Adama University Journal

i ISSN 1998-0531
The Ethiopian Journal of Sciences and Sustainable Development

(Ethiop.j. sci.sustain.dev.)
Journal of Adama University
Volume 1, Number 1
January, 2010, Adama , ETHIOPIA
The Ethiopian Journal of Sciences and Sustainable Development (Ethiop. j. sci. sustain. dev.),
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EDITORS: Dr. Ing. Simie Tolla; (Managing) Adama University, Adama, Ethiopia Dr. Asefa Abahumina; Adama University, Adama, Ethiopia
The Ethiopian Journal of Sciences and Sustainable Development

(Ethiop.j. sci.sustain.dev.)
The Journal of Adama University, Published, TWICE A YEAR.
REVIEW EDITOR: Dr. Emana Getu; Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Dr. Tsetargachew Legese; Adama University, Adama, Ethiopia
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BOARD OF EDITORIAL ADVISORS:

ADDRESS: Simie Tolla, Dr Mobile: +251 (912) 23 24 92 Tel. No.: +251 (221) 10 00 39 Office E-mail: simie.tolla@adama-university.net, Gemechu Waktola Mobile: +251 (911) 62 90 11 E-mail: gemechuwaktola@adama-university.net Adama University P.O.Box: 1888 E-mail: journal@adama-university.net Fax: +251 (022) 110 00 32 Website: http:// www.adama-university.net/index.php?id=108
Prof. Dr. Herbert Eichele; Adama University, Adama, Ethiopia Dr. Ing. Zewdu Abdi; Adama University , Adama, Ethiopia Prof. Tafa Tulu; Adama University , Adama, Ethiopia Prof. Dr. G. Albert; Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Prof. Tammo S. Steenhuis; Cornell University, USA Dr. Abebe Fanta; Haromay University, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia Dr. Kaba Urgessa; Jima University, Jimma, Ethiopia Dr. Asefa Abagaz; Mekele University, Mekele, Ethiopia Dr. Berihanu Adnew; Ethiopian Economic Association, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Dr. Asefa Taa; Oromia Agricultural Research Institute (ORI), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Dr. Shimelis Admasu; Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Dr. Alexander Au; German Academic Exchange Service, Bonn, Germany Dr. Tadele Mekonnen; Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia Dr. Haileleul Zeleke; Adama University , Adama, Ethiopia
Adama ETHIOPIA
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JOURNAL GUIDELINES AND INFORMATIONS THE ETHIOPIAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCES AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT (Ethiop.j.sci.sustain.dev.) Vision: The vision of this journal is to be a means to transfer appropriate technology and initiate researchers to focus on community oriented issues, so contribute to sustain the development in the region (Ethiopia). Mission: This journal is devoted to initiate applied research and disseminating its findings, centering on the activities at Adama University. It is therefore, flexible and will entertain articles on any issue related to the application of appropriate technology in engineering, health, education and business. The editorial and advisory board members are drawn from different institutions and universities, locally and abroad, based on their academic profiles. It is hoped that it will facilitate the exchange of research experience and attract researchers with different disciplines. The journal is to be published twice a year in English and in local languages as required
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CONTENTS
Relationship between yield and yield components of Ethiopian mustard (brassica carianata a. Braun)
Abebe Delesa, Adugna Wakjira and Ketema Belete
Call for Papers Welcome to the new look to Adama University Journal, titled The Ethiopian Journal of The Sciences and Sustainable Development Development (Ethiop.j.sci.sutain.dev.) (Ethiop.j.sci.sutain.dev published by Knowledge and Technology Interchange (KTI), TWICE a YEAR. We hope you will find it useful and encourages you to send us articles for the next publication. We expect your comments, which enable us improving the publication further too. The (Ethiop.j.sci.sustain.dev.) publishes original articles, research findings, article reviews and case studies, which cover wide areas in: o Sciences and o Sustainable Development For further information please use the Editor's Address Address!
Evaluating the effects of irrigation on poverty reduction and income distribution in the Nile Basin: a lesson from Banja Woreda of the Amhara Region (Ethiopia)
Abreham Seyoum
Rural women and environmental degradation: the case of Nano Aseko Kebele in Arsi Zone
Teshome Beyene
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Determinants of the household food security in Bulbula, Adami-Tulu Jido , Kombolch Woreda in 2007/2008 harvesting season
Fekadu Nigussie
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University students hygiene behavior and attitude towards ecological sanitation: a status report on studies conducted in Adama University, Ethiopia.
Wudneh Ayele, Jan-Olof Drangert, Nina Hartmuth
34
Introduction and implementation of total quality management (TQM) in Ethiopian Domestic industries with special reference to MATADOR Addis Tyre S.C.
Fiseha Mekonnen
43
Performance evaluation of some trees and shrubs under inhospitable site Conditions of Kulumsa (Arsi), Southeast Ethiopia
Yigremachew Seyoum and Girma Shumi
51
Obstacles in job creation and employment for TVET graduates in Ethiopia: the case of Oromiya regional state
Bedada Mergo, lecturer, Adama University
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Journal of Adama University, Vol. 1, No. 1, January, 2010, ISSN 1998-0531
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN YIELD AND YIELD COMPONENTS OF ETHIOPIAN MUSTARD (Brassica carianata A. BRAUN) Abebe Delesa1, Adugna Wakjira2 and Ketema Belete3
1 2
Kulumsa Agricultural Research Center, E-mail: Abebe_delesa@yahoo.com., PO Box 489, Asella, Ethiopia, Holetta Agricultural Research Center, P.O Box 2003, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; 3 Haramaya University, P.O Box 138, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia
Abstract: The experiment was conducted on 60 Ethiopian mustard genotypes collected from 16 random and diverse zones of Ethiopia. The aim was to determine the association between different traits and partition the association into direct and indirect effects in order to determine selection criteria for yield improvement. Correlation and path analysis were used to determine character associations. Seed yield showed positive and significant associations with oil yield, biomass, harvest index, plant height, harvest index per plant and seed yield per plant. This indicated that simultaneous improvement of seed yield and these characters is possible. With regard to seed yield per plant, positive associations were observed with harvest index per plant, 1000-seed weight and biomass per plant. Days to flowering and days to maturity exhibited negative correlations with seed yield. Correlation and path coefficient analysis of seed yield revealed that biomass and harvest index had strong and positive correlations and also exerted favorable direct effects on seed yield at genotypic and phenotypic levels. Selection for biomass and harvest index, therefore, can be very useful for seed yield improvement. Furthermore, plant height, 1000-seed weight and number of pods per plant could be used for indirect selection of seed yield. Phenotypic path coefficient analysis of oil content revealed that biomass, plant height, harvest index and days to maturity had positive direct effects on oil content Thousand seed weight had exerted positive direct effect on oil content at genotypic and phenotypic levels and, plant height and 1000-seed weight had positive correlations with oil content at both levels. Thus, plant height and 1000-seed weight should be considered as selection criteria for oil content improvement in Ethiopian mustard. Key words: Brassica carinata; correlation analysis; Ethiopian mustard; path analysis Introduction Brassica carinata (BBCC, n=2x=17) has evolved as a natural cross between B. nigra (BB, n=8) and B. oleracea (CC, n=9), followed by chromosome doubling, in the highlands of Ethiopia and adjoining portion of
Africa and the Mediterranean coast (Gomez-Campo and Prakash, 1999). It has been cultivated in Ethiopia as an oilseed and vegetable crop since antiquity. The advantages of Ethiopian mustard are immense in the farming systems, as a potential rotational-crop for cereals, pulses and potatoes. B. carianata is found to be better yielding, tolerant to drought, resistant to diseases and insect pests and seed shattering than B. napus (Singh, 2003; Adefris, 2004). The industrial value of Brassica carinata oil is immense in leather tanning, manufacture of varnishes, paints, lubricants, soap and lamps (Doweny, 1971; Bhan, 1979). Recent investigations have witnessed that, after transesterification the oil exhibit physical and chemical properties suitable for bio-diesel (Cardone et al., 2003). In Ethiopia, despite research efforts since 1968 Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR, 1992), the national average yield of Ethiopian mustard is still low, 0.95 t/ha (Central Statistic Authority (CSA) 2006/07). Information on interrelationships of characters is very crucial for indirect selection of traits not easily measured and for those that show low heritability (Rasmusson and Glass, 1967). Knowledge of the association of yield components with each other and with yield is helpful in improvement of complex characters such as yield for which direct selection is not mostly effective (Tikka, 1975). If the numbers of components are many, it becomes crucial to measure the contribution of each of the variables to the observed correlation and to partition the correlation into components of direct and indirect effect (Giriraj and Vijayakumar, 1974). Path analysis has proven useful in providing additional information that describes cause and effect relationships, such as between yield and yield components (Gravios and Helm, 1992). It is, therefore, essential to assess the importance as well as degree of association of various quantitative characters in order to initiate effective selection program aimed at genetic improvement in seed and oil yields using suitable selection criteria. However, information regarding aforementioned aspects is limited in Ethiopian mustard. The present study was, therefore, conducted in order to estimate association among seed-yield and yield related
traits, and to identify the yield components for yield selection criteria for a breeding program. Materials and Methods Field experiment was conducted at Kulumsa Agricultural Research Center in Arsi zone, southeastern Ethiopia, using 60 Ethiopian mustard genotypes collected from 16 diverse and random zones of Ethiopia. Randomized complete block design with three replications was used. Normal cultural practices were followed to raise the crop. Data was recorded on 16 characters. A correlation analysis was carried out to determine the degree of association among different parameters with yield and with each other according to the procedures suggested by Dabholkar (1992). Path coefficient analysis was carried out to partition correlation coefficients of different parameters into components of direct and indirect effects. The partitioning was done by simultaneously solving sets of linear equations as outlined by Singh and Chaudhary (1977). Results and Discussion Correlations Seed yield (per plot) was significantly and positively correlated with oil yield, biomass, harvest index, plant height, harvest index per plant and seed yield per plant at genotypic and phenotypic levels (Table 1). Hence, .
improvement and measure their relative importance as a making simultaneous increase for these characters with seed yield is possible. However, seed yield was negatively correlated with days to flowering, days to maturity, primary branches per plant and number of seeds per pod at both levels. These correlation coefficients give an indication of the traits of importance in the identification of a selection criterion. The present result is in accordance with the results reported by Nigussie (1990) with regard to the correlations between seed yield and plant height and primary branches per plant. Seed yield per plant had positive and significant correlations with harvest index per plant, biomass per plant and 1000-seed weight at genotypic and phenotypic levels, and with number of pods per plant and secondary branches per plant at phenotypic level. This indicates the merits of these characters to improve seed yield per plant. Among characters considered in the study, only plant height was strongly and positively correlated with oil content at both levels. The correlation between 1000seed weight and oil content was also relatively strong and positive. Oil yield was strongly and positively correlated with plant height, seed yield per plant, harvest index per plant, biomass, seed yield and harvest index. However, oil yield was negatively correlated with days to flowering, days to maturity, primary branches per plant and number of seeds per pod.
Table 1 . Genotypic (above diagonal) and phenotypic (below diagonal) correlation coefficients among 16 characters in 60 Ethiopian mustard genotypes.
DF
DM
PH
PB/PL
SB/PL
PD/PL
SD/PD
BM/PL
SY/PL
HI/PL
BM/P
SY/P
HI/P
TSW
OC
OY/P
DF DM PH PB/PL SB/PL PD/PL SD/PD BM/PL SY/PL HI/PL BM/P SY/P HI/P TSW OC OY/P 0.925** -0.127 0.497** 0.345** 0.013 0.530** 0.384** 0.127 -0.323* -0.402** -0.485** -0.406** 0.275* 0.086 -0.470**
0.964
-0.073 0.030
0.728 0.601 -0.279
0.652 0.514 -0.582 0.748
-0.394 -0.605 -0.966 -0.364 0.044
0.938 0.899 -0.472 0.394 0.355 -0.809
1.030 1.066 0.307 0.374 0.300 -1.004 0.298
0.163 0.184 -0.139 -0.152 0.198 -0.229 -0.225 0.379
-0.729 -0.735 -0.532 -0.461 -0.020 0.701 -0.317 -0.502 0.595
-0.608 -0.507 0.736 -0.630 -0.570 -0.287 -0.923 -0.185 0.171 0.255
-0.738 -0.646 0.576 -0.684 -0.520 0.042 -0.942 -0.275 0.323 0.488 0.967
-0.805 -0.783 -0.248 -0.515 -0.093 1.000 -0.491 -0.497 0.588 0.999 0.366 0.591
0.340 0.462 0.610 0.127 0.079 -0.856 0.082 0.920 0.541 -0.328 0.361 0.233 -0.352
0.281 0.356 0.444 0.023 -0.202 -1.000 0.244 0.418 -0.115 -0.515 0.074 -0.057 -0.484 0.483
-0.712 -0.610 0.622 -0.687 -0.535 -0.038 -0.910 -0.223 0.328 0.442 0.973 0.994 0.550 0.277 0.051
0.014 0.401** 0.293* 0.002 0.541** 0.423** 0.166 -0.321* -0.299* -0.396** -0.381** 0.393** 0.181 -0.372** -0.172 -0.175 -0.110 -0.273* 0.128 0.027 -0.187 0.513** 0.382** -0.128 0.430** 0.392** 0.424**
0.602** 0.288* 0.195 0.426** 0.253 -0.160 -0.216 -0.266* -0.217 0.072 -0.074 -0.276* 0.767** 0.240 0.677** 0.729** 0.268* 0.008 0.052 0.187 0.127 -0.202 0.028
0.085 0.703** 0.842** 0.365** 0.205 0.292* 0.375** -0.050 -0.233 0.261* 0.309* 0.230 -0.058 -0.280* -0.265* -0.068 0.049 0.016 -0.259*
0.831** -0.093 0.146 0.132 -0.008 0.280* 0.037 0.136 0.454** 0.267* 0.347** 0.350** 0.258* -0.075 0.336**
0.186 0.355** 0.661** 0.041 -0.168 0.332** 0.952** 0.270* 0.273* -0.006 0.952**
0.524** 0.225 -0.070 0.992** -0.033 -0.125 0.509**
0.242 0.254 0.047
*, **- Indicate significance at 0.05 and 0.01 probability levels, respectively. DF = Days to flowering, DM = Days to maturity, PH = Plant height, PB/PL = Number of primary branches per plant, SB/PL = Number of secondary branches per plant, PD/PL = Number of pods per plant, SD/PD = Number of seeds per pod, BM/PL = Biomass per plant, BM/P = Biomass per plot, SY/PL = Seed yield per plant, SY/P = Seed yield per plot, HI/PL = Harvest index per plant, HI/P = Harvest index per plot, TSW = Thousand seed weight, OC = Oil content and OY/P = Oil yield per plot.
