs Position t ) lor lailing to sccthcimort olthc
distinction bctwccn workcr as scllcr and workcr as roduccr ol
surlus valuc, and insists that Marx thought both that thc workcr
was trcatcdjustly according to thc laws olcommodity cxchangc,
sccilying 'markct rights' ) , and that thc cxtractionolsurlus valuc
lrom him in thc roduction roccss was robbcry 'in thc ordinary
scnscinwhichrobbcryis unjust) . In short, 'on Marx's vicw, thc
workcris trcatcdjustlyasscllcrinthccxchangcollabourowcrlor
wagcs, but is thcn robbcd in thc roduction roccss, duringwhich
thc caitalist cxtracts surlus valuc lrom thc workcr' ibid. e

e ) .
AndYounglurthcrargucsthat,lorMarx,onlythclattcri s ' rcal',thc
lormcr bcingmcrcly idcologicalacarancc, vciling and mystilying
thc translcr ol surlus valuc, which is thc csscncc ol caitalist
roduction.
linally, Position ) , argucdlor by Richard Millcr, rclics on thc
obscrvation that thc assagcs on which Positon , ) rclics do not
unambguouslysuort it. Withrcgardto thcwagc rclaton, onthc
onc hand thcir thrust is to dcny that inj usticc is donc, and on thc
othcrtoinsistthatcquivalcntsarccxchangcd. !nthcscassagcs, thc
ocabulary oljusticcis uscd in away that rclativzcs ittoa modc ol
roduction andis, aswchavc sccn, satirical, cvcn ironc. 'Admirc',
' " Young,'DoIngMar]ustIcc`:Go.
STEVEN LLKES
hc writcs, 'this capitalistic justicc!` Marx, Caita/, i GGo) ) .
Nowhcrc, as Millcr writcs, 'is thcrc a non-rclativizcd, uncquivocal
statcmcnt that capitalism isjust. Jhat is what onc would cxpcct if
Marx docs not rcgardjusticc as a bt catcgory cithcr for political
rccommcndationsorforscicntihcanalysis` .
!n othcr words, Position ) focuscs on Marx`s vicw . . . that
justiccisanarchaic,scicntihcallyirrclcvantcatcgory,comparablcto
mcdicval thcological notions, and on thc vicw, which Marx also
hcld, that its invocation is futiIc, and cvcn dangcrous, in social
criticism and political action, in so far as it suggcsts objcctivcly
bascd and univcrsally applicablc standards forjudgingdistributivc
arrangcmcnts and social institutions. Civcn this, 'thc normal
function ofthc tcrm in criticism andjustihcation should rationally
bc abandoncd` ibid. 8 ) . Appraisig thc rclationsofcapitalism for
thcir j usticc or inj usticc was scicntihcally anachronistic and
politicallyfruitlcss.
What is onc to makc ofthis cacophony of intcrprctations Somc
partialrcsolutionshavcbccno!crcdofsomcofthcconictingvicws
wc havc skctchcd hcrc. lor cxamplc, Cohcn who adopts Position
.) ) suggcsts that 'pcrhaps Marx did not always rcalisc that hc
thoughtcapitalismwasunjust' . Morcgcncrally,Cohcnhasargucd
that.
Kcvoutionary marxist bcicFoFtcn misdcscribcs itscF, out oFack oFccar
awarcncss oF its own naturc, and marxist disparagcmcnt oF thc idca oF
justiccisagoodcxamplcoFthatdccicntscF-undcrstanding.
Similarly, jon Elstcr who also adopts a vcrsion ofPosition .) )
suggcsts that ' both thc thcory of cxploitation in Caita/ and thc
thcory of distribution in Critiqac a thc 6atha Irarammc cmbody
principlcs ofjusticc`, but that 'likc M. jourdain, hc did not know
howtodcscribccorrcctlywhathcwasdoing,unlikcM.jourdain,hc
actuallywcntoutofhiswaytodcnythatthccorrcctdcscriptionwas
appropriatc`. And Elstcr furthcr suggcsts that 'thc bcst way of
making scnsc /ath of Marx`s critiquc of capitalism and of thc
rcmarks on communism in thc Critiqac athc 6atha Irarammc is by
imputing to him a hicrarchical thcory of justicc in which thc
contribution principIc to cach according to his contribution)
providcsasccond-bcstcritcrionwhcnthcnccdsprinciplcfromcach
K. MIIIcr,Ana{inMarx ( FrInccton\nIcrsItyFrcss. FrInccton,N], t g8 ,8o.
Cohcn,rcIcvoIWood,KarlMarx,
V4
. A. Cohcn, 'Irccdom, ]usticc and CapItalIsm`, cu !q Kcicu, i .6
(Mar.Apr. t g8 ) , i .
V V
]. EIstcr,MakinSccoMarx (CambrIdgc\nIcrsItyFrcss.Cambridgc, tg8j.
jLSTICE AND RIGHTS t ; t
according to his ability, to cach according to his nccds) is not yct
historicallyripcfor application' ibid. ) .
Lctus,thcn,lookat whatMarxcxplicitlysaysinthcCritiqac athc
6atha Irarammc about thc distributivc arrangcmcnts ofthc futurc.
Hcrc if anywhcrc wc should hopc to b nd a cluc to his positivc
thoughtsaboutjusticc.
Incommunism'slowcr phasc, hc writcs, 'still stampcd with thc
birthmarks ofthc old socicty from whoscwombit cmcrgcs' , cach
produccr rcccivcs backfrom socicty mcans oIconsumption costing
thcsamcas thc labourhchas cxpcndcd minusvarious dcductions
forfuturcinvcstmcnt, publicscrviccs, andfundsforthoscunablcto
work, ctc. ) . 'tqaa/ riht hcrc is stil in principlc-/aartai riht,
althoughprinciplcandpracticcarcnolongcratloggcrhcads' But
thiscqaal ribt isstil constantlystigmatizcd bya bourgcois imitation. Thc
rightoFthcproduccrs isroortional to thcabourthcysuppy,thccquaity
consistsinthcFactthatmcasurcmcntismadcwithancqaal standard, abour.
Butoncmanissupcriortoanothcrphysicayormcntalyandsosuppics
morclabourinthcsamctimc,orcanabourForaongcrtimc,andabour,to
scrvcasamcasurc, must bcdc6ncdbyits durationorintcnsity,othcrwiscit
ccascs tobcastandard oImcasurcmcnt. Thiscqaal rightisanuncquaright
Foruncqua abour. !t rccogniscs no cass dicrcnccs, bccausc cvcryonc is
onyaworkcrikccvcryonccsc butittacitly rccogniscs uncquaindividual
cndowmcntandthusproductivccapacityasnaturalprivicgcs.1t is, tbcr[orc,
a ribt oincqaali{y, in its contcnt, likc coc ribt. Kibt b its oc natarc can consist
on{y in tbc alication oan cqaal standard, bat ancqaal indioidaals (and tbq uoald
not bc dj crcnt indioidaals j[ tby ucrc not ancqaal) arc mcasarablc on{y b an cqaal
standard in so ar as tbq arc broabt andcr an cqaal oint ooicu, arc considcrcd in onc
articalar ascct on{y, or in:tancc, as in tbc rcscnt casc, arc rcardcd on{y a: uorkcr:
and notbin morc i: sccn in tbcm, coctbin clsc bcin inorcd. Furthcr, onc workcr
ismarricd, anothcrnotonchasmorcchidrcn than anothcr, andsoonand
so Forth. Thus, with an cqual contribution oFlabour, and hcncc an cqual
sharc in thc socia consumption Iund, onc will in Fact rcccivc morc than
anothcr, onc wi bc richcr than anothcr, and so on. To avoid a thcsc
dcIccts, ight instcad oF bcing cqual woud havc to bc uncqual. !bid.
transationamcndcd,itaicsaddcd. )
But what cxactly arc thcdcIccts!Jhcbrstis simply that workcrs
with highc productivc capacitics bcncbt by highcr incomcs. But
thisdcfcctwouldsimply bc rcctibcd bypayingthcmallthc samc.
Anothcr isthat somc workcrs havcdcpcndcnts-mcmbcrs ofthcir
familicswho do not work. But in an carlicr paragraph of thc
Critiqac Marx has alrcady allowcdtaxcs to providcIunds for thosc
unablc to work, and thcrc sccms to bc no rcason in principlcwhy
socialismcould notprovidcnon-working mcmbcrs offamilics with
adcquatcincomcs.
`` Ma,Critiacothc 6othaFrorammc, g.
;. STEVEN LLKES
Asidcfromthcscparticularandrcmcdiablcdcfccts,itis, howcvcr,
thcthirddcfcct,indicatcdbythcpassagcinitalics,whichtakcsusto
thchcartofthcmattcr. lorhcrcthcobjcctionisnotthataparticular
principlcofdistributionisunfair, butrathcrthatan systcmofrulcs
spccifyingjustibablcclaims Ktcht) trcatspcoplcuncqually,sincc, /
its ct natart, it applics a common standard to thcm, considcring
thcminonc particularaspcctonly. But, as Moorchas pointcd out,
this amounts to a gcncral argumcnt that any social systcm is
incquitablc to thc cxtcnt that it opcratcs through gcncral rulcs.
According to this argumcnt, 'no systcm ofgcncral ruIcs, howcvcr
complicatcd, can considcr allthcaspcctsinwhich individualsdilIcr
from onc anothcr. Jo apply such rulcs cntails applying thc samc
standardtodiIcrcntcascs` Marxwouldclcarlynotbcsatishcdby
incrcasing thc numbcr ofaspccts in which pcoplc arc considcrcd,
sincchisvicwappcarstobc thatcvcryrcspcctinwhichindividuals
diIcr from onc anothcrcould inprinciplc bc rclcvant, accordingly,
no commonstandard couldcvcrhtthc bill. !n short, hcsccms hcrc
to bc taking all too scriously his doctrinc of thc 'univcrsality of
individual nccd, capacitics . . . ` , ctc. and 'rich individuality that is
as all-sidcd in its production as in its consumption` . Hc sccms to
havc supposcd that any rulc oflaw or morals, which by its vcry
naturc singlcsout ccrtain diIcrcnccsbctwccn pcoplc asgrounds for
dilIcrcntial trcatmcnt, is for that vcry rcason 'abstract` and 'onc-
sidcd`. !n thc highcr phasc ofcommunism, which thc Critiqat gocs
ontodcscribc,
alcr thccnslavingsubordinationoFthcindividuatothcdivisionoFlabour,
and thcrcwith also thc antithcsis bctwccn mcntal and physica labour has
vanishcd, alcrlabourhas bccomcnotonly a mcans oFliFc butiFc'sprmc
want, aFtcr thc productivc Forccs havc also incrcascd with thc a-round
dcvcopmcnt oFthc individual, and al thc springs oFcoopcrativc wcalth
owmorcabundanty-onlythcncanthcnarrowhorizonoFbourgcoisright
bccrosscdinitscntircty. !bid. .. )
! takcthistomcan,notmcrclythatthcrcwillnolongcrbc/earteis
right, but that thcrc will bc nomorcKtcht, nomorclcgal and moral
rulcs. thc horizon is a limit to thought and action sct by bourgcois
Ktcht, bcyond it, thcrc will bc no bourgcoisic, and no Ktcht. Jhc
principlc that such a socictywould inscribc on itsbanncrs-' lrom
cachaccordingtohisability,tocachaccordingtohisnccds`-would
not bc such a rulc, sincc ) thosc abilitics and nccds would bc
inhnitc, that is, unlimitablc in advancc, and unspccihablc by any
rulc, ,2) thcformcrwould bc harncsscd to 'thc common intcrcstof
` S. Moorc,Marxonthc ChoiccbctuccnSocialumandCommanism Harvard \nIvcrIty
Fc,CambrIdgc,Mass., t go),.
jL5Tl CE AND Rl GHT5 t ;
aIlindividualswhohavcintcrcourscwith oncanothcr'throughwhat
MarxcaIlcdmtimchalich rclations and cnin ' ancwand highcr
social bond' ) , and ) thc lattcr would alI bc satishablc without
conhictingclaimsbccauscoIthoscrcIationsandbccauscoImatcriaI
abundancc.
l am nowinapositiontoodcrmy ownsuggcstionabouthowthc
disputc about Marx's vicws about capitaIism's |usticc might bc
rcsolvcd. lt starts Irom thc obscrvation that aIl Iour positions
considcrcdabovcarcplausiblyMarx'sandarcsupportcdbytcxtual
cvidcncc. Now, Cohcn and Elstcr may bc right in suggcsting that
Marxmay,likcM. jourdain,havcjustIailcdtoundcrsandhisown
vicw oI justicc. l mysclI havc suggcstcd . . . that hc did not
adcquatclyrchcctuponhisownmoral position. But l thinkwc can
goIurthcrincxplicatingthcproblcm
MysuggcstionisthatMarx'svicwoIcapitalism'sjusticcwasboth
intcrnalIycomplcxandhicrarchicallyorganizcd. ln thc hrstplacc,
hc did odcr a Iunctional account oIthc norms by which capitalist
cxploitationisjudgcdjustthccapitalistwagcrclationisjudgcdjust
on avcragc, and apart Irom Iraud, ctc.) according to prcvailing
norms, viz.juridical norms oIcontract Iaw, backcd by convcntions
spcciIying thc minimum socially ncccssary wagc Irom thc
pcrspcctivc oI thc vulgar cconomists, who ' transIatc thc singuIar
conccptsoIthccapitaIists,whoarcinthcthraIloIcompctition,into
asccminglymorcthcorcticalandgcncraliscdlanguagc,andattcmpt
tosubstantiatcthcjusticcoIthoscconccptions' . 'Jhcscnormsand
thcpcrspcctivcprcvaiIbccauscthcysanctionandstabilizccapitalist
cxploitation and thus thc capitalist systcm. Jhis is thc truth in
Position t ) . Sccondly, howcvcr, Marx also odcrcd an ' intcrnal' or
'immancnt' critiquc oI thosc norms and that pcrspcctivc, as
rcgistcring thc mcrc appcarancc oI an cquivalcnt cxchangc oI
commoditics. As Holmstrom has obscrvcd, it 'vicws thc cxchangc
bctwccn capitalist and workcr too narrowly, abstractcd Irom its
background','IaiIing tosccthat thcworkcris notIrcc but'Iorccd'
to sclI his labour to somc) capitalist and thcrcaItcr undcr that
capitalist's) control. Jhis is thc truth in Position ) . But thirdly,
Marxalsoodcrcdan'cxtcrnal'critiqucoIcapitalistcxploitationand
oI thc norms and pcrspcctivc Irom which it appcars |ust. Jhat
critiqucisinturnmadcIromthcpcrspcctivcoIcommunism'slowcr
phasc. capitalistcxploitationisIromthisstandpointunjustbccausc
it violatcs thc principIc 'Jo cach according to his labour
contribution' minus thc appropriatc dcductions) . Jhisis thc truth
` Marx,Caital,II.ee6.

[
HoImstrom,'ExpIoItatIon,CanadianjealeFhile:ey, ;/e(t g;;) , g66-;.

; STEVEN LLKES
in Position .) . And hnally, Marx olIcrcd a radical ctquc oI
capitalistcxploitation,oIthcnorms and pcrspcctivcjustiingitand
oIthc critical pcrspcctivc Irom which it appcars unjust, Irom thc
pcrspcctivc oIcommunism`s highcr phasc. lrom that standpoint,
thcvcryattributionoI justiccandinjusticcisamarkoIclasssocicty,
a sign that socicty is still in a prchistorical phasc, an archaism
cvcntuallytobctransccndcd.ThisisthctruthinPosition ) .
This solutiontoourintcrprctativcpuzzlcmaycauscdiscomIortto
somconc who wants to know what, in thc cnd, Marx actually
bclicvcdin reria trsena. id hc think capitalism unjust, ordidn' t
hc But thc answcr, I bclicvc, is that Marx maintaincd all thcsc
positionsandthathcbroughtallthcscpcrspcctivcsto bcaratoncc.
So I disagrccwithCohcn'ssuggcstionthatMarx 'musthavcmcant
thatthccapitaliststcalsinsomcappropriatclynonrclativistscnsc',
sincc, Ior Marx,thcrcwas no such scnsc all suchjudgcmcnts arc
pcrspcctivc-rclativc. Cbjcctivity, in thc scnsc oI pcrspcctivc-
ncutrality,was,Iorhim,anillusion,indccdanidcologicalillusion.
I Iurthcr disagrcc, as thc wholc argumcnt oI this book should
makc clcar, with Elstcr`s suggcstion that thc bcst way oImaking
scnsc oI both Marx`s critiquc oI capitalism and his vision oI
communism is to imputc to him 'a hicrarchical thcory oIjusticc',
with thc nccds principlc taking priority ovcr thc contribution
principlc. In my vicw, thcrcis in Marx and Marxism a hicrarchy,
butnota hicrarchyoIjusticc. I takc aprinciplcoI justiccto bconc
which is nccdcd Ior 'assigning basic rights and dutics and Ior
dctcrmining. . . thc propcrdistributionoIthcbcnchtsandburdcns
oI social co-opcration`, such that 'institutions arc just whcn no
arbitrary distinctionsarcmadcbctwccnpcrsons inthcassigningoI
basicrightsandwhcnthcrulcsdctcrmincapropcrbalanccbctwccn
compcting claims to thc advantagcs oIsocial liIc`. ' What Marx
olIcrs is a multi-pcrspcctival analysis in which capitalism`s sclI-
justihcationsarcportraycd,undcrmincdIromwithin,andcriticizcd
Irom without, and thcn bothjustihcation and criticism arc in turn
criticizcdIromastandpointthatishcldtobcbcyondjusticc.
EXPLOITATl ON
ThiswayoI intcrprctingMarxmakcsthcbcstscnsc,I bclicvc,oIthc
MarxistconccptoIcxploitation, which,onthisaccount,isintcrnally
complcxandmulti-pcrspcctival,incxactlthcwayIhavcindicatcd.
Ishallcommcnthcrconlyoncapitalistcxploitation. )
`' ]. KawIs,A tt (CIarcndonPrcssCxIord, t g;e), _.
jLSTICE AND RI OHTS i ;_
What, altcrall, arcthcdcb ninglcaturcsolcapitalistcxploitation,
accordingtoMarxlirst,itisamarkctphcnomcnon. Itisthatlorm
olsurpluslabourcxtractionwhich,lormallyspcaking,atthclcvclol
'appcaranccs`,cquivalcnt labourpowcr) is 'voluntarily` cxchangcd
lor cquivalcnt wagcs) . Sccond, thatcxtraction is achicvcd through
thceatr olthccxploitcrs backcdbythatolthcstatc) .wagclabour
is lorccd labour, inwhich, undcr thc 'dullcompulsionolcconomic
rclations' Marx, Caital, i. ;;) -as opposcd to dircct
cocrcion-thc labourcr is,b rst, compcllcd to scll his labour powcr
though nottoanygivcncapitalist) and, sccond, thcncompcllcd to
cngagc in thc labour proccss undcr his mastcr`s supcrvision and
control. Jhc lormcr compulsion is compatiblc with, what Marx
callcd'lormallrccdom' lor instancc,olwhomtoworklorandwhat
topurchasc) .itconsists inthcimpcrsonal, anonymous constraintsol
thc labour markct, givcn thc dilIcrcntial rcsourccs and
organizationalcapacitisolthc agcnts olproduction, which rcndcr
wagc labour his only rcal option. Jhc lattcr consists in thc
capitalist's lcgally backcd control-bascd on owncrship ol thc
mcansolproduction-ovcrthclabourproccss.Jhird,surplusvaluc
is cxtractcd lrom thc labourcr aqairjy or unjustly, whcn judgcd
against thc contribution principlc. 'thc grcatcr part olthc ycarly
accruing surplus product is| cmbczzlcd, bccausc abstractcd
without rcturn olan cquivalcnt` ibid. . G i t ) . Clcoursc, as statcd
bclorc, Marx rccognizcd that thc cmploycr hclps crcatc what hc
cmbczzlcs, andindccdwouldprobablynothavcdoncsobutlorthc
prospcct ol such cmbczzlcmcnt. Jhis last lact, and thc workcrs`
acccptanccolitasincvitablcandolthcirrcwardsasjust,rcsultlrom
thc gcncral capitalist mcntality intcrnalizcd by capitaists and
workcrs alikc. Marxian cxploitation counts as such only whcn sct
against thc cxtcrnal standard oljusticc as lairncss providcd bythc
contributionprinciplc.
linally, cxploitation involvcs thc inhuman charactcr ol thc
capitalistworkcrrclationshipitscll-andcxchangc rclationships in
gcncral this bcing Marx's carlicst vicw ol thc mattcr) . its
calculativc, instrumcntal naturc, bascd upon thc pursuit ol
con icting intcrcsts by thc partics to it, who vicw and trcat onc
anothcrandthcmsclvcsinamanncrincompatiblcwithtrulyhuman
rclationships. Jhis aspcct olcxploitation is wcll brought out in a
striking passagc lrom thc 6tman Idteleg, whcrc Marx writcs ol
cxploitationasa'utilityrclation'inwhich
! dcrivc bcncht Ior myscIby doing harm to somconc csc cxlcitaticn dc
l'bcmmc ar l'bcmmc) . in this casc morcovcr thc usc that ! dcrivcFromsomc
rcationiscntircycxtrancoustothisrcation. . . . A||thisisactua|ythccasc
5TEVEN LUKE5
with thc bourgcois. For him ony onc rcation is vaid on its own
account-thc rcation oIcxpoitation, a othcr rcations havc vaidity Ior
himony insoIar as hccan incudc thcm undcr this onc rcation, and cvcn
whcrchccncountcrs rcations which cannot bcdircctIy subordinatcd tothc
rcation oI cxpoitation, hc subordinatcs thcm to it at cast in his
imagination. ThcmatcriacxprcssionoIthisuscis moncywhichrcprcscnts
thcvaucoIathings,pcopcandsociarcations.
And ancarlynotc, datingIrom I 8qq, makcs cvcnclcarcrhowMarx
sawthis, thcmostgcncralaspcctoIcxploitation.
! havc produccd Ior myscIand not Ioryou,|ust as youhavcproduccdIor
yourscIand not Ior mc . . . our production is notsocial production. . . .
LachoIussccsinhisproductonythcob|cctibcationoIhisoun scshnccd,
and thcrcIorc in thc product oI thc othcr thc ob|cctibcation oI a djcrcnt
scbshnccd,indcpcndcntoIhimandaicntohim.
Asamanyouhavc,oIcoursc,ahumanrcationtomyproduct.younccd oI
myproduct.HcnccitcxistsIoryou asanob|cctoIyourdcsircandyourwi.
Butyournccd,yourdcsirc,yourwiarcpowcrcss as rcgards my product.
. . . Thcsocial rcation inwhich ! stand toyou, my abour Ioryour nccd, is
thcrcIorcasoamcrcscmblancc, thcbasisoIwhichismutuapundcring.
In short, this aspcct oI cxploitation is idcntihcd Irom thc
pcrspcctivc oIhuman cmancipation, to which thc ncxt chaptcr is
dcvotcd.
RIGHT5
linally,wcmustask.howdorightshtintothcIramcworkoIMarx's
andMarxistthought!And,morcparticularly,canaMarxistbclicvc
inhumanrights!