Path Coefficient Analysis for Seed Yield The genotypic and phenotypic direct and indirect effects of different characters on seed yield (per plot) are presented in Tables 2 and 3, respectively. Based on genotypic path coefficient analysis, the highest and favorable direct effect was exerted on seed yield by biomass (0.468), followed by harvest index (0.263), plant height (0.252) and secondary branches per plant (0.149). Except secondary branches per plant, these characters were also correlated strongly and positively with seed yield. Hence, these three characters could be considered in the improvement of seed yield. In other words, favorable direct effects of biomass, harvest index and plant height on seed yield indicate that, with other variables kept constant, improvement of these characters will increase seed yield. Days to maturity, number of pods per plant, 1000-seed weight and oil content exerted favorable but weak direct influences on seed yield, whereas days to flowering, primary branches per plant and number of seeds per pod had negative direct influence. These three characters also exhibited strong and negative genotypic correlations with seed yield. Similar results were reported by Nigussie (1990) for plant height and primary branches, but opposite results were reported for number of pods by Singh et al. (1979) and Nigussie (1990). The three important direct effects on seed yield per plant were that of biomass, harvest index and number of pods (data not shown). Days to flowering and days to maturity exerted positive indirect effects on seed yield per plant via biomass per plant at both levels. On the other hand, only secondary branches and number of pods, and only number of pods exerted positive indirect effects on seed yield per plant via harvest index at phenotypic and genotypic level, respectively. Likewise, 1000-seed weight exerted favorable indirect effect on seed yield per plant through biomass. Secondary branches and number of pods exerted high and positive indirect effects on seed yield per plant via biomass and harvest index. These indirect effects were the major components of the
positive and highly significant correlations with seed yield per plant (Table 1). A result of Table 2 indicated some considerable indirect effects on seed yield at genotypic level, which were observed in the correlation analysis. Plant height (0.344), harvest index (0.171) and 1000-seed weight (0.169) exhibited positive genotypic indirect effects via biomass, which suggest the merit of biomass for improving seed yield. These indirect effects had considerable contribution to their total correlations. The genotypic path coefficient analysis also revealed that biomass (0.185), 1000-seed weight (0.154) and oil content (0.112) had positive indirect effects on seed yield through plant height. Similarly, number of pods per plant had positive indirect effect on seed yield via harvest index. Thus, both the direct and indirect effects revealed the importance of biomass, harvest index and plant height for the improvement of seed yield. The phenotypic path coefficient analysis revealed that biomass (0.879) and harvest index (0.258) exerted high and favorable direct effects on seed yield (Table 3). The direct effect of biomass (0.879) had the greatest contribution to positive and highly significant correlation between biomass and seed yield (rph = 0.952). Plant height (0.451), 1000-seed weight (0.240), harvest index (0.237) and number of pods per plant (0.181) exhibited considerably positive indirect effects on seed yield via biomass. Therefore, these situations further confirm the crucial role of biomass in improving seed yield. It is also logical to select for plant height, 1000seed weight and number of pods to improve seed yield. Days to flowering and days to maturity exerted negative indirect effects via several characters. Similarly, days to flowering (-0.353), days to maturity (-0.263) and number of seeds per pod (-0.246) had considerable negative indirect effects via biomass. Hence, they could not be used for indirect selection for improving seed yield. The residual factor of 0.0134 in the present study indicated that most of yield related traits were included.
Table 2. Genotypic direct (underlined) and indirect effects of 11 characters on seed yield (per plot)
DF DF DM PH PB/PL SB/PL PD/PL SD/PD BM/P HI/P TSW OC -0.159 -0.154 0.012 -0.116 -0.104 0.063 -0.149 0.097 0.128 -0.054 -0.045 DM 0.083 0.086 0.003 0.052 0.044 -0.052 0.077 -0.044 -0.067 0.040 0.031 PH -0.018 0.007 0.252 -0.070 -0.147 -0.244 -0.119 0.185 -0.062 0.154 0.112 PB/PL -0.118 -0.097 0.045 -0.162 -0.121 0.059 -0.064 0.102 0.083 -0.021 -0.004 SB/PL 0.097 0.077 -0.087 0.112 0.149 0.007 0.053 -0.085 -0.014 0.012 -0.030 PD/PL -0.023 -0.035 -0.057 -0.021 0.003 0.059 -0.047 -0.017 0.059 -0.050 -0.061 SD/PD -0.138 -0.132 0.069 -0.058 -0.052 0.119 -0.147 0.135 0.072 -0.012 -0.036 BM/P -0.284 -0.237 0.344 -0.295 -0.267 -0.134 -0.432 0.468 0.171 0.169 0.034 HI/P -0.211 -0.206 -0.065 -0.135 -0.025 0.264 -0.129 0.096 0.263 -0.093 -0.127 TSW 0.025 0.034 0.044 0.009 0.006 -0.062 0.006 0.026 -0.026 0.073 0.035 OC 0.009 0.012 0.015 0.001 -0.007 -0.035 0.008 0.002 -0.016 0.016 0.034 rg -0.738 -0.646 0.576 -0.684 -0.520 0.042 -0.942 0.967 0.591 0.233 -0.057
Residual = -0.0039 DF = Days to flowering, DM = Days to maturity, PH = Plant height, PB/PL = Number of primary branches per plant, SB/PL = Number of secondary branches per plant, PD/PL = Number of pods per plant, SD/PD = Number of seeds per pod, BM/P = Biomass per plot, HI/P = Harvest index per plot, TSW = Thousand seed weight, OC = Oil content and rg = Genotypic correlation. Table 3. Phenotypic direct (underlined) and indirect effects of 11 characters on seed yield (per plot) DF DF DM PH PB/PL SB/PL PD/PL SD/PD BM/P HI/P TSW OC Residual = 0.0134 *, ** Indicate significance at 0.05 and 0.01 probability levels, respectively. DF = Days to flowering, DM = Days to maturity, PH = Plant height, PB/PL = Number of primary branches per plant, SB/PL = Number of secondary branches per plant, PD/PL = Number of pods per plant, SD/PD = Number of seeds per pod, BM/P = Biomass per plot, HI/P = Harvest index per plot, TSW = Thousand seed weight, OC = Oil content and r ph = Phenotypic correlation. 0.041 0.038 -0.005 0.021 0.014 0.001 0.022 -0.017 -0.017 0.011 0.004 DM -0.073 -0.079 -0.001 -0.032 -0.023 0.000 -0.043 0.023 0.030 -0.031 -0.014 PH 0.005 -0.001 -0.041 0.007 0.007 0.005 0.011 -0.021 0.005 -0.018 -0.016 PB/PL -0.008 -0.007 0.003 -0.017 -0.010 -0.005 -0.003 0.004 0.004 -0.001 0.001 SB/PL -0.010 -0.008 0.005 -0.017 -0.028 -0.021 -0.007 0.000 -0.005 -0.004 0.006 PD/PL 0.000 0.000 -0.004 0.010 0.025 0.033 0.003 0.007 0.012 -0.002 -0.008 SD/PD 0.007 0.007 -0.004 0.003 0.003 0.001 0.013 -0.004 -0.001 0.001 0.000 BM/P -0.353 -0.263 0.451 -0.190 0.007 0.181 -0.246 0.879 0.237 0.240 -0.006 HI/P -0.105 -0.098 -0.033 -0.056 0.048 0.097 -0.018 0.07 0.258 -0.009 -0.032 TSW 0.011 0.016 0.018 0.003 0.005 -0.002 0.002 0.011 -0.001 0.041 0.01 OC -0.001 -0.003 -0.006 0.001 0.003 0.004 0.000 0.000 0.002 -0.004 -0.015 rph -0.485** -0.396** 0.382** -0.266* 0.052 0.292* -0.265* 0.952** 0.524** 0.225 -0.070
Conclusion Seed yield (per plot) was positively correlated with oil yield, biomass, harvest index, plant height, harvest index per plant and seed yield per plant at genotypic and phenotypic levels. On the other hand, it was negatively correlated with days to flowering, days to maturity, primary branches and number of seeds at both levels. There were positive correlations among seed yield per plant and harvest index per plant, 1000-seed weight and biomass per plant at both levels. Plant height, harvest index and 1000-seed weight added indirectly to seed yield via biomass at genotypic level. Similarly, plant height, harvest index, 1000-seed weight and number of pods had favorable indirect effects on seed yield at phenotypic level. Number of pods per plant also added indirectly to seed yield through harvest index. Hence, biomass and harvest index were the major determinants of seed yield, while plant height, 1000-seed weight and number of pods per plant were the second important characters for the improvement of seed yield. The phenotypic path coefficient analysis of oil content as dependent trait revealed that biomass, plant height, harvest index and days to maturity had positive direct effects on oil content. Similarly, 1000-seed weight exerted positive direct effect on oil content at genotypic and phenotypic levels. Furthermore, plant height and 1000-seed weight had positive correlations with oil content at both levels. Thus, plant height and 1000-seed weight should be considered as selection criteria for oil content improvement in Ethiopian mustard. Based on the results of correlation and path coefficient analysis, biomass, harvest index, plant height, 1000-seed weight and number of pods could be useful for indirect selection criteria for the improvement of seed yield in Ethiopian mustard. Acknowledgment The authors would like to acknowledge the germplasm provided by the Institute of Biodiversity Conservation, Ethiopia. The research was funded by Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research. References Adefris T. 2004: Diversity study based on quality traits marker and investigation of heterosis in Ethiopian mustard. Doctoral dissertation submitted to George-August University of Gttingen, Germany. 160p. Bhan, S. 1979: Effect of soil moisture and nitrogen on mustard under Gangetic alluvium of Utterpradesh. Ind. J. Agron. 24: 180-186.
Cardone, M., Mazzoncini, M., Menini, S., Rocco, V., Seggiani, M., Senatore, A. and Vitolo, S. 2003: Brassica carinata as an alternative oil crop for production of bio-diesel in Italy. Agronomic evaluation of fuel production by trasesterification and characterization. Biomass and Bio-energy 25: 623-636. CSA (Central Statistical Authority). 2006/07: Report on Area and Production of Crops: Private peasant holdings, 'Meher' season. Statistical bulletin 388. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Dabholkar, A.R. 1992: Elements of biometrical genetics. Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi, India. 431p. Doweny, R. K. 1971: Agricultural and genetic potential of Cruciferous oilseed crops. Ame. Oil. Chem. Soc. J. 48: 728-732. Giriraji, K.and S. Vijayakumar. 1974: Path coefficient analysis of yield attributes in mung bean. Ind. J. Genet. 34: 27-30. Gravios, K. A. and R. S. Helm. 1992: Path analysis of rice yield and yield components as affected by seed rate. Agron. J. 84: 1-4. IAR (Institute of Agricultural Research). 1992: Oilseeds research and development in Ethiopia. Proceedings of the First National Workshop. 3-5 December 1991, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 243p. Nigussie A. 1990: Yield and yield components of Ethiopian mustard and rapeseed as affected by some agronomic practices. An MSc Thesis Presented to the School of Graduate Studies of Alemaya University. 112p. Rasmusson, O.C.and R. L. Glass. 1967: Estimation of Genetic and Environmental Variability in Barely. Crop Sci. 7: 185-188. Singh, D. 2003: Genetic improvement in Ethiopian mustard (Brassica carinata A. Braun) vis a vis Indian mustard (Brassica juncea L. Czern and Coss). In: Proc. 11th Int. Rapeseed Conf., 4-7 July 2003, Copenhagen, Denmark, p513. Singh,.R.K. and B.D.Chaudhary 1977: Chaudhary.1977.Biometrical methods in quantitative genetic analysis. Kalyani publishers,New DelhiLudhiana, India. 318p. Singh, S. P., A. N. Srivastava and R. P. Katiyar. 1979: Path analysis in Indian Colza. Ind. J. Gene. and Plant Breed. 39: 150-153.
EVALUATING THE EFFECTS OF IRRIGATION ON POVERTY REDUCTION AND INCOME DISTRIBUTION IN THE NILE BASIN: A LESSON FROM BANJA WOREDA OF THE AMHARA REGION (ETHIOPIA) Abrham Seyoum Arba Minch University,Arba Minch, Ethiopia; E-mail:abrhamseyoun@yahoo.com Abstract This paper mainly focuses on evaluating the effects of irrigation development in Banja Woreda on poverty and income distribution. Using multivariate analysis, the determinants of rural income has been assessed. To avoid the problem of omitted variables that create inconsistency in estimation, the fixed effects model has been employed. The researcher has also used Gini coefficients to evaluate the impact of irrigation on income distribution. From the study, it was found that the key variable, irrigation, is a significant determinant of total income of rural households. Hence, using the simulation framework, irrigation has been witnessed to have a greater contribution in reducing poverty incidence in the study area. In addition to this, the signs and significance of coefficients of other important variables such as dependency ratio, household size and proportion of output affected by negative shocks were found as expected. Moreover, income of households that is attributable from irrigated lands was found influential in abating income inequality among rural households in the study area. Thus, continued investment in new irrigation projects and maintenance of existing systems in Banja Woreda will help to attain the governments rural welfare improvement goals. Moreover, as reducing poverty and decreasing inequality both have growth-enhancing effects; irrigation investment could have an added benefit. Therefore, Irrigation investment in rural Banja Woreda appears to be an investment that can lead to both growth and equity. Key words: Food Poverty Line, shocks, Ginicoffecients 1. Introduction South-East Asian countries. This technology was mainly based on the use of improved seeds, chemical
fertilizers and irrigation as pillars for agricultural development. According to the report of IMF(1999), Ethiopia is rated as one of the poorest countries in the world with GDP per capita of around USD 100, while life expectancy, educational enrolment, and other indicators of well-being are all extremely low. Agriculture remains the dominant economic sector contributing about 45% of GDP. Currently, Ethiopia is exerting much effort to bring about fast and sustainable development and has launched various programs in order to do so. One such program is the construction of irrigation schemes all over the country especially in areas where irrigation water is abundant. Hence, the overall goal of this paper is to examine the impact of irrigation on income, poverty and income distribution in Banja woreda of the Amhara region. To meet the overall goal, the paper pursues three specific objectives. First, we examine the relationship between irrigation and income using multivariate analysis. Second, we use a simulation approach to explore the impact of irrigation on the incidence of poverty. Finally, in order to uncover the effect of irrigation on income distribution, we decompose inequality by source of income, by group according to access to irrigation and by estimated income flows as a result of specific household characteristics. 2. Data source, sampling techniques and methodology 2.1 data source and sampling techniques The data for this paper comes from five selected rural villages using purposive sampling methods. This method was chosen because most rural villages of the woreda are not irrigated hence, for the sake of the analysis, two of the five selected kebeles are intended be irrigated while the other two must be non-irrigated and the rest one was anticipated to be half-irrigated and half non-irrigated.
Though food security is a top economic development agenda for many least developed countries, only few have been successful with the help of the Green Revolution. Many countries, however, have failed to succeed. The Green Revolution was an agricultural technology introduced in the 1970s and 1980s that has brought remarkable improvements in the livelihoods many agrarian societies especially in the
In the selection of sample households, a random sampling method was employed to give households an equal chance of being selected in the sample. From each village 30 households were selected randomly for the interview with a total of 150 households for the whole sample in the Woreda. The questionnaire included a special block that collected plot-level information. We asked whether a plot was irrigated and the area of the households irrigated land. The block also recorded information on other plot-specific variables, such as the type of crop grown on a plot, crop yield, the degree of land fragmentation (measured as the number of plots per household), the proportion of good quality land (the proportion of one households land that is rated as high quality by the farmer) and the proportion of outputs affected by negative shocks during the cropping year (e.g., drought or flooding). The survey collected data on rural household income that can be disaggregated into cropping, off-farm and other income sources. Cropping income includes proceeds from crop sales less expenses. Profits from processed crops are also included in this category. Off-farm income includes all income from businesses run by households, wages from a household members off-farm job and migrant remittances. Most of the households in the sample also had some other form of income, such as earnings from livestock, rent earnings, asset sales and pensions. This source of income is classified as other in this study. The household survey also gathered detailed information on other household characteristics. We have information on household size, dependency ratio of the household, literacy of the household head, total land holdings and asset holdings. Finally, a number of village level variables for our sample were constructed using data from a village leader questionnaire.