Plainly, Marx dcIcndcd various particuIarrights inthc courscoI
his liIc, such as thc right toa Ircc prcss, thc right tovotc, workcrs'
rights to dcccnt Iactory conditions, and so on. Jhc samc gocs Ior
countlcss Marxists cvcr sincc. ndccd, Marxists across thc worId,
cspccially sincc thc Rcsistancc to thc Nazis, havc bccn in thc
IorcIront oI strugglcs against tyranny and opprcssion in many
countrics, oItcn in thc namc oIhuman rights, cspccially sincc thc
HclsinkiAccords. InIact, I wouldargucthatthccstablishmcntand
protcction oIbasic civil rights oItcn dcpcnds on thc cxistcncc oIa
strong and wcll-organizcd labour movcmcnt, and that Marxist
particsandgroupshavcplaycdanimportantrolcinachicvingthis.
o
_
MarxandI.EngcIs, 7hc 6canIdcelegy ( t 8j) Cellcctcd herk:eMarxand
Lncl: (LawrcnccandWIsbart.ondon, t g;j), V. og-t o.

Marx, Commcnts onamcs MIII, lmcnt: d'tcenemicelitiqac' ( 8), Cellcctcd

herk:eMarxandLncl:,III.ezj.
jLSTICE AND RIOHTS
Ncvcrthclcss, Marxism as a body olthought has gcncrally bccn
inhospitablctorights.lorinstancc,asClaudcLclorthasrcmarkcd,
JhccxpansionoFmarxismthroughout thccntirc FrcnchlcFthas For a|ong
timc gonc along with a dcprccation oF |aw droit) in gcncra| and thc
vchcmcntcondcmnation,ironicor'scicnti6c',oFthcbourgcoisnotionoFthc
rightsoFman.
Rights arc ccntral to thc thcorctical tradition ollibcralism apart
lrom its utilitarian strand) , so that whcn thcy arc violatcd in its
namc, thisgocsagainst thcgrain,so tospcak,cvcnilthcviolations
aclullyj ustihcd.Maxism,bycontrast,displaysnosuchtcnsion. It
i s . . . lrom i ts origins committcd to an idcal ollrccdom whosc
comingrcalizationitlabclshumancmancipation. Ithas ncvcrbccn
similarly committcd, as a mattcr olprinciplc, to thc promulgation
and protcction ol rihts that, whcn rcspcctcd, scrvc to guarantcc
lrccdoms. loroncthing,ithasalwaystcndcdtosccrightsasarising
lrom and cxprcssing thc individualism and thc contradictions ol
bourgcois socicty. lor anothcr, t is olcn ambivalcnt at bcst about
thc rcality ol bourgcois lrccdoms. And hnally, it looks towards a
luturc idcal socicty in which thc lrccdoms it proclaims will rcquirc
noguarantccs.
Adcprcssingillustrationolwhat thiswayolthinkngcanlcad to
in practicc isprovidcd bythcstoryolthccarlySovctjurstsRcisncr,
Stuchka, and Pashukanis. Acccpting Lcnin`s vicw ol thc
dictatorship ol thc prolctariat as not supportcd by any laws, thcy
uscd 'all thcrcncrgy inordcr to provc thc conscrvativclunctionol
thc idcology ol law`, attacking law as such as conscrvativc,
idcological, ticd to thc 'commodity lorm` , and as thc 'opium olthc
pcoplc`, andthcyjustihcdthclullsubordinationollawtopolitics in
tcrms ol ' rcvolutionary purposclulncss` and 'political cxbility` .
Pashukans summcd up this position whcn hc wrotc that
'rcvolutionary law` was 'nincty ninc pcr ccnt apolitical task` As
thcYugoslavIraxis philosophcrJadichasobscrvcd,
AFtcr thccritica|ycaroFi Q2 , thc dominantpointoFvicwin thc Bolshcik
party lcadcrship thcorctica|ly advocatcd by Buharin was that 'thc party
mcchanism in thc dictatorship oF thc pro|ctariat can sccurc its lcading
position on|y undcr thc condition oFa monolithic unity. . . . Jhis point oF
vicw |cd to thc conc|usion that thc dictatorship oF thc pro|ctariat was
incompatib|c with po|itical dcmocracy . . . 'rcvolutionary purposcFulncss
soonturncdintoanarbitrary,dcspoticpracticcoF'statcrcason' . !bid.._. )
` C. Lcfort, L'nccntien demecratiac. Ics Iimitcs dc Ia deminatien tetaIitairc Fayard.
FarIs, g8) ,6.
' L. TadIc, 'Thc MarxIst CrItIc ofKIgbt In thc FhIIosohy of Ernst Ioch,
FraxisIntcmatienal, / g8e), e-.
5TEVEN LUKE5
JhcrootsolthcMarxistvicwolrightsandhumanrights) canbc
Iound inMarx's carlycssay 'Cn thccwish_ucstion'. JhcrcMarx
madcitplainthathcsawrights-thcrightsolmanolthcAmcrican
Constitution and olthc lrcnch cclarations ol i;8g and i;g-in
oncpcrspcctivconly.'nothingbutthcrightsol amtm/tr ecitil secitg,
i. c. thc rights oIcgoisticman,oImanscparatcdlrom othcr mcnand
lrom thc community' Hcsaw thcm as sccuring thc 'right olsclI
intcrcst' oIa monadic and 'rcstrictcd individual, withdrawn into
himscll and scparatcd Irom thc community' ibid. i G) , and as
basicaIly rcducing to thc protcction oI privatc propcrty, and as
cnshrining thc illusory notion ol a scparatc sphcrc oI political
cmancipation inwhichmcnatar Irccandcqual)asasurrogatcIor
andprccursoro gcncral human cmancipation. In 7ht He( !ami(,
hc summarizcd his vicw cvcn morc cxtrcmcly ' Itwas shown', hc
wrotc, 'thatthcrtcenitien etht rihts eman bythcmedtm statt hasno
othcrmcaningthan thc rtcenitien eslatt by thc statt eantiqaig
had' .
ItmustbcsaidthatMarx'swas anarrowandimpovcrishcdvicw
olthc mcaning oIthc rights olman, cvcn in thcir latc cightccnth
ccntury Iorms. it trcatcd thcm en( as symptomatic ol thc
individualism and contradictions oI bourgcois liIc. Considcr only
somc olthcrights includcd inthc i;8g cclaration which bccamc
thc Prclacc to thc Constitution oI t ;g t ) . Articlcs t and it , Ior
cxamplc, statc.
No-onc may bc harasscd Ior his opns, cvcn his rc|igious opns,
providcdthat thcircprcssiondocs not disturb publicordcrcstabIishcdby
|aw.
and
Jhc Ircc communication oI thoughts and oI opinions is onc oI thc most
prccious rights oIman, cvcry citizcn can thcrcIorc spcak, writc and print
Ircc|y,cxccptthathcmaybcprosccutcdIorthcabuscoIthatibcrtyincascs
dctcrmincdbythcaw.
Jhcsc rights cannot casily bcar Marx's intcrprctation, cvcn il
opinion is sccn as thc privatc propcrty olthc individual. As Lclort
haswrittcn,thcsccondoIthcsctwoarticlcsmakcsitclcarthatitis
thcrightoIman, onc oIhis mostprcciousrights,togobcyondhimscIand
rclatc to othcrs, by spccch, writingand thought. !nothcrwords, it makcs
ccarthatmancoudnotbccgitimatcyconncdtothc|imitsoIhisprivatc
wants,whcnhchas thcrighttopubicspccchand thought. rinyctothcr
words, Ior thcsc last cxprcssions risk rcducing communication to thc
`` CntbcjcwIsb_ucstion t 8) , Cellcctcd herkseMarxandLncls, III. t 6e.
`` MaandEngcIs, TbHeyFami t 8j), Cellcctcd herks,iv. t .
jLSTICE AND RIOHTS t ;g
opcrations oFits agcnts, individuals,dchncdoncbyoncas cxamplcs oFman
assuch,lctussaythatthcarticlcmakcsclcarthatthcrcisacommunication,
acirculationoFthoughtsandopinions,oFwordsandwriting,whichcscapcs
inprinciplc,cxccptincascsspccihcdbythclaw,thcauthorityoFpowcr.Thc
armationoFthcrightsoFmanconccrns thc indcpcndcnccoFthoughtand
opinion i n thc Facc oF powcr, and thc ccavagc bctwccn powcr and
knowlcdgc, notonlyandnotcsscntialythcdivorccbctwccnbourgcoisand
citizcn,bctwccnprivatcpropcrtyandpoitics.
Crconsdcrarticlcs;, 8,andQ.
Nomancanbcaccuscd,arrcstcdordctaincdcxccptincascsdctcrmincdby
law and accordingto thcFormit has prcscribcd.Thoscwhosolicit,cxpcditc,
cxccutc or havc cxccutcd arbitrary ordcrs must bc punishcd, but cvcry
citicn callcd or scizcd by virtuc oFthc law must obcy at oncc. hc rcndcrs
himsclFguiltybyrcsistancc.
and
Thc law can only cstablish punishmcnts that arc strictly and cvidcntly
ncccssaryandno-onccanbc punishcd cxccptbyvirtucoFalawcstablishcd
andpromulgatcdpriortothcoIIcnccandapplicdlcgally.
and
Lvcry man bcing prcsumcd innoccnt until dcclarcd guilty, iFit isj udgcd
indispcnsabc to arrcst him, cvcry act oF Forcc that is not ncccssary to
apprchcndhimmustbcscvcrclypunishcdbylaw.
Jhcsc articlcs, all in thc tcxt Marx discusscs, arc passcd ovcr in
silcncc. Jhcy do not lcnd thcmsclvcs to his intcrprctation, and hc
Iailcd to considcr thcir positivc, worldhistorical signihcancc, thcir
applicabilityto non-cgoistic, non-bourgcois Iorms oIsocial liIc, and
thcirconscqucntrclcvanccto thcstrugglcIorsocialism, bccauschis
mind was so cxclusivcly hxcd upon thc critiquc oI thc cgoism oI
bourgcoissocictyandthcmystiIyingidcologythatpcrvadcdit,Irom
thcpcrspcctivcolaluturchcimagincdascmancipatcdIromboth.
Jhcrc is, oIcoursc, much to bcsaidIorthatcritiquc. !tislulloI
insight and is still pcrtincnt. !nparticular, it is probably truc that
thc vcry conccpt ol'rights` is, in a scnsc, individualistic. propcrty
rightsarc ccntrallyimportant in thccontcmporarylibcral tradition
and lorm a kind oI paradigm Ior both its Lockcan and Kantian
variants. Rights arc typically thc basis lor claims by individuals to
c trcatcd in ccrtain ways. rights olIcr thc intcrcsts oI thcsc
individualsas sumcicntgroundsIorholdinanothcrorothcrs to bc
undcranobIigationtotrcatthcminccrtainways.!tisprobablytruc
thatancxclusivclyrights-bascdmoralitywouldbcanmpovcrishcd
` cfort,L'Inocntiendemecratiac,8.
t 8 5TEVEN LLKE5
onc, unablctoaccommodatc collcctivc goods and thc rolcolvirtuc
inmoral lilc. thcsc arc hard to capturc in thc lorm olindividuatcd
intcrcsts gcncrating obligation.' But, as thc passagc quotcd lrom
Lclortcloqucntlyshows,takingsomcrightsscriouslyispositivclyto
dcmand a ccrtain lorm olsocial lilc in which social rclationships
hourishlrccolarbitrarypoliticalpowcr. Jothinkolthcmmcrclyas
cxprcssingthccgoismolcivilsocictyandthccontradictionsbctwccn
civilsocictyandthcstatcisprccisclytolailtotakcthcmscriously.
Morcovcr,thcundcrlyingthcsisthatwchavcattributcdto Marx,
that it is only thc conicting intcrcsts olclass socicty that rcndcr
rights ncccssary, is hard to bclicvc in, in thc lacc both ol thc
historical rccordandolthcorcticalconsidcrations. Itis, altcrall, not
only conhicting class intcrcsts that gcncratc thc nccd lor thc
protcctions and guarantccs that rights alIord. As Buchanan has
convincingly shown, such protcctions and guarantccs may bc
nccdcdinat lcast thclollowingcircumstanccs.whcrcminoriticsarc
dislavourcd by dcmocratic proccdurcs, whcrc patcrnalist policics
intcrlcrcwith individual libcrtics, whcrc disagrccmcnts cxist about
what constitutcs wcllarc or thc common good, whcrc cocrcion is
rcquircdlorthcprovisionolpublicgoods,andwhcrcguidclincsand
limits must bc sct to thc provision lor luturc gcncrations. Why
should wc bclicvc that any lcasiblc lorm ol social lilc, albcit
abundant and lrcc ol class antagonisms, could bc bcyond
circumstanccs such as thcsc! Nor would thc practicc ol altruism
which, aswchavcsccn,Marxdidnotcnvisagc) rcndcrsuchrights
unncccssary. Evcn undcr altruism, thcrc will bc a nccd to protcct
pcoplclromothcrs` mistakcs aboutwhataltruismrcquircs. Indccd,
thc morcaltruistic a socictyclaimsto bc, thc morc important such
protcctionsandguarantccswillbcincascsuchclaimsarcspurious,
sincconlywhcrcthcycxistcanthcclaimsbctcstcd.
MyargumcnthasbccnthatMarxismhasinhcritcdtoonarrowan
account ol thc signibcancc ol rights and too narrow a vicw ol
circumstanccs that rcndcr thcm ncccssary. Jhc lormcr narrowncss
has madc thcm sccm unimportant, thc lattcr potcntially
dispcnsablc. Butarcthcrcrcsourccs withinthcMarxisttraditionlor
ovcrcoming this doublc narrowncss! Morc spccibcally, can a
Marxistbclicvcinhumanrights!
I havcalrcady said that countlcss Marxists havc inlactbclicvcd
inandloughtlorhumanrights. Sothcqucstionisnotwhcthcrthosc
whosc bclicls and amliations arc Marxist inlac bclicvc n human
rights. It is rathcr whcthcr thcy can cansistcnt( do so. But thc
].Kaz,'CnthcNaturcoIKIghts`,Mind, ggg;o(Ar. t g8).

A. E. uchanan, Mar andjasticc. 7hc Kadical Critiac oLibcralism (Mcthucn.
London, g8) .
jU5TICE AND RIGHT5 8
qucstion thuslormulatcdi s stillnotadcquatc. lorI amccrtainthat
many olthosc who arc callcd, and call thcmsclvcs, Marxists and
who bcliccin human rights hold a consistcntsctolbclicls that do
not contradict thcir bclicl in and actions lor human rights. Jhc
qucstion, thcrclorc, should bc rclormulatcd thus. can thosc whosc
bclicls and aliations arc Marxist bclicvc in human rights and
rcmain consistcnt with ccntral doctrincs csscntial to thc Marxist
canon!
Jo bclicvc' inhumanrights, I shallassumc, is,prcciscly, totakc
thcm scriously. togivc priority to thcintcrcsts thcyprcsupposc and
thc obligations thcy imposc, and to bc prcparcd to act accordingly
whcn thc occasion ariscs. Indccd, onc tcst olsuch a bcliclis bcing
prcparcdsotoact.
Hcrc I shall lollow lcinbcrg in dcb ning 'human rights' as
' gcncrically moral rights ola lundamcntally important knd hcld
cqually by all human bcngs, unconditionally and unaltcrably'. '
Jhcyarcsomctimcsundcrstoodtobc'idcalrights' , orrightsthatarc
not ncccssarily actually rccognizcd, but which ought to bc, that is,
thcyoughttobcpositivcrightsandwouldbcsoinabcttcroridcal
lcgal systcm. Somctimcs, thcy arc undcrstood to bc 'conscicntious
rghts',thatis,thcclaimistorccognizcthcmasvalidbyrclcrcnccto
thcprinciplcsolancnlightcncdconscicncc.Arcthcyabsolutc!
Jo bc absolutc in thc strongcst scnsc, thcy would havc to bc
absolutcly cxccptionlcss in all circumstanccs. givcn that thc
posscssor olthc right has thc appropriatc intcrcsts, thc obligation
thcrightimposcsonappropriatcothcrs toprotcctorpromotcthosc
intcrcsts would bc catcgorical and absolutc, admitting ol no
cxccptions.Butthisisanimpossblystrongrcquircmcnt. lorinthc
hrst placc, thc obligation, and thus thc right, may bc unlulb llablc.
Jhis is thc casc with many olthc rights spccibcd in thc Lnitcd
Nations Lnivcrsal cclaration ol Human Rights, cspccially thc
positivc rights rights to bc trcatcd in ccrtan ways) . Jhcsc-lor
nstancc, thc so-callcd 'social and cconomic rghts`, and ingcncral
rights to bcgivcn thc mcans olliving adcccntlilc, orcvcn alilc at
all-dcpcnd lor thcir implcmcntation on thc availability ol
rcsourccs, and thcrclorc, sincc ought implics can, thcy cannot bc
absolutc in this scnsc. But sccond, and morc lundamcntally, thc
obligation,andthusthcright,canalwaysbclcgitimatclyovcrriddcn,
in ccrtain circumstanccs. Considcr somc promising candidatcs lor
absolutcstatus.Jakc,hrst,thcrghtnottobctorturcd.Supposcyou
havccapturcdsomconcwhoknowswhcrcthcbomb isthatwill blow
upacrowdcdairportwhichthcrcisnotimctoclcar.Jhcputatvcly
j.FcInbcrgSociaIFhiIosoh PrcntIcc-HaII.EngIcwoodCIIs,N], t g;g), 8j.
SJEVEN LLKES
absolutc right not to bc dcgradcd or cxploitcd lalls to a similar
objcction.Whatolthcmorcgcncralrightstolibcrty,ortobctrcatcd
withcqualconccrnand rcspcct! Butwhatthcscmcaninpracticcis
unspccihablcinuncontcstablctcrms,andincachcasc,itisnothard
tothinkupnon-ccccntricsituationsinwhichthcymaybcovcrriddcn
lorthcsakcolsomcgrcatcrgood.
Itisthcrclorcpcrhapsbcttcrtosaythathumanrightsarcstrongly
prima-lacic rights which, in gcncral, arc justihcd in dclcnding
pcoplc's vital intcrcsts and which, in gcncral, ovcrridc all othcr
considcrations bcaringupon somc policy or action, whcthcr thcsc
conccrn goals and purposcs or thc protcction olothcr, lcss ccntral
rights.Jhcythushavca 'trumping' aspcct.tobclicvcinthcmisto
bc committcd to dclcnding thcm, cvcn orrathcrcspccially) whcn
onc's goals orstratcgics arc not to bc sccd, and indccd may bc
disscrvcd, bydoingso.
Jo put this anothcr way which shows thc conncction bctwccn
justicc and rights) , talk ol rights is a way ol asscrting thc
rcquircmcnts ola rclationship oljusticc, lrom thc vicwpoint olthc
pcrsonsbcnchtinglromit. Itinvolvcsadopting'thcvicwpointolthc
othcr s) to whom somcthing including, inttr alia, lrccdom ol
choicc) is owcd or duc, and who would bc wrongcd ildcnicd that
somcthing' . Jalk olhaman rights is to do this, whilc cmphasizing
thclundamcntalandprima-lacicovcrridingstatusolthisvicwpoint
with rcspcct to ccrtain mattcrs, spccihcally thosc ccntral to thc
hourishingolhuman bcings. Proolthatsuch talkis scriousis bcing
prcparcdtoabandongoalsandpolicicsandstratcgics,cxccptinrarc
and cxtrcmc cascs, whcrc to rccognizc such rights conhicts with
thcirimplcmcntation.
Cn a narrowcr and morccxtrcmc vicw, rights might, lollowing
Robcrt Nozick, bc sccn as 'sidc constraints'-moral constraints
upon goal-dircctcd bchaviour. Jhis way olvicwing rights rathcr
than building thc minimization olthcviolation olrights intoonc's
goals)isastrictlydcontologicalposition.thcconstraintsmustnotbc
violatcd cvcn ilsuch violations would lcad to bcttcr conscqucn

ccs
cvcn il thcsc consist in thc minimizing ol rights violations) .
Individuals, as Nozick puts it, 'havc rights, and thcrc arc things no
pcrson or group may do to thcm without violating thcir rights) ' ,
thcirrights 'sctthcconstraintswithinwhichasocial choicci stobc
madc, bycxcluding ccrtain altcrnativcs, hxingothcrs, and soon' .
Jhisvicwolrights, accordingto Nozick, rchccts thc basicKantian
position oltrcating pcrsons as cnds and not mcrcly as mcans, ol
R. DworkIn, 7akinKihtsScrieas{ (DuckwortbLondon,g;;).
. IInnis,ataralLauandataralKihts (CIarcndonPrcss.CxIord, t g8o),eoj.
R. ozick,Anarch,StacandUteia IackwcIICxIord, t g;),pp. Ix, t 66.
jLSTI CE AND RI OHTS
rulingoutccrtainways inwhich pcrsons orthc!artyorthcStatc)
mayuscothcrs.Cnthisvicw,thcirbasisisthatthcy
cxprcss thc inviolability oF othcr pcrsons. But why may onc not vio|atc
pcrsonsForthcgrcatcrsocialgood !ndividually,wccachsomctimcschoosc
toundcrgo somc painor sacriGccForagrcatcrbcnc6tortoavoidagrcatcr
harm. wc go to thc dcntist to avoid worsc suIIcring latcr. wc do somc
unplcasantworkFor its rcsu|ts, somcpcrsonsdictto improvcthcirhcalthor
looks, somc savc moncy to support thcmsclvcs whcnoldcr. !ncach casc,
somccostis borncFor thcsakcoFthcovcrallgood. Why not,atmtlur(), hold
thatsomcpcrsonshavcto bcaromccosts thatbcnc6tothcrpcrsons morc,
ForthcsakcoFthcovcrallsocialgoodButthcrcisnoaortul mlt() withagood
that undcrgocs somc sacriGcc For its own good. Jhcrc arc only individual
pcoplc, with thcir own individual livcs. Lsing onc oFthcsc pcoplc For thc
bcnc6t oFothcrs uscs him and bcncGts thc othcrs. Nothing morc. What
happcnsis thatsomcthingis donctohimForthcsakcoFthcothcrs. JalkoF
anovcrallsocialgoodcovcrsthisup. !ntcntionally)Jouscapcrsoninthis
waydocs not sumcicntly rcspcct and takc account oFthc Fact that hc is a
scparatc pcrson, thathis is thc only liFc thathc has. Hc docs notgct somc
ovcrbalancinggoodFromhissacri6cc. . . . !bid.gz-g. )
Butthctroublci sthat,lorrcasonsstatcdabovc,iti snotclcarthat
any rigts can bc absolutc. !crhaps, thcn, thc constraints can bc
hcld to bc unconstraining undcr ccrtain circumstanccs Nozick
himscllallowslor this possibilitywhcn hcwritcsinaconccssionary
lootnotc that 'thc qucstion ol whcthcr thcsc sidc-constraints arc
absolutc, or whcthcr thcy may bc violatcd o avoid catastrophic
moral horror, and il thc lattcr what thc cnsuing structurc ol
justihcation| might look likc, is onc I hopc largcly to avoid` ibid.
2Q_O n. ) . Jhis 'thrcshold` approach rcquircs somc account olthc
conditions undcr which strongly prima-lacic rights, sccn as
constraints,maybcovcrriddcn,andindccdolhowrightsdilIcrinthis
rcgardandthisinturnwouldsccmtorcquircananalysisthatis,in
Scn`s phrasc, 'conscqucncc-scnsitivc` , comparing thc con
scqucnccs ol obcying thc constraint with thosc ol violaing it.