2.2 Methodology 2.2.1 Multivariate Analysis In this study, the determinants of income can be analyzed by making income a function of a set of household and village characteristics, including household irrigated area. Hence, our basic model is: yhv=+Dhv+Xhv+Zv+v+hv (1)
This approach enables us to use village-level data on employment, infrastructure and topography, increases the degrees of freedom and allows us to estimate the importance of these village characteristics. However, it is possible that we have omitted village-level variables that, although unobserved, may affect income and may be correlated with irrigation. One such variable is weather variation in the village. In such a case, we could have an omitted variables problem and estimates of would be inconsistent. If this is the case, one solution is to include a set of village dummy variables that capture all of the observed and unobservable village effects. Casting the problem in this way (henceforth, the fixed effects model), however, means that we cannot separate the effect of specific village characteristics (Zv and v) from other village fixed effects since all are captured by the village dummy variables. If we adopt this approach of Huang et al (2005), the fixed effects model that we estimate is:
yhv yhv =( Dhv Dhv )+( hv hv )+( hv hv )

Where yhv , Dhv , hv and variables at the village level.
(2)
hv are
the averages of
Based on equation 2 above, the estimate for the sample is given below
Table 1: Determinants of Income (Equation 2: Ordinary least squares with fixed effects at the village level)
Robust t-statistic in parentheses. *Significant at 10 per cent; **significant at 5 per cent; ***significant at 1 per cent
Dependent variables (Birr per capita) Total income Area of irrigated land per capita(ha) Household size Dependency household Ratio of the 2389.763 (4.06)*** 640.3573, (4.10)*** -541.0296 (-2.64)*** 70.01131(0.23) 116.8751(0.77) Cropping income 1854.86 448.9036 (3.16)*** (2.72)*** Off-farm income 94.58568 (0.76) Other income 440.3165 (1.25) 105.0549 (1.92)* -110.204 (-1.13) 41.54927 (0.26) -64.29493 (-0.92)
86.39883 (2.31)** -94.46957 (-1.61) 37.29219 (0.47) 72.22372 (1.38)
-336.356 (-1.73)* -8.83016 (-0.03) 108.9463 (0.72)
Literacy of the household head Degree of land fragmentation (number of plots per household) Proportion of good quality land (%) Proportion of output (crops cultivated) affected by negative shocks (%) Cultivated land per capita (ha) Non-land agricultural assets per capita (Birr) Self-business assets per capita (Birr) Non-productive assets per capita (Birr) Credit Cons. R-Square
5.915985(0.97) -26.36645 (-4.06)***
11.58956 (1.57) -22.669 (-3.83)***
-.9819237 (-0.52) -1.854707 (-1.02)
-4.691651 (-0.66) -1.842743 (-0.75)
382.2045
(0.96)
531.1913 (1.45) -2.906528 (-0.39) -.3252418 (-0.47) .4480674 (0.70) .0723494 (0.29) 75.72628 (0.11) 0.6278
-122.7755 (-1.57) -2.23254 (-1.26) -.4251363 (-2.56)** .4496623 (2.77)*** .0991671 (0.81) 142.4539 (-0.77) 0.1244
-26.21131 (-0.19) .3838409 (0.11) -.2559658 (-1.04) .2116418(0.95) -.0159745 (-0.11) 265.0022 (0.57) 0.0801
-4.755227 (-0.62) -1.033344 (-1.50) 1.109372 (1.7)*
.155542 (0.63) 198.2745 (0.30) 0.6737
Regression Results Our regression estimates of the effect of irrigation on income are shown in Table 1 above. The goodness of fit measure, R2, is 0.6737 for total income and 0.6278 for the cropping income equation. These R2 are sufficiently high for analyses that use cross-sectional household data. In addition, many of the coefficients associated with the control variables are statistically significant and of the expected sign. For example, dependency ratio negatively affects total income of a household. Also, as expected, negative shocks significantly reduce cropping income. Most importantly, the results allow us to reject the null hypothesis that irrigated land area has no effect on cropping income (Table 1, column 2). Increasing
irrigated land per capita by one hectare will lead to an increase of 1855 Birr in annual cropping income per capita, holding other household characteristics constant. Contrary to our expectation, literacy of household head has a negative coefficient against cropping income though not significant. In addition to this, self-business assets per capita, non-land agricultural assets and degree of land fragmentation have a different sign from our expectation but are not significant. 2.2.2. Irrigation and Poverty To study more carefully the effects of irrigation on poverty, we use a simulation approach in order to assess the change in poverty incidence arising from a change in a specific factor. To do so, we follow Datt (1998) and Gibson and Rozelle (2003) cited in
10
Q. Huang et al (2005) and use parameters from a regression analysis of the determinants of total income to create a simulation framework. More specifically, the basic model is of (log) income per capita, yhv, deflated by the poverty line, c, a ratio known as the welfare ratio.
' ln( y hv / c ) = ' + ' D hv + hv ' + v ' + v' + hv (3)
method, the Cost of basic needs method and the Food Component method. However, in this thesis I have preferred to use a method of calculating food poverty line suggested by Joel Greer and Erik Thorbecke, 1986. They proposed a new method, which is conceptually and computationally simple, does not require an excessive sample size, and does not pre-impose a researcher's or bureaucrat's subjective notion of what constitutes a palatable, but inexpensive diet. Based on this calculation, it was found that the food poverty line for the sample is 62.89 Birr per adult per month.
Where-
hv is independently and identically distributed normal random variables with zero means and constant variance, v.
At this juncture, we can mention several methods of calculating poverty line (c in equation 3) in Economics such as Food Energy Intake (FEI)
Table 2: Estimates of log welfare ratio for rural households (Ordinary least squares with fixed effects at the village level) Dependent variable: Log welfare ratio Area of irrigated land per capita (ha) Household size Dependency Ratio of the household Literacy of the head of the household Degree of land fragmentation (no. of plots per household) Proportion of good quality land (%) Proportion of output (harvest) affected by negative shocks (%) Cultivated land per capita (ha) Non-land agricultural assets per capita (Birr) Non-productive assets per capita (Birr) Self-business asset per capita (Birr) Credit Cons. .3908934 (2.73)*** .0740667 (2.14)** -.0914834 (-1.45) .0570604 (0.67) .00146827 (0.38) -.0009677 (-0.54) -.0098325 (-4.49)*** .0926228 (1.04) -.0003985 (-0.19) -.000049 (-5.46)*** .00000856 (0.71) -.00000741 (0.13) 2.47706 (13.78)***
R-Square 0.5502 Robust t-statistic in parentheses. *Significant at 10 per cent; **significant at 5 per cent; ***significant at 1 per cent. Regression Results The regression of log welfare ratio performs well (Table 2). The magnitude of the coefficients differs between Table 1 and 2 because the dependent variable in Table 2 is a non-linear (log) transformation of that in Table 1. Nonetheless, the signs and statistical significance of the coefficients on most of our key explanatory variables are consistent in both tables (column 1, Table 1; Table 2). In particular, the coefficient on our variable of interest, area of irrigated land per capita, is positive and
11
significant at one percent. However, the sign for the coefficients of credit and proportion of land with good quality is negative contrary to our expectation though it is statistically insignificant. Normalizing income per capita by the poverty line implies that
Table 3: Simulated effect of certain changes in area of irrigated land on incidence of poverty in rural Banja Woreda in 2005 Poverty incidence Baseline: Actual values Convert households nonirrigated land into irrigated land 66.65% 62.20%*** (7.15%)
ln ( yhv / c ) <0 for poor households and

th
the probability of the h household being poor can be derived using the probit model as follows:
Pr ob[ln( yhv / c) p 0] = [( ' + ' Dhv + hv ' + v ' + v' ) / v ]
(4)
We adopt the same approach as in estimating equation (1) and the fixed effects model we estimate is:
' ln ( yhv / c ) ln ( yhv / c ) = ' Dhv Dhv + hv hv ' + hv
) (
' hv
(5)
Percentage change from the predicted baseline values is reported in parenthesis. *** Significant at 1%. Using the simulation framework, the positive effects of increasing irrigated land on poverty reduction are clear (Table 3). According to the result, the incidence of poverty would fall by 4.45 percent if all nonirrigated land were converted to irrigated land. In percentage terms, poverty line would decline by 7.15 % if all non-irrigated land were converted to irrigated land. 2.2.3 Irrigation and Inequality To analyze the impact of irrigation on inequality, I have chosen two ways of decomposing inequality: a) Decomposition by sources of income (cropping income from irrigated plots, cropping income from non-irrigated plots, off farm income and other income); and b) Decomposition by estimated income flows due to specific household characteristics (e.g., irrigated land area per capita and dependency ratio of the household). Our methodology is similar in both cases. We first decompose the total income Gini coefficient by income source. a) Decomposition by Income Sources We decompose the Gini coefficient for total household income as a weighted sum of the inequality levels of incomes from different components, with the weights being functions of the importance of each component and the correlation of each component with total income. We first decompose the total income Gini coefficient by income source. We begin by noting that if yk is
Where: ln ( yhv / c ) ,
D hv , hv and hv are the
'
averages of variables at the village level. After we obtain consistent estimates of ' and ' by estimating equation (5), we then plug them back into equation (3):
ln( y h v / c ) = ' D h v + h v ' + [ ' + v ' + v' ] 1 44 2 4 43
'
(6)
Where- the terms in bracket is estimated as one single
parameter, , the village fixed effect, and is captured by the coefficients on the village dummy variables.
'
In the simulation, the probability of the hth household being poor is calculated as:
ln ( y h v / c ) P r o b ln ( y h v / c ) < 0 = v
(7)
A weighted average of the household probabilities of being poor gives the predicted incidence of poverty, where the weights are the household sampling weights in terms of household size. Once the simulation is done, it is possible to look at the effects of increasing irrigated land on poverty reduction. That is, the incidence of poverty may fall/rise by certain percentage points if all nonirrigated land were converted to irrigated land. Thus, the simulation work will clearly show us the effect of irrigation on poverty reduction.
12
income from source k (e.g., irrigated plots), then total household income, y0 , is:
y0 =
Where:
k k =1
y k , k = 1, ..., K
(8)
F ( y0 ) and F ( yk ) are the cumulative distributions of total household income and income from source k respectively.
(11)
Note the subscripts h and v are suppressed here. Following the method suggested by Stuart (1954) and Pyatt, Chen and Fei (1980) and Lerman and Yitzhaki (1985), we can write the Gini coefficient for total household income per capita, G0, as:
G0 /ej = Sj (RjGj-G0 ) j =1,2,,K.
Where: Sj, Rj, Gj and G0 are measured prior to the marginal income change. Dividing equation (11) by G0, we obtain: (G0 /ej)/G0 = (Sj RjGj)/G0- Sj j=1,2,K. ( 12)
G0 =
where
k k =1
S k G k Rk
(9)
S k is the share of yk in y0 ; Gk is the Gini

coefficient of
yk ; and Rk is the Gini yk and the distribution of
correlation between
y0 and is defined as:

Rk = cov( yk , F ( y0 )) / cov( yk , F ( yk ))
(10)
If income component j increases by a factor of e, such that yj(e) = (1+e)yj for all households, the marginal effect of this percentage change on total income inequality is: The relative effect of a marginal percentage change in source-j income on the Gini coefficient for total income (elasticity of total income inequality with respect to income source j) equals the relative contribution of source j to overall income inequality minus the share of source j in total income.
Table 4: Gini decomposition by income sources Income sources Total income Cropping income From irrigated land From non-irrigated land Off-farm income Other income 0.891469 0.782811 0.056473 0.082708 0.243251 0.450737 0.797757 0.821378 0.88046 0.767015 0.003059 0.071629 0.1909283 0.27063526 0.00013781 0.00486607 -0.1595804 -0.0371512 -0.0220664 -0.0276531 -0.40587 -0.09449 -0.05612 -0.07033 1 Sk Gk 0.393181 Rk SkGkRk 1 0.393181
G0 e j
( G
e j ) G0
Where, Sk is share of income source k in total income; Gk is Gini coefficient of income source k; Rk is Gini correlation between income source k and the distribution of total income. SkGkRk is contribution of income source k to the Gini coefficient of total income. Go/ej is marginal effect on the Gini coefficient of total income due to a marginal percentage increase in income source j. (Go /ej)Go is relative effect of a marginal percentage increase in income source j upon the Gini coefficient of total income.
The overall Gini coefficient of per capita income from our sample is 0.393 (Table 4, row 1). Decomposing the Gini coefficient by income source shows that irrigation could help to equalize income (Table 4). Cropping income from irrigated land is most equally distributed with a Gini coefficient approximately 0.24 which is very much lower than those of other income sources (Table 4, column 2).
More importantly, cropping income from irrigated land has the highest marginal effect on lowering inequality (column 6). A 1 per cent increase in cropping income from irrigated land for all households would decrease the Gini coefficient for total income by 0.41 per cent. Hence, these results indicate that inter household inequality is significantly reduced by the presence of irrigation.
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b) Decomposition Results by Income Flows The limitation of decomposing inequality by income sources can be overcome by using a regression-based approach to decompose total income inequality by income flows attributable to specific household characteristics. This approach follows the work of Taylor (1997) and Morduch and Sicular (2002) cited in Q. Huang et al (2005). In this approach, the estimated income flows contributed by characteristics, such as, area of irrigated land, level of education and age, are calculated using the estimated
y hv = Dhv + hv + v + hv
(13)
Where v is the estimated village fixed effect that is equivalent to the estimate of the term, + v + v , in equation (1). The shares of income flows from the area of irrigated land per capita and other household characteristics take the
form
Dhv
y hv
and
) given by the regression parameters ( and results from equation (2), and these flows constitute the various components of total income. By construction, total income is the sum of these flows:
hv , y hv
respectively.
The
decomposition by income flows uses the same approach as the decomposition by income sources except that each yk is replaced by estimated income
flows Dhv , hv , v and
hv .
Table 5: Gini decomposition by income flows as a result of specific household characteristics

Income sources Sk Gk Rk SkGkRk
G0 e j
( G
e j ) G0
Total income per capita (Birr) Area of irrigated land per capita (ha)
1 0.22758951
0.393181 0.675459
1 0.21132386
0.393181 0.03248626 -0.0569977 -0.14497
Dependency ratio of the household
-0.154999
0.468725
-0.157835
0.01146701
0.0724097
0.184164
Proportion of good quality land (%)
0.068204
0.292924
0.07335
0.00146543
-0.0253511
-0.06448
Cultivated land per capita (ha)
0.117866
0.329739
0.111892
0.00434868
-0.041994
-0.10681
Where, Sk is share of income source k in total income; Gk is Gini coefficient of income source k; Rk is Gini correlation between income source k and the distribution of total income. SkGkRk is contribution of income source k to the Gini coefficient of total income. Go/ej is marginal effect on the Gini coefficient of total income due to a marginal percentage increase in income source j. (Go /ej)Go is relative effect of a marginal percentage increase in income source j upon the Gini coefficient of total income.
Results from decomposing inequality by income flows as a result of specific household characteristics further confirm irrigations propensity to equalize income (Table 5). After controlling for other factors, a 1 per cent increase of irrigated land per capita leads to a 0.14 per cent decrease in the Gini coefficient for total income. The results also showed that irrigation is not the only factor that can decrease inequality. A 1 per cent increase in the cultivated land per capita of a household will lead to a 0.11 per cent decrease in the inequality level of total income. Similarly, proportion of good quality land has also its own contribution in reducing income inequality of households in the
study area. On the other hand, dependency ratio has a contrary effect on income inequality. A unit percentage increase in dependency ratio would worsen income distribution by 0 .18 percent. 2. Conclusion
From the output of the study, our key variable area of irrigated land per capita was found to be positively related to household incomes with statistical significance. In addition to this, variables such as dependency ratio and proportion of output affected by negative shocks were statistically significant and had the expected signs of coefficients. However,
14
most of the rest variables have either unexpected signs, statistically insignificant or are inconsistent in the ordinary least squares with fixed effects model and its semi-log transformation of welfare ratio. To sum-up the above points, using multivariate analysis, irrigation was found to have strong impact on income and poverty. Using alternative decomposition analyses of inequality, it was evident that irrigation also helps reduce income inequality. Hence, continued investment in new irrigation projects and maintenance of existing systems in Banja will help to attain the governments rural welfare improvement goals. Moreover, as reducing poverty and decreasing inequality both have growthenhancing effects; irrigation investment could have an added benefit. Irrigation investment in rural Banja Woreda appears to be an investment that can lead to both growth and equity. Acknowledgement I would like to extend my gratitude and deep appreciation for African Economic Research Consortium (AERC) and Addis Ababa University Department of Economics for providing material and financial support for the accomplishment of this piece of work. References CSA (1994): Ethiopian Population and Houses Census by Ethiopian Central Statistical Authority, Addis Ababa. Datt, G. (1998): Simulating poverty measures from regression models of household consumption, Discussion paper, International Food Policy Research Institute. FAO (1968): Food Composition Table for Use in Africa, A research Project Sponsored by US Department of Health, Education, and Welfare; and Food and Agriculture Organizations of the United Nations, Rome, Italy, 1968. Gibson, J., and Rozelle, S.(2003): Poverty and
access to roads in Papua New Guinea, Economic Development and Cultural Change 52, 159-185 IMF (1999): Ethiopia recent economic developments. Washington, DC. Joel Greer and Erik Thorbecke (1986): Food Poverty Profile Applied to Kenyan Smallholders, Economic Development and Cultural Change, Vol. 35, No. 1, 115-141. Joel Greer and Erik Thorbecke (1986): A Methodology for Measuring Food Poverty Applied to Kenya, Journal of Development Economics 24 (1986) 59-74, North-Holland. Lerman, R. I., and Yitzhaki, S. (1985): Income inequality effects by income sources: A new approach and applications to the U.S, The Review of Economics and Statistics 67, 151-156. Morduch, J., and Sicular, T. (2002): Rethinking inequality decomposition, with evidence from rural China, The Economic Journal 112, 93-106. Pyatt, G., Chen, C., and Fei, J. (1980): The distribution of income by factor components, Quarterly Journal of Economics 95, 451-473. Q. Huang, David Dawe, Scott Rozelle, Jikun Huang and Jinxia Wang, (2005): Irrigation, Poverty and Inequality in Rural China, The Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics, 49, 159-175. Stuart, A. (1954): The correlation between variety-values and ranks in samples from a continuous distribution, British Journal of Statistical Psychology 12, 37-44. Taylor, J. E. (1997): Remittances and inequality reconsidered: Direct, indirect, and intertemporal effects, Journal of Policy Modeling 14, 187-208. UN (2004): Implementation of the United Nations Millennium Declaration: Report of
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RURAL WOMEN AND ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION: THE CASE OF NANO ASEKO KEBELE IN ARSI ZONE
Teshome Beyene Email: teshome_beyene @ yahoo.com; P.O.Box 1907 Abstract The purpose of this study was to look in to the impacts of water resource degradation and deforestation on the life of rural women. The study attempts to explore the extent of the problem on women, investigate the change in women life style and identify the coping mechanisms adopted by rural women to cope with the problem they encountered. The target population of the study was rural women living in Nano Aseko kebele. In-depth interviews, key informant interviews, focus group discussions and structured interview were employed to collect data and both qualitative and quantitative analysis has been carried out. The study has found that women are forced to wait an average of 4-6 hours to get turn at the water point and forced to travel longer distance an average six kilometers in search of new sources. The study further reveals that, fetching water from distant source and carrying heavy loads exposed women into higher health risks. Common problems repeatedly mentioned are headache, chest and back pain and other complications. The findings show that the depletion of forest resources has forced women to travel longer distances in search of fuelwood. They traveled an average 9-25 km in search of fuelwood, 2-3 times per week, and to switch to inferior quality fuel. Women spent more time in the collection of fuel and it requires their scarce time and limited energy .The study has also revealed that in the process of gathering fuelwood and water women have been raped and abducted. Environmental degradation has adverse implications for women and girls in the area. The main reason for this is that it is usually women who are the main collectors and user of water, fuelwood and animal feed. This specific study has found that in Nano Aseko kebele the facts of environmental degradation are more than exaggerations: shockingly, it has an adverse class and gender effects. Introduction Critical natural resources, i.e. land, water, forests and trees as well as other forms of biodiversity, which meet the basic needs for food, water, clothing and shelter, have now deteriorated to a low level of productivity in most parts of Ethiopia (EPA, 1997). It has become common fact that the ongoing natural resource degradation is desperately affecting the majority of the rural poor whose livelihood is entirely dependent on these resources. Men and women are exposed to different environmental stresses in different ways. In Third World Countries, women are largely responsible for survival tasks that are essential for daily life. They grow the food crops, provide water, gather fuel and perform most of the other works that sustain the family. As the daily user of the natural resources, women are often the hardest hit by environmental degradation (Bruijn, Halsema, & Hombergh, 1997). Women are doubly affected by environmental degradation, first because of poverty, and second because of their role and status in the traditional patriarchal society. In such a setting, environmental degradation has placed a disproportionate burden on women, largely because of their social and economic role, which expose them to a greater number of environmental hazards (Arne, & Gunner, 2005). According to Aster (2003), traditionally, the Ethiopian women are primary responsible for household chores that keep them inside the house for most of the time. As they prepare food for the household, they are often exposed to high level of smoke and dust for long period of time that reduces their life expectancy more than that of men. The responsibility of undertaking household chores, caring for children and elderly etc significantly reduce women's time for other activities that they inspire, as well as exposing them to health risks that the men not get exposed to or being exposed in this frequency. Moreover girls often help their mothers in household chores, depriving them of valuable time for education. Statement of the Problem The links between women and the environment have only recently begun to be recognized by environmentalists, development specialists and those engaged in raising the status of women. Scholars have become increasingly concerned about impacts of environmental degradation on women. Those
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studies give us a global picture and very rarely case studies from across Africa. But the issue of women and environment are differing through place and time. The existing literature on environmental degradation in Ethiopia, seem to neglect or de-emphasize the impacts on women. The researcher intends to obtain vital information relating to the environment, investigating womens views towards their surroundings. Most of the account on such issues are very patchy and lack seriousness and do not give us a full picture on the situation of women in the countryside. The views of rural women about the effects of environmental degradation on their every day life have not been sufficiently documented. Thus, there continues to be large knowledge gaps in our understanding of what changes occur in the rural womens lives and calling for a comprehensive research work. The main purpose of this study is to fill the gap by assessing the effects of environmental degradation (loss of forest and scarcity of water) on rural women by taking the case of Aseko Woreda (a term given to provincial administrative unit, which is equivalent to a district). Methodology The researcher has employed different types of data collecting techniques. This includes structured interviews, In-depth interviews, Key informant interviews and Focus Group Discussion (FGD). The target population of the study is women who are living in Nano Aseko kebele. Only women were selected because as a result of traditional genderbased division of labour women are disproportionately affected by the adverse impact of environmental degradation. In order to obtain quantitative data, structured interview were administered. According to the information obtained from the kebele who are engaged in marriage officials, as a social obligation almost all women's of the kebele are members of women's Idir (an indigenous self-help association). In the study area, there are three women's Idirs i.e Selasse yesetoch idir, Yeaseko Akababei setoch meredaja idir and Yeaseko 01 setoch ider). Therefore, decision is made to access the women through Idirs. The total numbers of the women Idirs member were not too large to manage the data, therefore all are taken as sample and the total size was achieved in the sample frame. Thus, the samples of this study include
192 rural women who are member of local women Idirs. In order to get adequate data for this study, in-depth and key informant interviews were held with both women and men residents of the area. Using kebele officials' guidance knowledgeable individual and experts were taken as informants. In the selection process of informants snowball-sampling techniques were employed. In addition to this, data were gathered from woreda environmental protection officials, Women's Affairs Representatives and Women's Association members. In this study two FGDs were conducted. The first group was consisted of eleven women, which are members of Nano Aseko Women's Association. The second group was selected from Aseko 01 Yesetoch Idir. The number of the discussants was ten. Therefore, a total of twenty one discussants were participated in the FGDs. Data Analysis The data collected through the above different instruments were analyzed both qualitatively and quantitatively. Data collected using interview and Focus Group Discussion were analyzed qualitatively to investigate the findings. To this end, the researcher used units such as narratives, sentence and phrases to create categories. These categories or grouping of issues were served to put related ideas together in a series of topics in the analysis. In addition to this, the researcher also employed reflective analysis to present his own personal observation in the field. Simple statistics like percentage was used to describe the background of the respondents, which includes their number, age, marital, and educational status. Data that were collected through structured interview were also analyzed using simple statistics (frequency and percentage) to show the degree of respondents' opinion on relevant and important issues. The structured interview, focus group discussion, in-depth interview and key-informant interviews results are going to be presented in continuation under each variable of the study. Findings and Discussion Impacts of Environmental degradation on Women The purpose of this study was to explore the actual impacts of environmental degradation on women in the study area, thus attempts have been made to investigate the consequences of environmental degradation on women. According to Gedyon (2003) environmental degradation affects everybody indiscriminate of gender. However, society is not
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organized in harmonious and egalitarian manner. Because of the mutual relationships Visa-vis control over property and resource and the existing patronizing and subject subordinate type of relationship, there are gender factors, class factors, and other factors that are discriminatory. Case studies on the rural areas in countries of the third world (Dankelman and Davidson 1988, Rodda 1993) have demonstrated how rural women frequently utilized the resource base in their daily task of meeting subsistence needs. These studies show how women have to walk longer distances and expend more energy to collect food, fuel and fodder for their households, inevitably suffering worse effects of environmental degradation than men. As a result of the traditional gender based division of labour, womens role focuses on the productive, reproductive and sustenance of the family. Thus, women are usually the ones responsible for providing food and water for the household and suffer disproportionately when common resources are degraded. Water and fuel source availability as well as its location has direct impact on women who are the household water and fuel manager and providers. Impact of Water Scarcity on Women An attempt has been made to explore whether the time women use to fetch water compared to the past time increased or not. The qualitative data shows that in recent year because of high population pressure together with recurrent droughts, the amount of water available in the kebele has decreased. Thus, the time and distance where women get water increased. FGD participants explained the challenges as follows. Table 1. Average Distance Travel in Search of Water Time <2 F 61 P 31.7 2-8 F 131 149 P 68.2 77.6 9-15 F 36.7
Our children spent the whole day at school, so fetching water is our responsibility. We got water after waiting 5-6 hours queue. This is not always possible; sometimes we return home with an empty pot and jerrican (a plastic made container used to hold liquid substances), though we got the turn. At the water point in order to get turn, we often quarreled with each other. Thus, conflict at the water point is common. With increasing population, competing on a single water source has led to conflict, because the stream has not enough amount of water to feed the whole population of the area (3A, Age 55). The result of this study revealed that women often have the responsibility of using and managing water in the household, thus everyday they are taking long hours to fetch water both from distant sources and to get turn. This reduces their time for education and other activities. For example, time invested on securing water excludes them from participating in decision-making process, advocating against poverty and improving their quality of life. The respondents were asked whether the distance to fetch water increased or not. The response was yes in most case. As shown in Table 1, the majority of the respondents out of 192, (77.6 percent) replied that in the present time they walk an average 2-8 km to fetch water, followed by those who walk 9-15 km 18.7% and 3.6% reported that they walk 16-22 km. According to the respondents in the dry season when water scarcity was very serious, women traveled relatively longer distance to fetch water from the stream/river.
Past Present
Distance (kms) 16-22 P F P 18.7 7 3.6
23+ F -
P -
Total F 192 192
P 100 100
Fetching water is an activity that is undertaken every day, thus, increasing the distance means increasing the women level of suffering. According to my observation, the distance from which women had to carry water varied from two kilometers to ten kilometers. They had to carry water twice a day, which used to take at least half a day. In Nano Aseko kebele women had to travel far for water collection. According to the findings in the kebele 40 liters of water used per day per family just for drinking and cooking. This implies that the amount of water that a
household consumes per day is much lower than the standard set by WHO which is 40-50 liters per person per day (Hirut, 2000 citing Rodda). This has direct implications on their families. Fetching water from distant source and carrying heavy load has its own impact on the womens health. Respondents were asked what health problem they encountered as a result of fetching water from distant sources. As indicated in Table 2 most of the participants 53.1 percent reported that they had headache, chest and back pain, kidney and uterine
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illness, and eye problem, 4 respondents (2 percent) replied that they feel pain resulting from heavy burden and frequent work. Women, especially those who were middle aged complained of pain in their
neck and shoulders. Some common problems reported by the women were, tiredness and during the nighttime fearing of attacks from wild animals and humans.
Table 2. Most Frequently Mentioned Problems Associated with Water Resource Degradation Cause Problems Different kinds of health complaints (headache, chest and back pain, kidney and uterine pain eye complication) Pain resulting from heavy burden and frequent work Pollution exposed to water born diseases a Tiredness/Fatigue Fear during the nighttime
Note:* Since the response could have multiple responses the total percentage does not add to 100.
Freq 102
Per.* 53.1
Fetching water
4 6 76 12
2.0 3.1 39 6
In terms of the quality of water, women reported that they never had access to clean water. In the entire kebele, no water purification methods were used. The poor quality of water also had severe implications for the communitys health and for women in particular. In addition to the above impacts women also faced different socio-cultural problem that results from water scarcity. Focus group discussants and interview participants reported that women are frequently exposed to rape and abduction when they go far distance to fetch water. Women also indicated that scarcity of water dismantled their social network. The impacts of water scarcity not only affect the socio-economic situation of women but also have socio-cultural and emotional challenges. During the research and fieldwork, the researcher found that for rural poor women, the lack of access to water meant an increase in the workload, reducing livestock population resulting in greater poverty. The increase in poverty and health hazards further reduced the ability of poor women to cope with hardship and marginalization.
Impacts of Deforestation on Women One of the indicators that is commonly used to assess the level of environmental degradation is the availability of fuelwood in a community. Literature on environmental degradation has shown that fuelwood scarcity in many part of developing world gives evidence to the seriousness of deforestation. Fuelwood Scarcity and its Impacts on Women In order to explain the extent of fuelwood scarcity participants have identified changing fuel sources and varieties, increasing distance of fuel source and changing time spent as the major indicators. As it indicated in Table 3, respondents were asked to identify the primary sources of fuelwood in the past years and the present time. In the past year, the primary source of fuel was trees for proportion of (94.8 percent), followed by bushes and agricultural residuals (2.1%) each. In the present time however, the primary source of fuel is agricultural residuals accounts for (54.2%), followed by animal dung and kerosene (17.7%) each.
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Table 3. Sources of Fuel in the Household Source Past Frequency 182 4 4 2 192 Percentage 94.8 2.1 2.1 1 100 Time Present Frequency Percentage 8 4.2 12 6.3 104 54.2 34 17.7 34 17.7 192 100 removal of trees, which resulted in depletion of vegetation cover in terms of quantity as well as quality push the rural households to divert to other fuel types, which hardly fulfill the above, mentioned qualities. As can be seen from Table 3, in the present time the second largest proportion of respondents were found to use animals dung as alternative fuel source, which is used by many women. But in terms of quality it is the most inferior quality and identified by the women. Results of both the quantitative and the qualitative data show that the distance from and time spent to collect fuelwood has increased in the present time when compared to the past. As shown in Table 4, more than half (51%) of respondents replied that in the present time they travel an average 9-15 km, while, (24.4%) from 16-22 kms and (16.1%) travel from 2-8 kms respectively. As can be seen from the same table, in the past almost all (95%) of respondents were travel to collect fuelwood an average less than 2 km and the rest (4.1%) reported that they traveled from 2-8 kms. However, the results of this study regarding the average distance covered by women are not consistent with other researches conducted in different parts of the country. For example, a research conducted in Gojjam revealed that women travel an average 5.5 km to gather fuelwood while in Addis Ababa the average distance women travel to collect fuelwood reached up to 10 kms (Aster, 2003; Fikirt 1991; Alemayehu, 1996). This may be due to the reason that environmental degradation is place and time specific, thus the degree and the extent of the problem varies accordingly and this is equally important in determining the response to the problem.