!rcsumablysuchananalysisolhaman rightswillsctthcthrcsholdlor
such rightscspcciallyhigh.
AccordingIy Scnhasproposcdaconscqucncc-scnsitivc approach
to rights, building thc lulhlmcnt and non-rcalization olrights into
thcgoals olactionwhichis cvaluatcd in tcrms olitsconscqucnccs.
Jhis approach addrcsscs dircctly thc strcngth ol rights claims
against othcr considcrations, cspccially whcrc rights clash c. g.
whcrconcrightcannotbcdclcndcdwithoutanothcrbcingviolatcd) .
Accordingto Scn, somc rights arc much morc 'scrious` than othcrs,
and thcsc rclatc pcrsons to basic capabilitics to which thcy havc a
` A. K. Scn, 'KIghtsandAgcncy`,Fhilosoh andFablicA_airs, ii / i ig8i) ,
5TEVEN LUKE5
right c. g. thc gcncral right not to bc bcatcn up rclatcs to thc
capability to 'movc about without harm` ibid. t 8 | ) Soon this
account too, rights sct limits to othcr social policics and to thc
individual pursuit ol goals including thc attainmcnt ol lcss
importantrights ) . Haman rights, prcsumably, sctmaximallynarrow
limits.
Curqucstion, thcn,rcduccs to thishasMarxismanyintcrcstin
taking such limits scriously, or is to do so not to takc Marxism
scriously!Myargumcntsolarhas tcndcdtosuggcstthclattcr,rst,
bccauscMarxismsccsthcmascxprcssivcolthccgoismolbourgcois
socicty and, sccond, bccausc it sccs thcm as answcring to a prc-
human) condition that must itscllbc transccndcd haman rights it
tcnds to opposc as unwarrantably abstract and dccontcxtualizcd.
AndyctatlcastoncgrcatMarxistthinkcrhasargucdcloqucntlylor
a rights-bascd utopian pcrspcctivc, namcly Ernst Bloch, and thc
qucstionincvitablyariscs.isnotthcluturcidcalollrccdomtowhich
Marxismiscommittcdunapproachablcthroughthcviolationinthc
prcscnt and in thc luturc olthc limits that basic or human rights
imposc!
^ \ C \ ^ L \ ^ b L \ \ b C
.R!3TCTLE wasbornn8BC nMaccdonia,hcjoincdthcAcadcmy
in G;, was tutor to thc youngAlcxandcr thc Crcat lrom , and
loundcd hs own school, thc Lyccum, n
5
Hc dcd at Chalcs n
...
L!CERC wasbornini GBC. HccombncdacarccrinRomanpolitcs
with litcrary and philosophcal pursuts, in ;g hc vistcd Athcns to
study phlosophy, n G hc was Consul. Hc sidcd wth thc losng
lorccs n thc cvil war, was proscribcd by Mark Anthony, andwas
kllcdnBC.
1RIEDRICH VCN 1AVEK wasbornin i8gganddcdin gg.,hctaught
cconomcsatLnivcrsiticsolVicnna, London andChicago, andwas
awardcd thc Nobcl Prizc lor Lconomcs n i g; Hs most lamous
bookwas,pcrhaps,7hc Kaad ta ScJdam i g) .
1AV!D 1UME was born in i;iI and dcd n iGapartlromabrcl
appontmcntastutortothc MarqusolAnnandalcandtwoycarsn
diplomatic scrvcc, hc lvcd as an ndcpcndcnt man ol lcttcrs n
Lngland,Scotlandandlrancc.
bTEVEN UKE3 is ProlcssorolPoltcsatthcLuropcanLnivcrsityin
llorcnc,hcis thcauthorolImi/c Darkhcim, !ndicidaa/ism, andMara/
and Ia/itica/ Can[ict aswcllas manyshortcrcssays.
ARL ARX was bornnJricrn i8i8anddcdinLondonn i88,
hsmostsubstantial,butnotmostwdclyrcadworkwasDas Kaita/.
jOHN bTUART I LL was born in London n i 8oG and dcd i n
Avignonin i 8;, hcwasthcauthorol A Sstcm aLaic, 7hc Irinci/cs
a Ia/itica/ Icanay, and 0n Li/cr(y, in addtion to nnumcrablc
shortcrcssays.
VOBERT `OZICK s Prolcssor olPhilosophyat Harvard Lnvcrsity,
hcsthcauthorolIhi/asahica/ Ix/anatian and 7hc Ixamincd Lj]r, as
wcllasAnarch, Statc and /taia.
LATC was born nAthcns n.8 BC, altcr thc dcath olSocratcs n
gg,hcwithdrcwlrompolticsintothcllcolthcAcadcmy,anddcd
nAthcnsi n8or;.
jOHN WL5 s Prolcssor Lmcritus ol Phlosophy at Harvard
Lnivcrsty, lrom which hc rctrcd n i gg i . Hc s thc author olA
7hca ajasticc andmanycssaysncthcs.
\ b b b ^ \
This ls is a vcry small sclccion From thc cnormous litcraturc onjusticc,
narrowlyconhncdtobooksandarticlcsthatFol|owupthcpassagcssclcctcd
abovc. Collcctions and sourccswithcxtcnsivcbibliographics arc indicatcd
withanastcrisk.
H!STCR!CAL TEXTS AND CCMMENTARIES
I/ata, Aristat/c, Ciccra
ANNs, jiLi, An 1ntrcdacticn tc Ilatc's Kcablic Clarcndon Prcss. xFord,
t g8.) .
CxOmsic, I. M. , 'ArcamoFSocratcs',Ihilcsch t g8g) ,.8.
HLL, I. W. , Ilatc AllcnandLnwinLondon, i g8 t ) .
IxwiN, T . H. , Aristotlc on thc Human Cood,' tthics, t ot l. t ggt )
8. .
jcuNsON, Cix:is, Socratcs on bcdicncc and justicc , hcstcm Iclitical
Qaar
tcr{, t ggo) ,;tgo.
LcvbcN, W. vON, Aristctlc cn tqaali{, and jasticc Macmillan.London, ig8) .
Lvccs, KimON, Ilatc, jasticc and Icucr Macmillan.London, tg8;) .
MuLcN, Ricn~eo, Aristotlc's Iolitics AllcnandLnwin.London, t g8 t ) .
PL:O, Thc Laus, tr.JhomasPang|cBasicBooks.NcwYork, i g8o) .
Pcrrcx, KxL, Thc Ocn Sccic{, and its tncmics, vo. i Koutlcdgc. London,
t g

Wccb, NcL, Ciccrc's Sccial and Iclitical Thcaht Lnivcrsity oF CaliFornia
Prcss.Bcrkclcy,CaliF. , t g88) .
Ycx, BcxNxb, 'Natural Kight andAristotlc's LndcrstandingoFjusticc',
Iclitical Thcc tggo),.1 G.;.
Hamc, Kant, /ti/itarianjasticc, Mi//
Bcxccx, Ixcb, Haincss, jasticc and Frccdcm LnivcrsityoFCaliForniaPrcss.
Bcrkclcy,CaliF.,t g8) .
OcbwiN, WiLLim, Iclitical jasticc, cd. K.CodcllCartcr xFordLnivcrsity
Prcss.xFord, t g;) .
Oxv, jcuN, Mill cn Libcrg. A qcncc Kout|cdgcandKcganPaul.London,
t g8) .
HxxisON, jcNiuN, Hamc's Thcc cjasticc xFord Lnivcrsity Prcss.
xFord, t g8) .
HisiN, D. CLv:ON, 'Jhc Scopc oFjusticc', Ihilcsch and Iablic A_airr, g
t g;g) ,..
KN:, ImmNucL, Mctahsical tlcmcnts cjasticc Library oFLibcral Arts,
MacmillanNcwYork, tgG) .
i 88 FLRTHER READING
KaNi, ImmaNicL, Iolitical hritin:, cd.HansKciss CambridgcLnivcrsity
Prcss.Cambridgc, i gg.) .
NcxicN, Davib laic, Hamc Princcton Lnivcrsity Prcss. Princcton, N],
r g8.) .
`NciLL, Nc, 'Kantian Poitics . Jhc PubicLscoIKcason', Iolitical
7bcojy t l i g8G),_
._
r .
Constmctions oKa:on Cam bridgcLnivcrsityPrcss. Cam bridgc, : g8g) .
PuiLr, MaxY, Goduin': Ioliticalja:ticc uckworth.London, : g8g).
Pcccc, J.W. , 'ant'sThcoryoI]usticc',Kant Stadicn, ;g : g88), o;.
KvaN, ALaN,j. S. Mill KoutcdgcandKcganPau.London,i g;) .
Sxcxirsxi, ]cuN, jobn Staart Mill Koutlcdgc and Kcgan Pau. London,
i ggo) .
ScxcLL, Tcm, 'Sc Socicty, and Kantian !mpcrsonality', Moni:t, ;
r ggi ) , o..
WucLaN, F. O. , Ordcr and Artgc in Hamc': Iolitical Ibilo:ob Princcton
LnivcrsityPrcss. Princcton,N], t g8;) .
WiLLiams, Hcwaxb, Kant's Iolitical Ibiloso Backwcl.xIord, i g8) .
CONTEMPORAR DI5CL55ION5
'Secial jastict`
AcxcxmaN, Bxucc, Social jaticc and tbc Libcral Statc ac LnivcrsityPrcss.
NcwHavcn,Conn., t g8o) .
L|cab,]cuN, Onjasticc ClarcndonPrcss.xIord, t g8g) .
MacrucxscN, C. B. , 7bc Ki:c and Fall otconomic jasticc, xIordLnivcrsity
Prcss.xIord, i g8;) .
MarcL, Davib, Social jaticc Kcconsidcrcd Lnivcrsity oI !linois Prcss.
Champaign,i g8g) .
MiLLcx, Davib, Social jasticc CarcndonPrcss. xIord, r g;8) .
NaccL, Tncmas, tqaali(y and Iartiali(y xIord Lnivcrsity Prcss. xIord,
i gg ) .
ScN, Amaxiva, ']usticc.McansvsFrccdom',Ibilosob and Iablic A_airs, r g
r ggo) , I ir . r .
WaLzcx, MicuacL, Sbcrcs q jasticc MartinKobcrtson.xIord, i g8) .
Kaals aad his Critics
AxNcscN, Kicuaxb, ct al., 'Symposium on thc LatcrWork oI]ohn Kaws.
!ntroduction',ttbics, ggl t g8g) ,Gg; r o.
Baicx, ANNciic, 'A 7bco ojaticc', ttbics, ggl i g8g) , ;;r o.
Baxscx, BcN]amiN, ']ustiIying]usticc. Probcms oI Psychoogy, Poitics
andMcasurcmcnt',inanics,Kcadin Kauls, .g. r G.
Baxxv, BxiaN, 7bc Libcral 7bco q ja:ticc CarcndonPrcss.xIord, t g;) .
Btccm, ALLaN, ']usticc ]ohn Kawls vs Jhc Jradition oI Poitical
Phiosophy',Amcrican Iolitical Scicncc Kcoicu, Ggi g;_
) , G8G..
FLRTHER READING t Bg
ConcN, O. A. , 'n thcCurrcncyoILgaitarian]usticc',tthics, ggl t g8g) ,
goG.
nNicts,NcavnNcd. ) , Kcadin Kaul:: Critical Stadic: on Kaul:': 'A Thcog J
jasticc' Backwc.xIord, t g;G) .
woaN, KoNntu, 'Thc rigina Position' in anics, Kcadin Kauls,
t G
OaLsicN, Wtttt~m,jasticc and thc Haman Good LnivcrsityoIChicagoPrcss.
Chicago, t g8o) .
Hna, H. L. A. ,' BctwccnLtiityandKights',inAanKyan,cd. , Thc Idca o
Frccdom xIordLnivcrsityPrcss. xIord, t g;g).