Trees Bushes Agricultural residuals Animal dung Kerosene Total
In the kebele all of the women and key informants interviewed reported that crop residual now a day constituted nearly the entire sources of fuel. Due to the extreme wood shortage for example sorghum stalks were even used in the construction of hunts. FGDs discussants reported about scarcity of fuelwood as follows. In the near past the forest was found in the outskirts of each village. We were never worried for fuelwood collection. We were very selective, when using fuelwood we have had the knowledge which wood (tree) give more heat and light, and which wood does not have smoke that is hazardous for our health. We have a profound knowledge about the variation. For example, Weira (Olena europaea) is more preferable because it has no smoke and gives more heat and light. But now we do not have any option, we use whatever available around (6A, Age 60). The data obtained from both quantitative and qualitative analysis show that fuelwood scarcity is clearly observed in the area. This is manifested both in quantity and quality of fuelwood. Fuel quality according to respondents is measured in terms of flammability, good smell, absence or little smoke, burning for long time, dryness, etc. Respondents noted that as a result of scarcity of fuels they started to use poor quality fuel sources. The use of different inferior quality fuel has different implication on the health of womens who are responsible for the daily kitchen work. When the fuel has poor burning quality, it is required in relatively large quantity, causes smoke that negatively affect health and test of food. A study conducted by Hirut (2000) on Boguna woreda also confirmed that the unsustainable
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Table 4. Average Distance Traveled in Search of Fuelwood kms Past Frequency <2 2-8 9-15 16-22 23+ Total 184 8 192 Percentage 95.8 4.1 100 Present Frequency 31 98 47 15 192 Percentage 16.1 51.0 24.4 7.8 100
The distance traveled in search of fuelwood has an impact on the time and frequencies of gathering fuel. Fuelwood is the principal source of domestic energy in Ethiopia. Women who are the primary provider of household energy, travelled at least one full day to collect wood, while a generation ago it could be collected within a half hour walk from their homes (Hirut, 2000). According to the survey results about one third (37.5%) of responses replied that they collect fuel 2-3 times per week (See Table 4). This implies that women are forced to walk 60 kilometers per week only for fuelwood collection. In addition participants of the FGDs pointed out that the frequencies of fuelwood collection in the household increased, when there are feasts, holidays, and other socio cultural ceremonies. Studies on the additional length of time and greater distances women have to walk to collect fuelwood shows that burden of ecological change has fallen disproportionately on women and young children (Gedeyon, 2003). Apart from the time and distance wood gathering is not merely a matter of picking up sticks lying around. Rather it is a complex and energy consuming operation. Collecting fuelwood from distance and inaccessible sources require more energy and considerable courage. Due to the dangerous location of the sources of fuelwood, women are exposed to various types of problems. The researcher observed that walking steep slop and climbing mountains to collect fuelwood is the everyday challenges of women in the study area. Sometime the fittest women climb up trees often in
bare feet; falls and injuries form-cutting tools and stones are common. According to this study, the situation of women to get fuelwood becomes difficult during the rainy season. Research finding on women and fuelwood scarcity indicate that the rainy season makes fuelwood gathering and transporting very complicated (Fikirit 1991; Hirut 2000 and Selamawit 2004). A participant describes the challenges they had faced in the process of transporting the wood and in time of using the wood as follows: In the summer season when it rains the roads become slippery and wet. We get soaked through. In addition to this, because of the rain the wood become wet and the weight that we carried increased. Thus, it needs more energy and determination to transport. Moreover, the wood becomes more smoky and unable to burn easily. To get dry wood we need to move further with that slippery and sharp terrain. In most cases we got fuelwood after crossing the Bogido River. Sometimes, when sudden rainfall occurs, the volume of the river rises up and it become difficult to cross. As a result, we are forced to spend more time until the flood passes and the volume of the river decreases (3B, Age 36). The womens words tell the severity of the problem that scarcity of fuel wood increase the time women spend seeking fuel wood and exacerbate womens physical and psychological burden. Carrying heavy load and traveling long
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distances has an impact on health. Most of the participants of this study reported that they have been exposed to different kind of illness (headache, spinal cord pain, eye complication etc.). Apart from the hard task Rape and abduction is another problem that pointed out by responds and discussants. The women explained this, "sources of fuelwood is far away from human settlement so, the abductor and rapist get the courage to do whatever they want", thus the women do the work with fear and anguish. Previous research on women and environment as well as the result of this study revealed that women are exposed to indoor pollution; emissions from biomass fuels are dangerous sources of air pollution in the home, where women cook during all or part of the year. According to the researcher observation it seems likely that respiratory and eye disease, which are so abundant among women of the study area, are caused by wood and other biomass burning. Furthermore, deforestation and scarcity of fuel wood has an economic implication on women. Many informants pointed out that until recent time the women rarely bought goods and materials for household consumption except salt. Even they prepared their own clothes using local resources. But now they are forced to buy everything including water and fuel wood, which were available everywhere in the past. A close examination of the above statements reveals that scarcity of fuelwood has a huge impact on the physical and economic well being of women. Both the qualitative and the quantitative data demonstrated that women must walk a long distance to collect fuelwood often increased women's work load, saps theirs energy, risking their personal safety and also the data shows there is an increasing incidence of violence when they traveled to remote location. Research findings on deforestation in various countries have shown, in rural areas where fuelwood supply is scarce, leaving home very early to have more time to gather fuelwood is a daily routine among women. Thus, deforestation and loss of vegetation have forced women and girls to wake up earlier and walk further in search of fuel wood (Diana 2005; Fikirte1991 and Hirut 2000). Conclusion Studies show that due to their interaction and interferences with the immediate environment to fulfill their economic, social and political needs
people in this world have been exploiting the planet earth very rapidly. High population pressure, poverty, unwise use of natural resources and ignorance are combined synergically to contribute the degradation of the environment. Thus, the consequence of environmental depletion negatively affect human health and welfare, hinder development will affect generation to come. This study pronounced that in the study area the availability of a large proportion of the poor rural population has severely eroded natural resource over the past two decades. This has particularly adverse implications for women and girls in the area. The main reason for this is that it is usually women who are the main collectors and user of water, fuelwood and animal feed. A typical rural woman expected to take over the divers tasks in production, reproduction and household chores. Having all these, environmental degradation increased the range of working hours. All this simply mean prolonged hours of working beyond the capacity that one can be done. This specific study has found that in Nano Aseko kebele the facts of environmental degradation are more than exaggerations: shockingly, it has an adverse class and gender effects. Women face the greatest shock with the resource degradation / exhaustion. The depleted of fuel sources and water resource degradation in the immediate environment has lengthened their daily journey, spending more time and energy to get hold of these resources in the further distances, exposed them for genderbased violence; a decrease in women's income from non-timber forest products and agriculture, an adverse effect on their health and nutrition, an erosion of women's social support networks; and a decline in their traditional knowledge of plants and species. Even though, division of labor between men and women show that both cross-cultural as well as cross regional variation within a country it is a widely accepted fact that women in most culture take the responsibility of collecting water, fuelwood and fodder from various sources and managing it at home. From the survey results and discussion, it can be concluded that the degradation of natural resource in the study area, which resulted in reduced supply of resource, has caused wider and complex problems on women, their families and their environment.
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Acknowledgments I am indebted to express my heartfelt and deep gratitude to Dr.Emebet Mulugeta, for her critical comments, contractive corrections and invaluable advice right from the shaping of the problem throughout the development of the study. I would also extend my sincere thanks to all my research participants who shared their time and who provided and assisted me to obtained valuable information in Nano Aseko kebele. Finally, I would like to thank Addis Ababa University Schools of Graduate Studies for its financial support for doing this research. References Alemayehu Geberhiwot(1996): Inflow and arketing of Fuelwoood and Dung in Addis Ababa: Report of A Pilot survey. Addis Ababa: International Labour Organization Office. Arne, Strand, & Gunner, Olesen (Eds.)(2005): The Nexus between Environment and Gender. In Daud Saba: Environment in Afghanistan: Findings on Education, Environment ,Gender ,Health, Livelihood ,Water and Sanitation. CMI Report. Aster Tefera (2003): "Environment and Gender". In Yonas Admasu (Ed.), Reflection: Document on the Forum on Gender. Addis Ababa: (pp, 6-23). Master Printing Press. Bruijn, M., Halsema, V.,& Hombergh, V.D. (Eds.). (1997): Gender and Land Use: Diversityin Environment. Amsterdam: Thela Dankelman, I., & Davidson, J. (1988): Women and Environment in the Third World: Alliance for the Future. London: Earth Scan publication Ltd. Diana Lee Smith (Ed.).(2005): Women Managing Research on Gender Urbanization and Environment. Nairobi: Kenya Litho Ltd . Environmental Protection Authority (EPA) (1997). Conservation Strategy of Ethiopia., Addis Ababa: EPA. Fikirt Haile (1991): Women Fuelwood Carriers in Addis Ababa: and the Prei-urban Forest. Geneva: International Laboure Organization Office. Gedyon Asefaw (Ed.).(2003): Environment, Poverty and Gender. Addis Ababa: No.2, Forum For Social Studies .. Hirut Bekele (2000): Natural Resource Degradation and the Predicament of Rural Women: The case of Bugna Wereda. Unpublished MA Thesis, Department of RLDS, AAU. Selamawit Minkir (2004): Major Causes of Environmental Degradation and Local Peoples adaptive Strategies: The case of Babele in Eastern Harerghe. Unpublished MA Thesis, Department of Population Studies. Addis Ababa University.
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DETERMINANTS OF THE HOUSEHOLD FOOD SECURITY IN BULBULA, ADAMI-TULU JIDO KOMBOLCH WOREDA IN 2007/2008 HARVESTING SEASON(Oromia, Ethiopia) Fekadu Nigussie Kunuze College, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, E-mail: shalekg@yahoo.com Abstract This study was conducted with the objectives of identifying the determinants of food security, and examining the contribution of RWH for food security. Household survey was conducted on 140 households, with 2 focus group and 8 key informants. In addition, secondary data were used elicit the primary data. The study area was selected through a multi-stage purposive sampling technique while simple random method employed for household survey. The study employed purely quantitative method such as descriptive statistics, bivariate and multivariate analyses were used for quantitative data analysis. To decide the food secured and insecure households 2100Kcal was taken as a cut off point on the bases of 14-days food consumption of the households. Accordingly, 65% of the households were found to be food secured. The result from multivariate logistic regression analysis indicated that age of the household head, labor availability and market accessibility showed significant and negative effect in household food security whereas cultivable land size, fertilizer, engagement in showed significant and positive role for household food security. The interaction effect between education status and income category indicated that illiterates were better than literate households in the status of food security. Thus, policy programming should be based on the rudimentary of precise determinants of food security status. Key words:Food security, determinants and Rainwater harvesting Introduction In Ethiopia the blend of man made and natural factors results serious and growing food insecurity problem, which expose five to six million people to chronic and transitory food insecurity problem each year. In addition, ten million people are exposed to vulnerable, with weak resilience (FAO, 2006). Thus, in order to withstand this problem there is a need to improve technologies of agriculture production to ameliorate the economic, social and institutional conditions necessary of the people (Mekuria, 2003). Paradoxically, Ethiopia is considered as the water tower of Eastern Africa even though only about 32% of the total population has access to clean and safe water. The potential irrigable land area of the country is estimated to be about 3.5 millions hectares. Despite its abundant water resources and irrigable land potential, so far 5.7% of the potentially irrigable land is believed to have been developed. Most of the farmers are unable to utilize the abundant water resources (Tesfaye, 2005). At the same time, the potential for rain watr harvesting (RWH) per person is estimated to be 11,800 cubic meters as compared with annual renewable water resources-rivers and ground water, which is 1,600 cubic meters (UNEP, 2006). In quite similar way, Getachew (1999) described that Ethiopia is still endowed with enormous land and water resource potential that can be transformed into a dependable source of energy and food supply. Ironically, it is still one of the most drought prone countries in the world. Yet, much of Ethiopias economy requires adequate and reliable rainfall for agricultural production. Over the years, scanty and erratic rainfall has led to significant crop losses and in some cases total crop failure. This means millions of people have been affected (Eyasu et al., 2007). However, food security at household level determines by factors such as income, prices of food, household demographic structure (sex, family size, dependency ratio etc), educational status of household members and location (Garrett and Ruel, 1999). In addition, Workneh (2006) argue that household food security needs to be seen from dimension of availability/production and access (the ability to purchase food from market). Further Nyariki and Wiggins (1997) unveil that access for food in household implicitly depend on the ability to make use of natural (land, water etc), physical and human (labor) resources efficiently. Adami-Tulu Jido Kombolcha Woreda particularly the study site Bulbula is characterized by drought and lack of moisture,
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which subject the people into chronic and transitory food insecurity problem (DPPC, 2000; DPPC, 2002; DPPC, 2003; DPPC, 2004; DPPC, 2005). Moisture conservation and RWH to enhance agricultural production in the Woreda happen to be the most prominent activity implemented by the government since 2002. There has been limited or no effort to systematically and to analytically study the contribution of RWH on households food security in the study area. There are some researches made on the performance of RWH structure for food security such as by Eyasu et al (2007) dwell on the idea of profitability of pond to well system for production, and Danile (2007)dwelled much on policy issue and implementation of RWH. However, this study is different from the above studies in two ways. First, in the area context since food security differs from place to place. Second, this study will examine the determinants of household food security, which was not considered in the studies mentioned above. Thus, the central question of this study is What are the determinants of household food security in the study area? The objective of this paper is to identify determinants of household food security in Bulbula. Methodology In this study, a two-stage purposive sampling and random sampling techniques were employed for the selection of the study site and respondents respectively. In the first stage the study site-Bulbula was purposively selected. For the reason that it comprises more than 35% of RWH structure in the Woreda and relatively low land from the Woreda. In the second stage, from the total of 11 Kebeles in Bulbula 6 of them were found to be participants in RWH. Of these, 5 of them were purposively selected giving due attention to the participants number. Namely: Korme-Bugure, kertefa-Weransa, Jela-Aluto, Araba, and Hurgo-Mechafera. Following, the total households in the 5 selected kebeles were stratified as the participants and non-participants in RWH. Then simple random sampling techniques were used using lottery method to sample the individual respondents from the respective strata.
Based on the data obtained from the respective office there are nearly equal number of participants and non-participants in RWH in the selected kebeles. Accordingly, equal numbers of households were taken from both categories. As a result a total of 140 representative sample respondents were taken in the study. Data analysis Prior to actual analysis sheer number of livestock and labor in each household was converted in to TLU (Tropical Livestock Unit) and Person-days equivalence unit (PE) respectively (see Annex Table A-1 & A-3). The data analysis part mainly was done by using quantitative data analysis techniques. Descriptive statistics (such as percentage, mean & standard deviation) were used for comparison purposes. Bivaritate analysis: analysis of independent t-test and Pearson 2-square test was taken to show the mean difference between continuous and dependent variables and the association of categorical and dependent variables respectively. Multivariate (Logistic regression) model analysis employed to determine the food security determinants in the study area (see the detail of the specific model below). Dependent Variable: Household food security Status (HFS) is a dummy dependent variable in the model assigned value of 1 for food secured (>2100 Kcal) households and 0 otherwise (< 2100 kcal). Thus, the gross household food consumption was converted into calories by using the conversion factor for each 100g of the food items consumed, and dividing the calories figure by the number of adult equivalents in the household and per 14 days resulted in a concise figure for average calories consumed per adult equivalent per day, then compared with an estimate of threshold kilo caloric level of 2100 Kcal (Hoddinott, 1999) see annex Table A-2 and A-4. Independent variables: Various household characteristics, resource endowment, institutional issue and socio-economic variables are expected to affect households food security in the study area. The major explanatory variables hypothesized to influence positively and negatively on the household to be food secure or not are described below in Table1.
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To test the sated hypotheses, a probabilistic model was specified with food security as a function of series of household characteristics, resource endowment, institutional issue and socio-economic variables. The dependent variable is dummy variable, which takes a value of 0 or 1 depending on the households food security status. Here, the main purpose is to determine the probability that an individual with a given set of attribute will fall in one choice rather than the alternative, i.e., either food secure or insecure not both. The functional form of Logit model is specified as follow, Gujarati (1995) Zi = o + 1x1 + + n xn + Ui Where: o = intercept, 1, 2. . . ,n are slopes of the equation in the model
Xi = is vector of relevant to household characteristics, resource endowment, institutional issue and socio-economic explanatory variables Zi = the function of n explanatory variables (x); in this case Zi = Household food security status. Ui= disturbance term or the error term Summary of the code, variable definition, expected sign (the direction of relation that explanatory variables affect the dependent variable) and unit of measure in the model has been given.
Table 1.Variable codes, Definitions and Measurement of Independent variables Variable explanatory(Codes) AGE LEDUC RATIO TLU OXEN LANDSI LANDSE ENRWH Variables type & expected sign Continuous (+) Dummy (+) Continuous (-) Continuous (+) Continuous (+) Continuous (+) Dummy (+) Dummy (+) Categorical (+) Dummy (+) Continuous (-) Definition Age of the HH head literacy status of the HH head Family size in AE consuming unit Livestock size (excluding oxen) Number of oxen in the HH Total farm size operated during the cropping year The property right to use land owned The involvement in RWH Income from (Livestock(asset), RWH and rain fed ) Fertilizer use or not Distance travel from home to market Measurement years 1=literate, 0=otherwise Adult equivalence Tropical livestock unit(TLU) Count Hectare 1= secured; 0=otherwise 1= RWH participant 0= non-participant
REALINCOME FERZER MARKA
Birr 1=user users km 0=non-
Result and Discussion Bivariate Association of some Continuous and categorical Households characteristics, Socio-
economic, Demographic and Institutional issue factors with Food Security Status of the Households
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From the bivariate relation continuous variable with food security it was found out that there is a significant mean difference in age of the household between food secured and insecure households, in this case the relative young households are better than old ones. Food secured and insecure households have shown a significant mean difference in labor availability. Accordingly higher labor endowed households were food insecure as compare to less endowed households. There is also a significant mean difference in oxen availability, land size and market accessibility between food secured and insecure households at different significant level. However, dependency ratio does not show any significant difference between food secure and insecure households (see annex Table A-9). In addition, food security status has shown significant Pearson 2-square with livestock (excluding oxen), education status of the household head, fertilizer utilization of the household and aggregate income of the household at different significant level (see annex Table A-8). Econometric Model Estimation Prior to the actual analysis Multicolinearity diagnosis test was taken to both continuous variables using Variance of Infiltration Factor (VIF) and Contingency Coefficient (CC) test was taken for categorical variables (see annex Table A-6 & A-7). Besides, goodness of fit of the model was carried out. Accordingly, Hosmer and Lemeshow test for goodness of the model indicates best fit and the overall correctly prediction of the logit regression model is 83.6% and model prediction for food secured 91.2% and for food insecure 69.4% (see Table 2 below ). Age (AGE) Contrary to what is hypothesized it was found out that keeping all other factors constant for one year increase in the age of the household is associated with a decreasing of food security status of the household by the factor of 0.943, which is significant at 10% level. This may be that the significant relation that is found between old age HH and polygamy might probably play a deterring role in the status of food security there by increasing the family size of the household or by increasing pressure on fixed resource that the household posses(see annex Table A-5). Workneh (2006) has also
found that the age of the household is negative and significantly related to household food security status in Wollo. Labor Availability (LABOR) in the household
Though high labor assumed to have positive relation to household food security, it was learned that increasing the availability of labor has negative and significant relation with food security status of the household at 1% level. The model indicates that a unit increase in labor availability in the households would result in decreasing food security by the factor of 0.411. This could probably be due to the attainment of marginal return of labor. i.e for whatever unit labor incremental in the farm activity the production will remain the same. Thus, the presence of high labor beyond the available resource seems a sheer unproductive number and high consuming unit. This corroborates Workenh argument in the interview given to Zerihun (2008, June 14: 10) in Addis Neger weekly Amharic version news paper presented that the presence of surplus labor in the household has a pressure on consuming pattern, deters the creativity of the labor, hamper technological transfer and also create social instability, which in turn affects the food security status negatively. Cultivable Land Size (LANDSI) The result from the odd ratio of the LANDSI indicated that for one hectare increase in cultivable land size is associated with 1.708 fold increase in the odds of having food security in the households, which is significant at 5% level. Kidane et al (2005) in their study have found that farm land size is positively and significantly related to the probability of the household to be food secure in Koredegaga peasant. Similarly, Workneh (2006) has attested the same fact that for an increase in farm land there is a better change in production. Engagement in RWH (ERWH) The odds ratio of the food security status of the participants as compared to the non-Participants in RWH from the model indicates 3.364 fold increase in the odds of the food security status in the participants than in the non-participants, which is significant at 5% level. This increase in the food security of the former as compared to the later could be that the formers engagement
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in cash crop production helped them to reap substantial amount of money, which in turn help them to purchase consumable food during dry season. Or the income that the participants obtained from RWH might have given them the opportunity to purchase essential agricultural inputs such as fertilizer, improved seeds and pesticides which in turn increased their productivity and better food security status than their counterparts. Odhiambo (2005) in his study indicated that the use of RWH as a supplemental irrigation happen to be linked with increase in food security and income level of the participants in RWH. Similarly Senkondo et al (2004) in their study have concluded that RWH availability has brought a potential option for production in semi-arid areas. Use of fertilizer (FERZER) The result from the model indicates that keeping all other factors constant the food security of fertilizer users increased by a factor of 4.780 fold as compared to the odd of food security status of the non-users of fertilizer, which is significant at 5% level. Kidane et al (2005) have attested the same fact that the food security of fertilizer user households is positively and significantly affected unlike their counterparts. Market accessibility (MARKA) The result from the model indicates that keeping all other variables constant for one kilometer increase in the distance that the framer travel from the market is associated with a 0.76 factor decrease in the food security status of the household. A similar argument, given by Webb et al. (1992, as cited in Workneh, 2006) have shown that famine in Ethiopia is induced by isolation of farm households from the major markets together with other limiting factors. Effect of Interaction terms Educational Status of the HH and Income level of the Households Using education status of HH as a focus variable, the effect of being educated on having
food security is greater in high-income groups than in the rest groups. This means the availability of sufficient income to the HH as a single variable may not warrant food security of the household. Instead, the way that money managed and utilized to the priority area matters or the way that income allocated to high return giving projects matters most. That is why the result shows educational status of the HH is important to affect how the money spent efficiently. By the same token to have sufficient amount of income is a precondition to attain food security but not an end by it self, when it is supported by education there will be better management of the available income and efficient utilization, which in turn paves the way to have food security. However, to lower income groups to begin with, they need to have the threshold level of income in order the education status of the HH could affect it. Similarly, using income as a focus variable, the effect of being from middle and high income group on having food security is greater in illiterate households than the literate. While for low income groups the effect remains the same. This may be that the illiterate households work without discriminating the type of the job as their self-esteems is relatively lower compared to the literate. For instance working being hired as laborer for the haves household, selling fuel wood, charcoal and sending their kids to work as herders to generate income is much acceptable in the illiterate than the literate households in the study area. This is in harmony with Sen (1989) work on food and freedom that the compulsion to acquire enough food may force the vulnerable people to do things, which they resent doing and may make them to accept lives with little freedom. Or the tendency of illiterate households to spend their income on non-food item is less likely, which might help them to sustain the threshold level of their daily calorie as compared to their counterparts.
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Table 2. The maximum likelihood estimates of Binary Logit Model (BLM) Variables AGE RATIO LABOUR TENURE(1); 1=secure; 0=otherwise LANDSI OXEN TLU ENRWH(1); 1= participants; 0=otherwise REALINCOME(1); 1=high;0=low REALINCOME(2); 2=middle;0=low LEDUC(1); 1=literate; 0=otherwise FERZER(1); 1=users; 0=otherwise MARKTA LEDUC(1) * REALINCOME(1) LEDUC(1) * REALINCOME(2) Constant Hosmer and Lemeshow test chi-square (2) 10.623 p-value 0.224 Sensitivity a 91.2% Specificity b 69.4% Overall percentage prediction 83.6%
a b
B -0.059 -0.408 -0.889 -0.959 0.535 0.376 0.082 1.213 4.244 2.021 2.621 1.565 -0.274 -4.668 -2.679 4.275
Standard Error(S.E) 0.031 0.355 0.235 0.640 0.271 0.411 0.056 0.570 1.388 1.407 1.139 0.653 0.094 1.507 1.515 2.332
P-value 0.060 0.250 0.000 0.134 0.048 0.360 0.142 0.033 0.002 0.151 0.021 0.017 0.004 0.002 0.077 0.067
Odd Ratio 0.943 0.665 0.411 0.383 1.708 1.456 1.086 3.364 69.707 7.546 13.752 4.780 0.760 0.009 0.069 71.851
Correctly predicted food secure groups based on a 50-50 probability classification scheme Correctly predicted food insecure groups based on a 50-50 probability classification scheme
Conclusion Food insecurity is a chronic problem for more than five million people every year in Ethiopia. The underlying concern of this paper is to study the main determinants of household food security in Bulbula. The study identified the most significant factors which determine household food security status in Bulbula. Accordingly, multivariate analysis showed the positive and significant roles of land size, fertilizer utilization and engagement in promoting food security status of the households. The analysis also divulged the significant and negative role of market accessibility and high labor availability, which increases the consuming unit there by attaining marginal return of labor on fixed resources. The age of the household head is not happen to affect positively the household food security status as the age of the household increase the tendency to be engaged in polygamy is high. As a result there will be extended family on fix resource that the household endowed, which increases subsistence pressure. In addition the result of the interaction term between aggregate income of the household and education status indicated that illiterate household headed were better in food security status than households leaded
by literate ones. Taking income, its effect is better in high income category households. Yet being from high income group is not and by itself to warrant food security instead how the money used or allocated matters, which demand education of the household head. Acknowledgments I would like to expresses my deepest indebtedness to Assoc. Prof. Alemahyh Geda, Dr. Getent Alemu and Assoc. Prof. Workenh Negatu for their insightful comments and guidance, which I benefited much. I would like also to extend my appreciation to ERHA (Ethiopian Rainwater Harvesting Association) for providing me reading documentations. However, this study would have been meaningless and unattainable without the willingness and patience of Peasants in Bulbula. Furthermor, my particular thanks goes to the Woreda irrigation authority head (Ato Abraham) who helped me a lot to have every possible comfort.
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Last but not the least my appreciation goes to my fianc (Beteka), to my brother Tesfaye and Hiruy Sime for their endless support they gave me. Reference DPPC. 2000. The 2000 Belg season Crop production performance and July-December 2000 food supply prospect in Ethiopia: early warning System Report. Addis Ababa: DPPC. DPPC.2002-2005: food Supply Prospect in 2002-2005 early warning system report. Addis Ababa: DPPC. EHNRI. 1997. Food composition table for use in Ethiopia part III. Addis Ababa: ILRI. FAO. 2006. Special report on crop and food supply assessment mission to Ethiopia. Rome: FAO. Getachew Alemu. 1999.; John Pickford (Ed.): an over view of Integrated Development for Water Supply and Sanitation (PP. 387-390), Addis Ababa: WEDC. Ethiopia Garrett, J.L. & Ruel, M.T. 1999; Determinants of Rural and Urban Food Security and Nutritional Status Differences; insighted from Mozambique. World Development 27(11): 1959 1975. Gujarati, D.N. 1995. Basic Econometrics. 4th edition New York: McGraw-Hill. Hoddinott, J. 1999. Choosing outcome Indicators of household food security. Washington, D.C: IFPRI. Kidane H., Alemu, Z.G., & Kundhlande, G. 2005.Causes of household food insecurity in Koredegaga peasent association, Oromiya Zone, Ethiopia. Agrekon 44(4): 543-560. Mekuria Tamiru. 2003. Small-Scale Irrigation for food Security in Sub-Saharn Africa. Center for Agricuture and Rural Cooperation (CTA) working document number 8031:2-3.
Nyariki, D.M. & Wiggins, S. 1997. Household Food insecurity in Sub-Saharan Africa: Lesson from Kenya. British food journal 99(7): 249-262. Odhiambo, O. 2005. Impacts of rainwaterharvesting in Lare division. Sear Net. Briefs 10:6. Senkondo, E. M. M., Msangi, A. S. K., Xavery, P., Lazaro, E. A& Hatibu, N. 2004. Profitability of for Agricultural Production in Selected Semi-Arid Areas of Tanzania. Applied Irrigation Science 39(1): 65-81. Sen, A. 1989. Food and Freedom. Reprinted in full save from the first paragraph from. World Development 17: 769-781. Storck, H, Bezabih Emana, Birhanu Adnew, Borowiecki,A, & Shimelis W/Hawarit.1991. Farming systems and farm management practices of small holders in the Hararghe highlands. Farming systems and Resource Economics in the Tropics, Vol. 11.F.R. Germany: Wissenschaftsverlag Vauk Kiel Tesfaye Worku. 2005. Analyzing Factors Affecting the Adoption of Rain water harvesting technology in Dugda Bora Woreda; East Shewa, Ethiopia .Unpublished M.A Thesis presented to school of Graduate studies in Alemaya University. UNEP. 2006. Harvesting Rainfall is a key climate Adoption Opportunity for Africa. Workneh Negatu. 2006. Determinants of small farm household food security: evidence from south Wollo, Ethiopia. Ethiopian Journal of Development Research 28(1): 129. Zerihun Tesfaye. 2008. Agriculture sector holding Hidden unemployment. Addis Neger Amharic translated, June 14, 1(034):10.