Kuxainas, CnaNoxaN, andPciii, Futttv, Kauls's A Thcog ojasticc and
it: Critics PoityPrcss.xIord, t ggo) .
Mittea, Kinnau, 'Kaws and Marxism', in anics, Kadin Kauls,
.oGo.
Naoct,Tcvns, 'Kawson]usticc',inanics,Kadin Kaul:, t G.
Poooe, Tncmas, Kalizin Kaul: Cornc Lnivcrsity Prcss. lthaca, NY
t g8g) .
Kwts, ]cnN, A Thcog cja:ticc Harvard Lnvcrsity Prcss. Cambridgc,
Mass, t g; t ) .
'usticc as Fairncss. Poitica not Mctaphysica', Ihilo:oh and Iablic
A_air:, t t g8), .. i .
z ]obcvn, ' Facing ivcrsity. Thc Casc oI Lpistcmic Abstincncc' ,
Ihilo:oh and Iablic A_air:, t gt t ggo) , G.
Kcx+v, Ktcnaxo, 'Thc Priority oI cmocracy to Phiosophy', in Mcrri
Pctcrson and Kobcrt aughan cds. ) , Thc Iirinia Statatc cr Kcliioa:
Frccdom CambridgcLnivcrsityPrcss, . Cambridgc, t g88) .
ScaNLcN, T. M. , 'Kaws' Thcory oI]usticc', in anics, Kadin Kaul:,
t Gg.o.
ScN, A. K., 'KawsvcrsusBcntham.AnAxiomatcLxaminationoIthcPurc
istributionProbcm',inanics,Kadin Kaul:, .8..
Hqtk and Aeick
Baxxv, Nckm~N, Hack': Social and tconomic Ihilo:oh Macmian.London
t g;g) .
Oxav, ]cnN, 'Hayck on Libcrty, Kights, and ]usticc', tthics, gzl t t g8.) ,
;8.
Hack on Libcrg Koutcdgc.London, t g8) .
Kuxainas, CnaNoxaN, Hack and modcm Libcralism Carcndon Prcss.
xIord, tggo) .
LvcNs, D~vto, 'Thc Ncw lndian Caims and rigina Kights to Land', in
anics,Kadin Kaul:, ;g.
'Ncttt,No,'Nozic'sLntitcmcnts',inPau,Kadin Noick, o.z
PauL,]crrxcv, Kcadin No;ick Backwc.xIord, t g8.) .
I gD FLRTHER READING
ScNLcN, Tucms, Noick on Kights, Libcrty and Propcrty', in Pau,
Kadin Nozick, r o;-zg.
S:ciNcx, HiLLcL, usticc and Lntitcmcnt', in anics, Kadin Kauls,
8 ..
VN bcx VccN, K. , and VN Pxi]s, P. , 'Lntitcmcnt Jhcorics oI justicc.
From Noick toKocmcrand bcyond',tconomics and Ibilosob, i i g8),
Gg8 .
VxiN, HL, 'istributivcjusticc, WcIarc Lconomics, and thcJhcoryoI
Fairncss',Ibilosob and Iablic A_airs, i g;) ,.z;.
WcL, jcN :uN, Kobcrt Nozick PoityPrcss.xIord, i ggt ) .
Marxian jastict
BucuNN, ALLcN L. , Marx and jasticc. Tbc Kadical Critiqac o1ndioidaalism
Mcthucn.London, i g8.) .
CmrscLL, Tcm, Tbc !c and Kibts Koutcdgc.London, tg8) .
CcucN, O. A. , ' Frccdom, justicc, and Capitalism' , Ncu !qt Kcoicu, t .G
t g8t ) , t G.
CcucN, MxsuLL, NccL, Tucms, and ScNLcN, Tucms cds. ) , Marx,
jasticc and Histojy PrincctonLnivcrsityPrcss.Princcton,Nj, i g8o) .
Ls:cx, jcN, Makin Scnsc o Marx Cambridgc Lnivcrsity Prcss.
Cambridgc, t g8) .
Ocxs, NcxmN, 'n Marxism andjusticc',Ncu !qt Kcoicu, o i g88) ,
;8g.
HcLLcx, AcNcs, Byondjasticc BasilBackwcl.xIord, t g8;) .
Luxcs, S:cvcN, Marxism and Morali{y xIord Lnivcrsity Prcss. xIord,
t g) .
NicLscN, KI , 'Argung aboutjusticc. Marxist !mmraism and Marxist
Moraism',Ibilosob and Iablic A_airs i ; ig88),.i.-.
NcxmN, Kicuxb, Tbc Moral Ibilosobcrs xIord Lnivcrsity Prcss.
xIord, t g8) .
KvN, ALN, 'justicc, Lxpoitation, and thc Lnd oIMoraity', inj . O.
Lvans cd. ) , Moral Ibilosob and Contcmoraq Iroblcms Cambridgc
Lnivcrsity Prcss.Cambridgc, t g8;) .
Cemmanitarianism and jasticc
BucuNN, ALLcN L. , 'Asscssing thc Communitarian Critiquc oILicra
lismttbics, ggl i g8g), 8.8..
CxNc\, SimcN, Sandc'sCritiqucoIthcPrimacyI ]usticc',Britisbjoamal
oIolitical Scicncc, .i l [ i ggt ) , i i zi .
KvmLicx, W. F. , !ibcralism, Commani{y, and Caltarc Carcndon Prcss.
xIord, i g8g) .
McIN:vxc, ALsbix, hosc jasticc hicb Kationali{y uckworth.
London, t g8g) .
SNbcL, MicucL, !ibcralism and tbc !imits ojasticc CambridgcLnivcrsity
Prcss.Cambridgc, t g8.) .
FLRJHER READING
Suaxr, ANbxcw K. , 'Libcrty,Community,and]usticc',Iolitical 7bco, t;/z
t g8g) ,8.
Swiri, Abam, and MiLuaLL, S:crucN, Libcrals and Commanitarians B|ack
wc||.xFord, t ggz) .
Mtthede/eica/ Issats
Axxcw, KcNNc:n, Social Cboicc and jasticc Blackwc||.xord, i g8|) .
Baxxv, Bxia, usticc as Kcciprocity', i n Lugcnc Kamcnka and Alivc
LrhsoonTaycds. ) _ Uticc LdwardArno|d.London t g;g) .
7bcrorics ojasticc, vol.iHarvcstcrPrcss. Brighton, tg8g) .
CamrscLL, Tcm, jasticc Macmi|lan.London, i g88) .
CnavmaN, ]cnN W. , and Pcccx, KcLab cds. ) , jasticc: Nomos I1
AthcrtonPrcss.NcwYork, t gG*)
OIssaxb, ALLaN, 'Constructing]usticc', Ibilosob and Iablic A_airs, .o/z
r ggt ) , t t
Occbi, Kcscx: L. , 7bc Iolitics o Kational Man Wi|cy. Chichcstcr,
Lngland, i g;G)
LabcN, AN:ncNv, 'Camcs, Fairncss, and Kawls's 7bco o jasticc` ,
Ibilosob and Iablic A_airs, .o ggt ) _ 8.z..
Cxi, SusaN, ' Kcason and Fcc|ing inThinking about]usticc' ttbics, gg/.
t g8g), ..
|g
-jasticc, Ccndcr and tbc Fami{y, BasicBooks NcwYork, t ggo)
KrnacL, D. D. , jasticc and Libcr Ath|oncPrcss. London, i g8o*) .
KwLs, ]cuN, ' Kantian Constructivism i n Mora| Thcory', joamal o
Ibilosob, ;; t g8o), t ;..
abIIItIcs ;j, 8i , 8e, 8g
acquIsItIon g6,g;,g8, ioe
Lockc'sthcory i i ei 6
Acton,H. . i ee n.
advantagcs ;6, ;;, ;8, 8 i , 8g, ig
accordIngtodcscrtormcrit
mutuI ;g
sumo ;,;j
AcschyIus eie
AIchIan,Armcn t og n.
AIgcr,HoratIo i g i
aIocatIonorcsourccs 8j
aItruism i j, i g, i 8o
ambItIon i o,e
AmcrIcanConstItutIon i ;8
anarchIsm i on, i oj n.
AntoInc,F. i een.
approbatIon 6, i g6
ArchIIochus e
arIstocracy g,8, i, g6, gi n.
ArIstotIc g,, i , i j
LadcmianLthics g
Manamoralia g
icomachcanLthics 8g,gj
ArrIan (IIavIusArrIanus) i e ; n.
AshIcy, W. ]. i i gn.
AscnInstitatc_aartcrv i g;n.
AugustInc,St i
authorIty e, i g, i , i j, i 6
aI

wIn,R. W. i een.
arkcr,E. g n.
arry,rIanM. ;;n. , ijjn.
ay,ChrIstIan gi n.
ccthovcn,LudwIgvan i gg
cII,anIcI i go n. ij8 n.
bcncvocncc i j,6,;,8
cntham,]crcmy i o, ;o, i 6g
Ioch, Ernst i 8
randt, R. . i g;n.
uchanan,A. E. i 8o
ukharIn,N. I. i ;;
utIcr, SamucI i gg n.
CaIvIIsm i gon. , i g i
CanadianoarnaloFhilosoh i 68 n.
^ 2
Cannac,attIcof j
Cannan,EdvIn i ji n.
capItaIIsm i j, i g i , i , i 6g-;o, i ;g6
Carvcr,TcrrcIlN. i een. , i 6j n.
Chapman, ]ohnW. i gi n.
choIcc ;6n. , i eg
ndIvduaI ;
prIncipIcof ;j
ratIonaI ;j
socIaI ;
subsidIary g8 n.
Chomsky,Noam i ojn.
ChrIstIandcnomInatIons i e ie
CIccro i
Dco[ciis g-to,i -j
cItIcnshIp ;,8,g
Cohcn,G.A. i 66, i 6;, i ;o, ;g, i ;
CoIIIngwood, R. G. i g8n.
ommunism j6, i , i6o, i 6i , i 6;, i ;o
frcc i on.
hIghcrphasc i 6e i ;e, t ;
Iowcrphasc i ; i , i ;g
communItarIanIsm i 6
compcnsation i g-j i
compctItIon 6e, e;, i g i , i ;g
contracts e, g, 6j, i oe
doctrInc ;,;j, gg
ruIcsrcgulatIng ;;
socIaI 6,;
convcntIons 8
Cornord,R. M. n. , i8 n.
courtsoIaw ej,j6, 6j
Crassus, Marcus e
crImInaIs 6
CrummcncrI, Ruth i g6 n.
Cyrus ;
dcscrt jj,gg, ioo, i g8, i o, i e
advantagcsaccordIngto
dIstrIbutIonaccordingto i
ImbaIanccbctvccnoutcomcand ;
qucstIonofvhatconstItutcs j, i i g
dIctatorshIpothc proIctariat i ; ;
dIIcrcnccprIncIpIc 8 i , 8e , 8g, 86, 88
RawIs's io; nn.
dIsapprobatIon je, j;
dIsobcdIcncc jg, 68
dIstrIbutIon g6, i 6o, i 6g, t ;e
i g INDEX
dIstrIbutIon[cont. ) .
IaIr i jg, i 6e, i 6
Incomc 8i , ge, gg, i e i , i , just8j
tbcoryoI i;o
wcaItb 8i , 86,go,just 8j, i e i
dIstrIbutIvcjustIcc g , i e, i g-i , i 6,6g,
;g-i i 6
sccaIsosocIaIjustIcc
DonatI,cncvuto i ee n.
dutIcs jj,j8,; i , , i, i 8
assIgnmcntoI ;6
bascdonpcrsonaIacquaIntanccand
IamIIarIty i g
changcoI,InchangcoI
cIrcumstanccs g
dIstastcIuI i jo
cnIorccd i;
Iundamcnta ;6, ;g
IcgaIIycnIorccabIc i g
moraI ,jg, i eo, i j
tothoscwbobavcwrongcdus j
sccaIseobIIgatIons
Duvcrgcr, M. i n.