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Annex Table A-1.Conversion factor used to estimate Tropical Livestock Unit (TLU) Livestock Type Calf Weaned Calf Heifer Cows/Oxen Horse/Mule Donkey Sheep/Goat Camel
Source: Storck et al. ( 1991)
TLU( Tropical Livestock Unit) 0.20 0.34 0.75 1.00 1.10 0.70 0.13 1.25
Table A-2. Conversion factor used to calculate Adult Equivalence (AE)
Age category(Years) Less than 10 Years 10-13 14-16 17-50 Greater than 50
Female 0.60 0.80 0.75 0.75 0.75
Male 0.60 0.90 1.00 1.00 1.00
Source: Institute Pan African Pour le Development (1981); cited in Storck et al. (1991) Table A-3. Conversion factor used to estimate Person-days Equivalent (PE)
Age category(Years) Less than 10 Years 10-13 14-16 17-50 Greater than 50 Male 0.00 0.20 0.50 1.00 0.70 Female 0.00 0.20 0.40 0.80 0.50
Source: John (1982), Ruthenberg (1983), Nair (1985) and Here (1986); as cited in Storck et al.(1991)
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Table A-4. Caloric content of the food consumed in the study area
No A 1 Food items Cereals Maize *white porridge *white bread *Ingera *whole roasted *white kitaa 2 Wheat *Bread *kitta 3 Teff *Ingera *porridge 4 Haricot * boiled B 1 2 3 4 5 C 1 2 3 4 5 D Vegetables *onion *Cabbage * Carrot *Tomato *green pepper Livestock products *Milk *Meat *Egg *cheese * Butter others *oil 896.40 73.70 212.30 295.10 132.40 736.40 71.30 40.10 27.80 30.70 46.50 170.30 358.80 165.40 222.00 222.00 154.70 223.40 153.00 88.10 223.4 Food energy in Kcal per 100 grams edible portion(kg)
Source: Ethiopian health and nutrition research institute (EHNRI) (1997).
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Table A-5. Marriage status per age of the household head
Age of the household head Mean SD
Monogamy (n=98) 37.18 10.93 t-value p-value -4.339 0.000
Polygamy (n=42) 47.07 12.92
Source: own survey 2008 Table A-6.Variance Infiltration Factor for the test of co-linearity among Continuous Variables
Variables LANDSI RATIO OXEN TLU AGE LABOUR MARKA Source: own survey (2008)
Tolerance 0.446 0.779 0.436 0.390 0.117 0.627 0.950
VIF 2.241 1.283 2.295 2.564 1.394 1.596 1.052
Table A-7. Contingency coefficient test for co-linearity between categorical variable
Variables TENURE LEDUC REALINCOME ERWH FERZER
TENURE 1
LEDUC 0.190 1
REALINCO ME 0.108 0.015 1
ERWH 0.077 0.045 0.141 1
FERZE R 0.211 0.189 0.239 0.185 1
Source: own survey (2008)
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Table A-8. Bivariate Association of Categorical variables: household characteristics, socioeconomic, Demographic and Institutional issue Factors with Food Security Status of the Households Factors Education Vs Food security Livestock(excluding) Vs Food security Fertilizer Vs Food security Land tenure issue Vs Food security Aggregate income Vs Food security Engagement in RWH Vs Food security Pearson 2-square value 4.723** 8.959** 8.980*** 0.089 4.848* 0.283
Note: *, **, and *** indicates 10%, 5% and 1% significant level
Table A-9. Bivariate Association of some Continuous Households characteristics, Socio-economic, Demographic and Institutional issue factors with Food Security Status of the Households
Factors Age of the HH Dependency ratio
Household food security status Food secured Food insecure Food insecure Food secured
Mean 38.31 43.57 1.66 1.66 4.50 3.47 2.12 2.51 2.40 2.90 12.65 10.65
t-value 2.442**
0.260
Labor availability
Food insecure Food secured
3.037***
Oxen
-2.345**
Land size availability
-1.743**
Market accessibility Source: own survey (2008)
3.761***
Note: *,**, and *** indicates 10%, 5% and 1% significant level
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UNIVERSITY STUDENTS HYGIENE BEHAVIOUR AND ATTITUDE TOWARDS ECOLOGICAL SANITATION: A STATUS REPORT ON STUDIES CONDUCTED IN ADAMA UNIVERSITY, ETHIOPIA Wudneh Ayele1, Jan-Olof Drangert2, Nina Hartmuth3
1 2
Arba Minch Town ROSA project Office, wudexa@yahoo.com, P.O.Box 40, Arba Minch, Ethiopia, Corresponding author; 3 Linkping university, Stockholm, Sweden; University Capacity Building Program, GTZ -IS, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Abstract This study is about the hygiene behaviour of students in relation to sanitation arrangements in Adama University, Ethiopia. The study identifies different practices and pinpoints changes and improvements in the hygiene behaviour of the students which may have a positive impact on health. In addition, the students perception about ecological sanitation and their attitudes towards the use of urine-diverting dry toilets and recycling of organic matter and nutrients from human excreta were assessed. The existing sanitation arrangements were investigated and the relevant officials of the university were interviewed about the sanitation situation in the university. The methods used to acquire a detailed understanding of the students hygiene behaviours and attitudes to ecological sanitation comprise unstructured observation, conversational interviews, key informant interviews, focus group discussions and detailed structured interviews with 110 students. Some main findings of the study are: 69 out of 110 students are not satisfied with the existing sanitation arrangements due to various reasons which include the improper use of the existing toilets by students themselves and frequent water cuts in the university. Toilets in the university lack cleanliness. There is great need for hygiene education to improve the existing toilet use practices None of the interviewed students had seen a urine-diverting toilet and only about 46% of the respondents had heard about the reuse of human excreta. Generally, the results of the information and data gathered in the study and the developed conclusions and recommendations made for this university may be used by most of the universities in the country. The interventions proposed to improve the hygiene behaviour of students will also help to raise satisfaction in the
existing facilities and build sustainability of sanitation systems. Key words: hygiene behaviour, ecological sanitation, university students, health, toilet Introduction The general objective of the study is to devise strategy and put forward suggestions for changing and/or modifying hygiene behavior of university students to improve the health situation in Adama University. The strategy can be used as a model for other Universities in the country. The specific objectives are: To identify, describe, measure and understand the students hygiene behaviors To select risky behaviors that need to be modified or changed To suggest behaviors, which-if performed hygienically- are likely to help prevent the transmission of disease and also create satisfaction with the existing toilets. To investigate attitudes of the students towards ecological sanitation for the implementation of the demonstration UrineDiversion Dry Toilets to be constructed in the university To identify methods of raising awareness and dissemination of information in the university Methodology Different methods of data collection were used in the study. The obvious reason for choosing multiple methods is that no single method can provide sufficient information on the subjects of study (Boot et al., 1993). Throughout this study the following methods were followed. Unstructured observation To have a qualitative data environmental walks and visits to toilets to observe what is happening in and around the toilet were made. Signs of particular
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behaviors, or so called physical clues such as soap and water presence or traces of feaces, presence of odor were observed. Conversational interviews Spontaneous talks with some individuals were made and the interviewees were introduced to the topic and then their reactions were followed. Two students and the head of the university library were interviewed. Key informant interviews In the study the following persons were interviewed as key informants Students dormitory service head Two proctors Two janitors Vice president of the university students union Business and Development Vice President of Adama University Project and Maintenance Head of Adama University Focus group discussions (FGD) An open discussion was held with small groups of students. Two group discussions were held. Structured interview A structured interview was designed to generate factual and quantitative date. In the questionnaire the six kinds of questions that can be asked in a study of hygiene behavior were included (Boot, et al, 1993). The kinds of the questions were Experience/behavior questions Opinion/Value questions Feeling questions Knowledge questions Sensory questions and Background/demographic questions
It was also tried to cover men and women. Fortunately, a good mix of interviewees background was found, specially the region from where they come. The total number of students in the university is about 6000. A sample size of 110 was taken out of which 21 were female and 89 men.
Results and discussions

Sanitation issues Type and number of toilets From the observation made it was found that the toilets in all building were water-flush toilets except for Sawa, (G+0) buildings, which are having separate dry toilets. The toilet of the lecture hall is also water-flush type. However, all the WCs flashing devices are not working. It is therefore closed during the day time so that the regular students do not have access to it. It gets opened only for night students only during the night. The structured interview indicated that 86% of the female respondents thought the numbers of toilets are not sufficient for the students where as only 45% of the male respondents indicated that the number of toilets available are not sufficient. It was also found that the ratio of toilets to the number of students is 1:20 for female dormitories, 1:15 for male dormitories using with water-flush toilets, and 1:13 for male using dry toilets. It was observed during the study that new temporary pit latrines are under construction for the newly constructed buildings by GTZ-IS. These latrines do not have a vent pipe and the walls are to be made of corrugated iron sheet. They will be used only for short period of time until the construction of the new wastewater system is finalized. The proposed new wastewater treatment system is an upflow anaerobic sludge blanket reactors. Hand washing 70% of the respondents indicated the presence of hand washing facilities and 30% not. However, from the observation made all dormitories have hand washing facilities. It is the interviewers effect or the understanding and perception of the interviewees about hand washing facilities that the 30% responded as if there is no hand washing facility. The focus group discussions indicated that students wash their hands after defecation, if there is water and they are not in a hurry. One participant in an FGD said that I wash my hands if there is water and only when I remember that I have to wash my hand.
Eleven students, nine male and two female, were trained to conduct the interview. The interviewers were supervised and supported during the interview to ensure uniformity and quality of data. A stratified sample was used for the structured interview. It was tried to cover all buildings and those using flushing toilets and the others using dry toilets.
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As far as availability of soap is concerned it was found that soap was not provided for students for hand washing. In all hand washing basins soaps were also not seen. Cloth washing There are good facilities for washing clothes. It is the responsibility of the students to wash cloths. During the visit of the facilities it was observed that the
drainage of the floors of the laundries is not proper. Stagnant grey water was observed on the floor. The floor should be maintained to have a good slope otherwise it should be cleaned daily to prevent the breeding of mosquitoes and also odor problems. Cleanliness of toilets 82% of the interviewees revealed that the existing toilets are not clean (refer Figure 2).
Figure 1 Responses on cleanliness of existing toilets
Are toilets clean?

100 80 60 % 40 21 20 0 Female Male Total 5 18 95 79 82
Yes No
During the site visit paid in the toilets of the university most of the toilets were not clean. Janitors are employed by the university to do the cleaning work. However, 59% of the interviewees claimed that the toilets they are using are not cleaned regularly by the janitors, while 41% confirmed that the toilets are cleaned regularly. The reasons for the toilets not to be clean were discussed in the FGD and also in the interviews. The main reasons are the following. 1. Frequent water cutoff 2. The improper and unhygienic use of the toilets by some students which include the following behaviors Not flushing water before and after defecation Dropping anal cleansing material in the WC hole
Using the toilet when there is no water for flushing Defecating outside the WC hole. Feeling irresponsible for toilet cleanliness 3. 4. 5. 6. Janitors do not work on Saturday & Sunday and on holydays Janitors do not work in the afternoon High number of users Carelessness of some students
Satisfaction with the existing toilets Most of the interviewed students are not satisfied with the existing toilets and only 37% of the 110 interviewees are satisfied with the existing toilets (refer Table 1). The data reveal that works should be done in relation to the existing toilets to raise the satisfaction in the students.
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Table 1 Satisfaction with existing toilets

Satisfaction with existing toilets Satisfied ... Yes No Total No of respondents 41 69 110 % 37 63 100
The reasons for dissatisfaction of the interviewees are shown in Figure 2. Figure 2 Reasons for dissatisfaction with the existing toilets
Re asons for disatisfaction with the e xisting toile ts
1% 1% 9% 9% 4%
Uns anitary Offens ive (s mell flies, etc.) Lack of privacy Uns anitary and offens ive 51% Offens ive & lack of privacy Uns anitary, offensive & lack of privacy Reas on not m entioned
25%
Anal cleansing It is common practice in Ethiopia to use papers and tissue papers for anal cleansing. Anal
cleansing with water is common, particularly among Muslims and increasingly these days also among some Non-Muslims
Figure 3 shows the types of anal cleansing material and the percentage of users among the interviewees. Figure 3 Anal cleansing materials
Anal cleansing material used

Water, paper, tissue paper 0 1 Paper and tissue paper Water and tissue paper Water and paper Only tissue paper Only paper only water 0 0 9 10 20 30 % 40 50 60 3 0 5 5 14 25 48 65 70 7 Male Female 17
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The interviewees were also asked about the availability of the material they prefer for anal cleansing. 57% of the participants said it is not readily available. This shows that strategies should be devised to make anal cleansing material readily available. It is the responsibility of the student to avail the cleansing material. Two years ago there was a very good arrangement. Every student was given one roll soft paper per month and was getting one egg less per week for breakfast. In the FGD it was mentioned that few students use their fingers for cleaning or making fun and mark on doors and walls of toilets. Water supply The university gets water from the town water supply and two reservoirs are found in the university campus. However in all the investigations made the water supply is not continuous and not found in sufficient amount. The interviewees were asked whether there are times when they do not get enough water or not. 95% of the respondents said there are times when they do not get water. The students in the FGD also mentioned in addition to the behavior of the students in the toilet use the water supply problem is the main reason for the toilets not to be clean. There are also complaints from the students that the water is hot and not pleasant for drinking. The students find there way when there is no water. The following are the practices when there is water cut-off: If there is no water some anal washers use paper for anal cleaning Some go to toilets of other blocks where there is water There are cases where water tankers are placed in toilet rooms which are filled with water. The water is used by janitors for cleaning the toilet. Some times students use it for flushing. However it is no sufficient. There are also circumstances that men go to the bush. Women are not going to the bush due to cultural influence and they need privacy. The other reason is women dormitories are located at the center and are surrounded by buildings. They are not also nearer to the bush.
In rare cases some female students use the shower as a toilet because water some times will not be available for three or more days. Some times piles of feaces in WCs are observed and some students defecate on this pile of feaces when there is no water for flushing. Some students go out of the campus for using toilets This study reveals that the concerned bodies of the university specially the management body should try to solve the water supply problems the campus is facing. The water supply better have sufficient mount and also pressure to improve the health situation of the students. Wastewater Existing septic tank There is one septic tank for the collection of wastewater from some buildings. There was an overflow from this septic tank at the time of visit. The flow coming out of the septic tank is flowing through an open ditch and spread over the open field. During the site visit, it was realized that the situation is not safe to from health and aesthetic point of view. It is better to divert the flow to the existing waste stabilization ponds to solve the problem for the time being. For the future the septic tank effluent should be connected to the new wastewater treatment plant to be constructed by GTZ-IS. Existing waste stabilization ponds There are two ponds connected in series for treating the wastewater. At the time of visit the second pond is not filed and hence there was no outflow from the second pond. There is a need from the farmers working on the agricultural field of the university for pumping the wastewater from the second pond and use it for irrigation. We recommend that the BOD and COD of the wastewater should be first known before a decision on the use is made. However, it is possible to use the effluent from the second pond directly when there is an outflow. Practices to change In this study an attempt is made to identify hygiene practices which carry high risk and are feasible to change. It is important to target only a very few
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practices (certainly less than five) to avoid dissipation of message (Cairncross et al.). The following are the main ones selected: 1. 2. 3. 4. Flush toilets after defecation Dispose anal cleansing matter in the basket Wash hands with soap after defecation Do not use toilets if there is no water for flushing
The concern here is to make a behavioral change in the students and there by keep the toilets clean and improve the sanitary condition of the toilets. This will in turn avoid illness and spread of diseases. The method used for hygiene promotion for making the necessary behavior changes are described in the subsequent section. Attitudes towards ecological sanitation General According to GTZ-IS, the University Capacity Building Program is going to introduce innovative and future-oriented sanitation systems for the new universities in Ethiopia. Therefore one demonstration unit of dry toilets with urine separation and reuse of urine and faeces is going to be constructed at the Adama University site. This is to show alternative solutions for sanitation, to create awareness amongst students for ecological and hygienic toilet facilities, to create acceptance of the users and to examine and optimize different possibilities of the treatment. Based on the results, an up-scaling in other sites will be possible. Before the implementation of the demonstration unit, GTZ-IS wanted to know the perception and attitudes of the students for the sustainable operation
of the unit. Sustainability needs to be defined in relation to the interaction of users, organizational structure and technology, with a range of important criteria: health and hygiene, environmental and resource use, economy, socio-cultural aspects and use and technology function (WHO, 2006). In this study information was gathered to help the sustainable operation of the demonstration UDDT (UrineDiversion Dry Toilet). The attitudes of the students in various issues were investigated and are presented in the subsequent sections. The following article best summarizes impressions about human waste reuse. The impression is that the basic desire among experts is to create a nutrient loop has not yet materialized, with the possible exception of Ethiopia. Does this lead us to conclude that this goal should be abandoned? It is important to remember that this is a young system that requires time to get all components in place. Most people agree to the rationale of nutrient reuse and of saving on chemical fertilizers. However, it is not a simple process introduced only to reuse hygienized nutrients in urban food production. The practice has to be incorporated in residents daily routines in a way that fits local aspirations and conditions and this may take time. Thus, advocating reuse of nutrients may be done, but not necessarily with high turn-out of followers, since experts report modest interest in such tasks (Dranget, 2004). Use of excreta as fertilizer To check the perception of the interviewees towards human excreta, they were asked about if there is any difference between human excreta and cow dung and urine. The response of the interviewees is shown in Table 2.