DworkIn,K. i 8:n.
carnIngs,sccIncomc,rcmuncratIon,
rcwards
ccIcncy 8o,8-j,8;, i :;, i o
compctItIvc gg
conccptoI ;g
prIncIpIcoI 8g,ge
EIstcr, ]on i 6;n. , i ;o, i ;g, i ;
cmbczzIcmcnt i 66, i ;j
cmIgratIon ii e
EngcIs,F. i 6jn. , i 6g, i ;6n. , i ;8n.
cntItIcmcnts g-,g6-ii 6
cnvy i ogn.
cquaIIty gj-8,jj,6g,gg, i 6, i 6i
cItIzcnsbIp ;,8,g
cxpcctatIons 86
opportunIty 8o,8i , 8,86,gg, i eg
poIItIcaI 8i
prIncIpIcoI gi , g:
proportIonatc g
rIgbts ; i , i i
ctbIcs 6, 8, ;j
MarxIan i j, i 6;
utIIItarIan ;:
cvII 6,e6,e;, g i , g;, gg,8
dcscrtand j
cvIIby 6g
cvII Ior io, 68
ImmunItyIrom 6g
ImpunItygIvcntojustIccas j;
Icsscr/grcatcr g6
punIshmcnttoprcvcnt 6
cxchangc g;, i og-j, i o;, i i o, i 6i , i 6g
voIuntary g8, gj, g6
cxpcctatIons , ;g,8 , 8j,g -e
customary 88
cquaIItyoI 86
IncquaIItyIn 8e
IcgItImatc go, i j i
Iong-tcrm 8;
cxpcdIcncy j t -]assim, j6,j8,6o, i o
andIncxpcdIcncy 6g
socIaI 6;, ; i
cxpIoItatIon i , i 66-8, i ;g, i ;6
IaIth e,j, jg
IauIts ge
Icar ;8,e
FcInbcrg, . i 8i
Fcrguson,Adam i : ; n.
dcIIty j,6
FInnIs,]. i8: n.
Fogarty, M. i ge n.
IorcIgncrs i8
IorIcIturc jg,j
Francc i
Frankcna, W A. i g; n.
Iraud l , igo
IrcccntcrprIsc igi
ccdom i g, 6;, 68, 8i , 8, i ;
IormaI i ;j
IdcaIoI i ;;
IndIviduaI/pcrsonaI ii 8, i e, i gg,
i j, i j;, i j8
IossoI ;
socIaIjustIccand i g-6
Frcncb DccIaratIons (i;8gand
i ;gg) i ;8
FrIcdman, DavId ii j n.
FrIcdmann,W. i j n.
gaIns gj, g;, g8,;g, 8g, g;
Gcck,L. H. A. i g6 n.
cmcinschatIichrcIatIons i ;g
gcomctrIcaIproportIon g6-8
Gcorgc, Hcnry iig
GcyI,Pctcr i jjn.
GIbbon,Edward ii 8n. , i :g
GIIbcrtandSuIIIvan : n.
God i ge, i gg
good 6-ioassim, :;,g;,gg, jg

,6e
]assim
INDE i g
5
baIanccoI ;
common g, io, ig n. , i8o
gcncraI jo
goodIor 68
grcatcst ;
moraI g
nogrcatcr e6
scIIintcrcstas eo
social ; i
goodmcn/pcoplc i , ,;, i ee,i 6
i ;
Goodhart,A. . ijn.
govcrnmcnt i g, i j, i 8, i jo
aristocratic ,8
authoritarianordictatoriaI iee
Gravcs,K.H. ij n.
GrcatSocicty i e, i , i 8 n. , i i , i ,
i6, i 8g, i je
GrcckpoIiticaIthcory e
Grocthuyscn,. l on.
Gsovksi, V. i n.
Gucrin,Danicl i ojn.
Gygcs eo
HannibaI j
happincss i e, i 8, ej

, ;, ji , gg
cquaIrightsto ;o
a tcrIaIgoodsand i og
Hardin,G. i e8 n.
Hayck,F.A.von i , i ,86 n. , ii e,
ii ;j8
Hcbrcws j6;
HclsinkiAccords l ;6
historicaIprincipIcs g8-ioo
Hobhousc,L. T. i e e n.
Hncr, j. i on.
HohIcId,W. N. ii
hoIdings gj,g;, i oo, i o;, iii
acquisition oIg8, i oe, originaI g6
transIcroI g6, g8, ioe
Holmstrom,N. i;
Homcr e, e
Honor,A. M. eon. , i 8n.
humanity 6,8, 6;
Humc,David l ,n. , j, i , i j, i 6,
;;-8
A 7rcaticonHamanatarc iU l i nn.
AnLnaiConccminthcFrinciIcso
MoraIs 6jo, ii;, ij n.
Husami,Z. l. i66, i 6;, i 68
impartiality j, jj,6g,;on.
incomc 88, iij, ie8, i-, ij
adcquatc i;i
appropriatc ij;
assurcd minimum ij
distributionoI 8 i , ge, g, ,just 8j
cxpcctcd ije
Iorcigncrs`samcrightto i ;
incqualityoI;;, 8e
Iargcrthanavcragc io
poIiticaIdctcrminationoI ie
rcIativc,dctcrmining ieg
socicty`sobligationtorovidc 6e
sccaIsotaxation
individuaIism o6, i;8
incquaIitics ;6,8e,8,86,ge, i 6e
cconomic i 6
Iorbiddcn i o
incomc ;; 8e
institutionaI 8i
irrcmcdiabIc i6
IiIcprospccts ;g
matcrialpositions io, io
wcaIth ;;, 8e
i
ury e,,g,

o,68
injusticc 6assim, i o, i ,8e
AristotIcand ,; g
Ciccroand e,
Hayckand ie6, ieg, I , ij, i6,
i j i , i je
Marxand i 6, i 6;,i ;
MiIIand
je, j, j;, j8, 6
PIatoand igeassim, ej, e6,eg,
o, i
rccticationoI g;, g8, io;
intcrcsts:
common 8, 6i
cntrcnchcd ij
idcntityoI ;
public jj, i jn.
spccial i jj
l_ scorcs t ot
]cwishIaw 6j
]oncs, HarryW. i jn.
]ourdain,M. i ;o, i ;
joamaloFhilosoh iij n.
]ouvcncI,crtranddc tee n., i gn.
judgcs ;, 8, g, jj
]uIiusCacsar i o
usticc i i , i 6;
accountsoI,sccAristotIc,Ciccro,
HayckHumc,Lukcs,MiIINoick,
PIato,KawIs
usticc[cont. ) :
acquisitionprincipIc g6,g;
corrcctivc g;
doubts about i -i 6
cnd-rcsuIt/cnd-statcprincipIcs g8-
i oo, i oi , i og, i o, i i i -t :
ctymoIogy j6
houschoId gg
IcgaI gg
poIiticaI g8,gg
purcproccduraI 8g,go
rccticatory g,g6-;
timcsIiccprincipIc g8,gg, i oo
transIcrprincipIc g6,g;
sttalsodistributivcusticc,inusticc,
sociaIusticc
INDEX
Iibcrty go,g, ii
oIconscicncc 8, io:
dcmandsoI 8;
dctrimcntoI 86
cachpcrsoncntitIcdtomaximum ig
cquaI 8o,8i , 8;, gg
cxpcctationsconsistcntwitbdcmands
oI 8j
individuaI i:;
naturaI jg
rigbtsto ;6,;;, i 8:
vioIationoI ;
Lockc,]obn g, g8, ii o, i go, i g i n., g
tbcoryoIacquisition ii:i 6
Iosscs g;, g8,;g, ;, i j i
Iovc t o6-;
Kant,lmmanucI :, 6i , ;j, ii ;, i gj n. ,
Lucc,K.. ;6n.
Lugo, ]. dc i gon.
Lukcs,Stcvcn ij
i ;g, i 8:
KauImann,WaItcr ijjn.
KcIscn,Hans i jn.
Kcyncs, j. M. ijjn.
Korsch,KarI in.
Krimmcrman,Lconard i on.
KristoI,lrving igo n.
Kng,EmiI ie:n.
Iabour gg, iii, i g8, i 6j, i 6;, i ;j
aIIocationoI 8j
antithcscsbctwccn mcntaIand
pbysicaI i 6:, i ;:
divisionoI 8j, i 6, i 6:
cmancipationoI i jg
cxpIoitationoI,bycapitaI i 66
Iorccd o8, t og
mixcd ii :, ii g
procccdsoI i6i, i6,
undiminishcd i jg, i 6o, i 6e
saIcandpurchascoI i 68g
uncquaI i 6:, i ; i
LapIaccanprinciplc ; 6 n.
Laslctt,P. ;gn.
LassaIIc,. i jg, i 6o, i 6
lawsoInaturc ;
Lcacock, Stcphcn ieen.
LcIort,CIaudc i;;, i;8, i;gn., i8o
IcgaIity 8
Icgitimatcsharcs iog
LcibhoI,Gcrhard i i n.
Lcnin,V. l . i;g, i;;
LconardodaVinci igg
ltxtalionis 6j
IibcraIism i : i , i :, i ;;
MarxismandMoralig( ']usticcand
Kigbts) i 68
Mc6illLaujoamal i eon.
MacKay, ]ohnHcnry i on.
magistratcs g,jj, j;
Mannbcim,KarI in.
marginaIproductivity i oi , io:
markcts 8j, i:o, ie;-6assim, ij
assim, i j8
compctitivc 8, i g:
Iuturc i i j
Marx,KarI i ji 6, i n. , i 68
Caital i 66n. , i 6;,i 68n., i 6g, i;o,
i ;j
CommcntsonjamcsMiII i;6n.
Critiqatotht 6othaFrorammt ij,
i jgg, i 6, ;o, i ; i
6ndrisst i66-;
'Cn thcjcwish_ucstion` i ;8
7ht 6trmanIdtolog i;j
7ht Ho( Fami( i ;8
mcrits g6, i eg n., i :j, i :8, i je
advantagcsaccordingto
goodsinproportionto g
moraI i , i oo, i oi , i o
rcmuncrationaccordingto igo, igj,
i gg, i ji
Mcssncr,]obanncs iei n.
MiII,]ohn Stuart i , g, j, t o, i g, i j
OnLibtrg ij6
Utilitarianism ii i e, ii 8-i g,('Cnthc
Conncctionbctwccn justiccand
\tiIity') ji ;:
MIllcr,KIcbard i6g;o
MInoguc,Kcnncth io8n.
MIscs,L. von i egn.
modcrntcchnoIogy i8
MolIna, L. icn.
monarchy e
Moorc, S. i 6j n. , i;e
moralIty 6t , 6e, 6;, t e t
cxplaIncd
happIncsstbcuItImatccndoI ;c n.
justIccdIstInguIsbcdIrom ii , j8,6o
mIsguIdcd 8
oblIgatIonsoI jg
rIghts-bascd i;g
StoIcvIcwoI io
sccalsodutIcsmcrIts oblIgatIons,
rIghts,rulcs
morals i ec, ig, i j6, i ;e
constraInts iii , i 8e
cmotIon/ conscIcncc iee
IcclIngs i 6, i j;
guIlt 6j
prInIpIcs ;o,; i , i ;, i j;
Morgcnbcsscr, S. t o8n.
Mubammadanlaw 6j
NcIlson,K. i 68 n.
Ncwman,l. W. ii gn.
NIcolausMartIn i 6;n.
NIddItch,P. H 6n
NIsbctt,H. . ii; n.
NozIck,Kobcrt ,g, i
Anarch,StatcandUtoia t , i8e-,
( DIstrIbutIvcjustIcc gj-ti 6
oblIgatIons j;, 6, 68,go,g;, i g,
i ;g
absoIutc/bIndIng j,6;
ImpartIalItyas jj,6g
Incomc 6e, i je
moral j8,jg, i ;
morcparamount ;i
pcrIcctandImpcrIcct jg
thIrdparty ;6n.
unIuIllabIc i8i
voIuntary i8
CkIn,Susan i n.
CpcnSocIcty i 6, i ;, i 8, i g
opportunIty 8o,8i , 8,86,g, ie-
Cwcn, Kobcrt 6
owncrshIp e-,i , ii
common i 6i
INDEX t g;
oItbcmcansoIproductIon i 6i , t ;j
sclI iii
paIn z;, 6i
PantalconI,Maco ijn.
Parcto,VIIIrcdo ;8-g,g, t oj-6 n.
PaschukanIs,. i n. , i;;
PasuIcr,C. dc i ee n.
passIons e,6,8
Pattcn,S. C. i 68n.
pattcrns i o;, iii , iie
howIIbcrtyupscts i oe-6
Pcrry, Lcws i on.
FhilosohicalKicu ;n.
PIcpcr,joscI ijjn.
PIndar e
PIamcnat, j. P. iig n.
PIato i , , , 8,
i j, i , , i 6
Kablic j-;, i8-
plcasurc z;,e,j;, ;e, i
casIIyattaInablc t cg
IromgaIn j
IrratIonal
popuIar asscmblIcs ej
Pound,Koscoc ijn.
powcr e,ej,e8,
o,, ig
conccntratIonsoI 86
govcrnmcnt i 8
Iabour i 6j, i6;, i 68, i 6g, i;j
IackoI ig, eo
IustIor i o
prcccdcnts g
prIccs 8,go, ie8, i8
compctItIvc i o
currcnt i
natural i e
rclatIvc ieg, t
productIon.
mcansoI t i o, i i j, t e t , ijg, i6o
owncrshIpoI i 6i , i ;j
modcoI i6, i6, i 6j, i66
promIscs ,j,8
propcrty g, j,8, ii, ii n.
accumuIatIonoIe
coIIcctIvc ii6
common i , i jg
co-opcratIvc i6
cquaIrIghtto ij
laws/rulcs rcguIatIng ;, ;;
owncrsbIpandprIvIlcgc e-
pcrmancnt ii j
prIvatc i , i o, ii j, ii 6, i ;g
IndIvIduaI i66protcctIonoI t;8
protcctIonoI 6;
t g8
propcrty[cent. ) .
thcoryoI iio
:ccaI:erghtspropcrty
reriacr:ena i;
Proudhon,P. ]. i68
PunIcWars j
punIshmcnt j,g,e,ej,jj,j;, gg
dcsIrctoappIy 6o,6e
IdcasoIdcscrvIngandnot
dcscvIng j8
IntcndcdIorthcgoodoIthc
suIcrcr 6
IcgitImacyoIInIctIng 6j
IImItto
strIctIyandcvIdcntIyncccssary t ;g
Kadbruch, Gustav i, ij
KaIa,H. ;6n.
ratIonaIprIncIpIc g
KawIs,]ohn I
j, i 6 I
;, ;-
,gjn. ,
t o6 ;nn. , iij n.
A 7hceeja:ticc i n. , e n.,-, ie-
i , i , ii 8n. , i ;n.
ContitutionaIityadth
ConccptoI justIcc ii n., ij8
Kaz, ]. i 8on.
rcason 8, ij, e;, e8
Kcht::taatrucoIIaw) i ;, i, ij
rcctIbcatIon g,6 ;, g;, g8, i o;, iii
rcdIstrIbutIon ;8, iei
andpropcrtyrIghts t o6 ie
KcguIus j
KcIss,H. . e n., ii; n.
rcmuncratIon ie, ie6, ie8 j, ig,
i i-e, i jo-i
supcrIor 66
:ccaI:eIncomc
rcputatIon ee, , e6
rcscntmcnt ; i , i j i-
rctaIatIon 6i , 6
rctrIbutIon g,,6j,68
rcwards e6, jj, i e n. , i ej, r ;j
aIIcgcdncccssItyoIbcIIcIInjustIcc
oI i o-e
corrcspondIngto moraI mcrItor
dcscrt i c
dctcrmInatIonoI i8, ij
KhcInstcIn,Max ion.
rIchcs ;,jj
rIghts i6,jj,6e,;,;;,8;
assIgnmcntoI;6
basIc i ;
bearcei: i 6i , i ; i
cIvII t ;6
I NDE
conccptIonoI;j, gi , g,most
dIrcct ;
cqua i j,;cn. , ;j, ;6,Marx
and i 6o, i 6i -e, i ; i
cquaIItyoI ii
IundamcntaI ;6,;g
humant ;6, t ;8,i 8o-
ImportanccoI i e
IndIvIduaI e ,
IncquaIIty i 6e
justIccand i6-8
justIbcatIonoI ie
cgaI j, j,jg
markct i 6g
moraI j,jg, i 8i
naturaI i , ii j
pcrsonaI jg
propcrty i i , i e, i c6 i e, i i , i i 6, i68
rcspcctIor e
ruIcsthatconIcr ii , ie
scIIIntcrcst i;8
socIaIandcconomIc i8i
succcssIon ;
supposcd ic)
uncquaI i ; i
vIoIatIonoI o;, i8e
robbcry i 66, i 6;, i68, i6g
Kobcrtson,H. M. icn.
KockcIcIcr,]ohnD. i j
KomanCathoIIcChurch iei
Komanaw e,
Komc j
KosmInI-ScrbatI,AntonIo ieen.
Koss,W. D. 8 n.,n.
Kothbard,M. K. i eg n.
ruIcs 6e,g;, i g-ja::im, i ;-
a::im, i je-, i j;, r ;
conIcrrIngrIghts ii , ie
cquaIIyappIIcd ij6
gcncraI i;e,IncxIbIc ;
IcgaI ij8, i;e
moraI 6;-8, ii8,i;e
rcguIatIngpropcrtyandcontracts ;;
uscIuIncssoI-j
KuncIman,W.G. ; n. , i ecn. ,i eg n.
KussIa i ee
Kyan, A. j n.
Kyan, ]ohn A. i ee n.
Sakharov,AndrcID. iee
SaIas,]ohanncsdc i c n.
SandcI,MIchacI i6n.
Santayana,G. gi n.
I NDEX I gg
ScbmoIIcr, Gustav t eg n.
ScIby-Iggc,L. A. 6 n.
scII-dcIcncc 6o,6,68
scIIIntcrcst eo,g,6e, t ;8
Scn, AmartyaK. t8g
ScnnboIz,M. t eg n.
scntImcnts j t , j6,6og,6j,6;, ; t
Sbakcspcarc,WIIIIam te, t gg
SbIcIds,W. t een.
SmIIcs, SamucI t g t
SmItb,Adam t e;, t e8
socIaIjustIcc t g,6g, t e6gj, t g-j8
conccpt tt;-eo
conqucstoIpubIIcImagInatIon
by e-
andcquaIIty t g8-e
mcanIng tgj-T
spatIaIrangc t 6
socIaI rcIIgIon tet
socIaIIsm t j,gg, t o-j, t -j, t j;-T
cIassIcaI tet
IuII-cdgcd tt g
IowcrIormoI t 6
moraI t g
struggIcIor t;g
vuIgar t 6g
SeciaIelitik socIaIpoIIcy) tg6
Socratcs j;,8, t ;, t 8-gg
SorIcy,WIIIIam S. n.
SpanIsbjcsuIts t gon.
Spcnccr,Hcrbcrt ;on.
StaIIn, j. V. ;-T
Stcwart, Kobcrt M. ;g n. , gjn.
StoIcs o, t , e, t e;
structuraIprIncIpIcs g8, too
Stucbka,F. ]. t n. , t ;;
Summcrs, K.S. t eon.
Sumncr, W. G. t g t
Suppcs,F. t o8 n.
surpIusvaIuc t 6-j, t 66, t 68, t 6g, t ;j
sympatby 6t , 6e
TadIc,L. t ;;
taIcnts ;j, 8e, 8g, go
TaparcIIId`AzcgIIo,LuIgI t een.
taxatIon 66 6;,8, 86, t e t
Incomc t o8, tt o,ncgatIvc 8,
stccpIyprogrcssIvc 8;
InbcrItanccandgIIt 8j-6
tImc-sIIccprIncIpIc g8,gg, t oo
7imts, 7hc tjjn.
TocqucvIIIc,A.dc n.
totaIItarIansystcms t e, t gg, t t
transIcrs 8j,86,88, t og, t oj,t o6
boIdIngs g6,g8, t oe
obIIgatory t ot n.
prIncIpIc t ot n.
trutb g, g;
Tuck, KIcbard gn.
Tuckcr,K. C. jgn. , t6 n.
Tuckcr-WoodtbcsIs t 6
tyranny e, ;
uncquaIsgj,g6,g;
\nItcdNatIons\vcrsaIDccIaratIonoI
HumanKIgbts t 8 t
\nItcdStatcs t g t
utIIItarIanIsm t e,g8, t oo
pbIIosopbIcaIappcaIoI ;j
sccaIseMIII
utIIIty ,j,l l t e,g8
gcncraI g
prIncIpIcoI ;,;j,;6 n.,ge
pubIIc ;,g
vaIucs t gg, t g, t jn.
cuIturaI t 6
moraI t eg, t e
VcccbIo,G. dcI t t 8n. , t ee n. , t g6 n.
vcngcancc 6t , 68
vIccs 8,e,go, g, e
vIoIcncc ej, t go
vIrtucs 6t tassim, e t assim, e;-8,
go, g, gj

8, ;j
cardInaI g
judIcIaI 6g
justIcctbccrownInggIoryoI
IovabIc t j, justIccnot , t
naturaI t 6
poIItIcaIorInstItutIonaI
roIcoI,InmoraIIIIc t 8o
socIaI 6,;
oelcntinen[tinaria 6j
voIuntaryactIons t on., t oj, t o6, t t e
sccaIsecxcbangc,obIIgatIons
wagcs,sccIncomc,rcmuncratIon,
rcwards
Wagncr,AdoIpb t 6j-6
Wasscrrab,KarI t g6n.
wcaItb eg, go,g6,88, t t j, t 66
anImosItytowards t j6;
co-opcratIvc t 6e, t ;e
countrIcsabIctobuIIdup t 8
dIstrIbutIonoI 8 t , 8,86,go, t g t n. ,
ust8j, t e t
2OO
wcaIthcent. ) .
IncquaIItIcsoI;;, 8z
InsatIabIchIrstIor e
IcgItImatccxpcctatIonsoI t j t
manncroIacquIrIng gg
uncquaIInhcrItanccoI 86
Wcbcr,Max t gon.
wcIIarc g,,
t 6, ;,gg, t t
gcncraI j, t i , t e
group ;8
matcrIaI t o
totaI gi , ge, t g6
wcIIbcIng t e, 6,6;, 8 t , 8g, gt , g
hc:tmintcrKicu tt gn.
WhItc,M. t n.
wIckcdncss eg,go,g
WIckstccd,P. H. t 8 n.
WIcsc,LcopoIvon tg6n.
INDEX
WIIIoughby,N.W. t zz n.
wIsdom ;,g,e;, eg,ge, 8, t gg
Wisdom,]ohn t 8n.
WoI,KobcrtPauI t t jn.
Wood,A. t 6n. , t 66, t 6;, t 68
Wootton,arbara, Lady t ge
wrong/wrongdoIng e t , eg t , g, j,6g
absoIvcd z
motivcsto e-g
rIgbtand 8,6g
Young,Gary t 68, t 6g
ZImmcrmann,WaIdcmar t g6n.
ZImmcrn,SIrAIIrcd g n.
Indcxcemilcdb FrankFcrt