Table 2 Impression on human excreta when compared with cow dung and urine Human excreta is different from cow dung and urine Different Yes No Total No of respondents 88 5 93 % 94.6 5.4 100.0
This shows that there is resistance to consider human faeces to be similar to cow dung and urine. In Ethiopia it is also known from experience that getting in contact with human faeces is generally unacceptable in most cultures. There fore much work
should be done to raise the acceptance of reuse of excreta. Regarding the information about the reuse of human excreta, 4 out of 11 participants heard about use of
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human excreta as fertilizer and only 2 out of 11 participants of the FGD seen when excreta was reused. The perception of the students was assessed in the interview. 55.4% of the interviewee responded that
they will eat bread baked of crop grown using excreta as fertilizer. None of them said it is repulsive. The other responses are shown in Table 3.
Table 3. Feeling of eating bread baked of crop grown using excreta as fertilizer Feeling I do eat I do not feel bad I do not eat It is repulsive Total Number of respondents 57 23 23 0 103 Percentage 55.4 22.3 22.3 0 100
Use of urine as fertilizer
Urine is rich in nitrogen and can be used for fertilizing most non-nitrogen-fixing crops after proper treatment to reduce potential microbial contamination. The students were asked about their attitude towards using urine as fertilizer. As shown in Table 4, only
41% of the respondents imagine/believe using urine as a fertilizer to fertilize crops in their home garden. This indicates that there are negative views on the reuse of urine. This may be due to cultural taboos and also lack of awareness about the contents of urine.
Table 4. Belief in producing crop using urine as fertilizer Believe Number of respondents Yes No Total 41 59 100 41 59 100 Percentage
Use of excreta for biogas production The students have good information about biogas. 74% of the interviewee heard of making biogas from organic waste or faecal matter. Most of them also recommended the use of biogas as source of energy
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Impression about UDDT (Urine-Diversion Dry Toilet) In the interview, the interviewees were asked whether they have heard about reuse of UDDT products (faeces and urine). Only 46% of the interviewees heard about separating urine and faeces in toilets and using the urine as fertilizer and dried feaces as soil conditioner. This indicates that the students should be well informed about the UDDT. In the FGD, the main principles of UDDT and the operation of the demonstration toilets were explained to the participants by showing the toilet fixture. The participants were also asked whether they have heard about UDD toilets. Only one participant out of eleven has heard about Ecosan toilet from a course given in construction department. The title of the course is water supply and sewerage. No body has seen the UDDT toilet fixture. From all the evaluations made; the students have good impression for the system and appreciated the reuse of urine and feaces. However, much work should be done to raise the awareness of the students in the use, operation and maintenance of the UDDT Methods of raising awareness and dissemination of information in the university The following are the methods which were identified in the FGD as the best methods for raising awareness and dissemination of information. Students strictly recommend that the method should be not boring and too long. 1. 2. 3. 4. Funny posters Brochures Entertaining videos Allowing lecturers to spend 10 to 15 minutes for disseminating the required information to the students. Raising the awareness of dormitory representatives by lecture or by any other means. That representative will in turn raise the awareness of his roommates and inform them what he has learnt. There are 81 students who are selected from the 81 classes democratically. Students usually do not like lengthy meetings. It is better to use recreational means like funny dramas and attractive advertising. 6. 5.
7.
Putting advertisement/notice on notice boards, students dormitories, in places where students usually gather and in toilets. Giving orientation during the beginning of the year for fresh students.
8.
In addition, the student union in the university should be consulted and involved in the awareness raising and information dissemination process.
Conclusions and recommendations

1. The hygiene practices selected for change can be achieved through hygiene education intervention and the intervention should be monitored and evaluated. Awareness raising campaign should be made before the demonstration UDDT is opened for use. The key operational factor for a successful UDDT is minimal moisture. A supply of ash should always be available in a suitable container, and this should be sprinkled over the faeces after defecation. A cupful (Approximately 200ml) should normally be sufficient, but as this study revealed that most of the students do not want to take care of the toilet after defecation. So the students may not add ash after use. Therefore the caretaker should add ash in all faeces containers two times a day. The previous trend of cost sharing by the students for the provision of tissue paper should be adopted again. Sanitary fixtures including WC units should be maintained at least once in a year. Toilets whose water flushing units are not working should either be maintained or kept closed until they are maintained or replaced. Floors of cloth washing places/laundries should be cleaned daily The toilets of the lecture halls should be repaired and become open for daytime regular students. Water should be made available all the time at sufficient amount and reasonable pressure.
2.
3.
4.
5.
7. 8.
9.
6.
10. Janitors should clean toilets on Saturdays, Sundays and on holidays. This can be made in shifts or by employing additional janitors.
Journal of Adama University, Vol. 1, No. 1, January, 2010
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11. Students should be given orientation about the proper use of existing sanitation facilities at the beginning of each academic year. Special focus should be made on fresh man students. 12. The health committee of the students union together with proctors should actively be involved in monitoring of the hygiene behavior of the students. 13. The effluent of the existing septic tank should be directed to the existing waste stabilization ponds. For the future it can be connected to the new wastewater treatment plant to be constructed by GTZ-IS. Otherwise the septic tank effluent can be treated by constructed wetlands. 14. The water quality of the effluent from the waste stabilization ponds should be tested and the WHO guideline for the safe wastewater use in agriculture should be referred before decision is made on the use of the effluent for agriculture and also before deciding the application techniques. Acknowledgements The study work is carried out within the University Capacity Building Program (UCBP) and is funded by GTZ-IS. The authors are grateful for the support. From Adama University Students Union, we wish to thank Mr. Dejene Limeneh, vice president and Mr. Nebiyu, public relation officer, and all other
members of the executive body of the student union for facilitating the interviews and focus group discussions. References Environmental support project, component 3 (2003): Wastewater study for Adama Town. Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Ministry of Water Resources, Ethiopia. Jan-Olof-Drangert(2004): Norms and Attitudes towards Ecosan and Other Sanitation Systems. EcoSanRes publication series, Sweden, Stockholm. Marieke T. Boot and Sandy Cairncross (1993): ACTIONS SPEAK: The study of hygiene behavior in water and sanitation projects. IRC international Water and Sanitation Center and London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London. Sandy Cairncross and Valerie Cutis. Technical brief: Hygiene and sanitation promotion. London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London. WHO(2006). WHO guidelines for the safe use of wastewater, excreta and greywater. VolumesII and IV. Geneva, Switzerland.
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INTRODUCTION AND IMPLEMENTATION OF TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT (TQM) IN ETHIOPIAN DOMESTIC INDUSTRIES with special reference to matador addis tyre s.c. Fiseha Mekonnen Mechanical & Vehicle Engineering Department, Adama University E-Mail fiseham2002@yahoo.com
Abstract This a summary of a term paper on Total Quality Management (TQM), which was prepared for the partial fulfillment of the course Total Quality Management in the M.Sc. program of Industrial Engineering in Addis Ababa University. The main objective of the study was to indicate the gap between the management system of domestic manufacturing industries and TQM by considering MATADOR Addis Tyre S.C. for the case study. Finally recommendations are forwarded to fill the gap. Introduction It is true that most of Ethiopian domestic industries are less competitive both in domestic and foreign markets. One of the main reasons is the problem of the management system and management capability to manage the whole process of the industry functions. These problems are reflected in the product and service quality. To bring the domestic industries to a competitive level both in domestic and international markets it is mandatory to change both the management system and the quality of product and service. Currently the most competitive industries in the world market are those which implemented the Total Quality Management (TQM) system. Implementing TQM in the domestic industries is the road map to quality. This paper is anticipated to reinforce the process of TQM implementation in MATADOR Addis Tyre S.C. by assessing the current conditions of the company and indicating the gaps between the existing management system and TQM system, and by forwarding findings and recommendations pertinent to the process of TQM implementation. Methodology To conduct this research, an extensive literature review has done and summarized on TQM and ISO 9000 systems. From the literature survey a model is selected and adapted on the implementation of TQM for domestic manufacturing industries. For the case study MATADOR Addis Tyre S.C. is selected and data are collected in different ways. The main data collection methods were structured and unstructured interview, questionnaires personal experience in the area and observation. In addition different working manuals,
system procedures, work instructions, and different publications of the company are collected and investigated. The collected data and information are analyzed and compared with the model adapted. The gaps between TQM implementation model and the actual management system of the company are identified. To fill the gap recommendation are suggested, conclusion and concluding remark are presented. Background of MATADOR Addis Tyre S.C. The history of MATADOR - Addis Tyre is directly traced to the history of Matador group and the former Addis Tyre Share Company. These two companies were independently tire manufacturer companies in their respective countries. Matador group is based in Slovak Republic while Addis Tyre in Ethiopia. Matador, with the capacity, rich experiences in transferring technology and know-how, with the intention of penetrating the COMESSA Market and Africa at large, and Addis Tyre Share Company (ATC) a sole bias tire manufacturer in Ethiopia for the last 34 years and has good reputation in the domestic market have agreed to merge and form a Joint Venture (JV) after a long process of negotiation in July 2004 [1]. What is Total Quality Management (TQM)? TQM is a management approach centered on continuous quality improvement, based on the participation of all members and aiming at long term success through customer satisfaction, and benefits to the members of the organization and to society at large. TQM is not a program; it is an ever ending process [2,3]. TQM consists of continuous improvement activities involving everyone in the organization-managers and workers-in a total integrated effort toward improving performance at every level. The activities are ultimately focused on increased customer/user satisfaction [4]. Total means that every one participates and that it is integrated into all business functions. Quality means meeting or exceeding customer (internal or external) expectation. Management means improving and maintaining business systems and their related process or activity.
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The five basic elements to a basic understanding of TQM are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Communication Cultural transformation Participative management Customer focus, and Continuous improvement
customer satisfaction, strategic business performance and the ground i.e., leadership are constructed in the framework of TQM model as shown in figure 1. Thus, the framework of TQM consists of the ten elements. The ten elements play major role on the success of the goals. Leadership acts as a base for the achievement of elements and goals. Of the four goals of the company employee satisfaction has effect on product quality and customer satisfaction; it also has an indirect effect on strategic business performance through product quality and customer satisfaction. Product quality has effects on customer satisfaction and strategic business performance. Customer satisfaction also has direct effects on strategic business performance. The ten elements as a whole are regarded as enablers that can lead to improvements of goals of the company. In other words, overall success of the company is the result of TQM implementation.
Communication (feedback) is probably the most essential and often overlooked components [6,7]. TQM Implementation Model After an extensive literature survey on TQM and models developed for manufacturing industries of developing countries a new model is developed that suite for Ethiopian manufacturing industries. Especially a model developed by Zhihai Zhang for Chinese manufacturing firms is used as a ground for the development of this model [8,9]. The combination of the elements of TQM, the goals of TQM i.e., employee satisfaction, product quality, Figure 1 A framework of TQM
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Case Study on TQM Implementation in MATADOR Addis Tyre S.C. Interview and documents Data Analysis Based on the frame work of TQM implementation process, structured interview has conducted with different managers who have key responsibility on TQM implementation and ISO 9001 registration process. Open and informal interviews are also conducted with lower level managers and employees. From the interview and documents the following information are found. Leadership: From the interview it is recognized that the management has taken different training courses, conferences and seminars on ISO 9001 certification and TQM implementation process. For ISO 9001 standard certification process consultant firms were contracted for a certain time. From the interviews it is also recognized that the management do not have a clear encouragement and motivational scheme for employees and lower level managers to forward their ideas. The salary scheme the bonus scheme, performance evaluation and rewarding systems are mentioned as the main weakness of the leadership. In the new disclosed evaluation system 30 percent of the basic salary of the employee is paid on the basis of the monthly performance of the employee. This means if an employee performs below the planned amount in a given month, the salary of the employee will be deducted up to 30 percent. Suppliers Quality Management: The Company has different technical parameters for suppliers selection. There are also an evaluation methods for materials received from suppliers and an information feedback systems. The company has a claim procedure for any discrepancy found when the material is checked. Even though the information exchange systems with the suppliers are not in a continuous and systematic manner, there is also an information exchange with the suppliers when ever problem arises. In suppliers quality management system the main shortcomings that could be mentioned are: 1. 2. The company does not have any involvement in quality improvement process of the suppliers The company does not conduct a quality audit and assessment of suppliers quality system.
Strategic plan and quality improvement plans are also drafted for the next four years. But detail quality goals like appraisal costs, prevention costs and performances and reliability of the product are not identified explicitly. The company also lacks to align the vision, mission, strategic plans, policies, objectives, etc of the company to every department, division and sections. Evaluation: The Company has different business performance measurement, such as customer complaint, product quality, annual sales growth rate, annual profit, market share, etc. In relation to the ISO 9001 certification the company conducts quality audit based on the requirement of the standard. Bench marking approach has also practiced by considering the well known competitors product. Internal failure costs and external failure costs are also collected and evaluated. But the evaluation systems and measurements do not cover all areas of the company in an integrated manner. Process control and improvement: After the formation of joint venture different facilities are improved. Offices, cafeteria, toilets, and the cleanness of the shop floor are improved. But still there are areas that require improvement. The temperature of the curing room reaches up to 40Co. The mixing room is full of carbon soot. The process capacity of different lines is not evaluated against the design of the product. Quality System Improvement: The Company has already prepared and documented the quality manual and quality system procedure. Work instructions partially prepared for certain activities. The ISO 9001 certification is on-process. Employee Participation: Even if it is not organized in a systematic and procedural manner, cross-functional and within-functional teams are established and assigned jobs when ever it is required. On the discussion and interview it is identified that the company has no scheme to motivate and encourage employees and lower level managers for continuous improvement. In this respect formal and informal discussions with the employees have revealed that employees motivation and encouragement has deteriorated after the joint venture is formed. Many of the respondents explain that information by gossip approach is used by the management as the main information source for decision making. In the discussion it is also understood that systematic job rotation is not practiced in the company. Fixing an employee in a specific area at a specific work for a long time is tiresome and erodes job satisfaction. Recognition and Reward: The Company has a collective agreement. On the agreement salary and bonus scheme, and penalty rules are described. In the
In general the company does not have a significant role or involvement in the quality system of its suppliers. Its involvement is limited only in checking of the materials when it is received. Vision and Plan Statement: The Company has vision, mission, quality policy and different performance plans.
46
interview it is understood that the company does not individual workers on the basis of their performance. The salary promotion and the bonus system do not differentiate teams or employees. In this survey no single employee is identified that has got a moral reward or recognition in the form of thank you note or letters of praise Education and Training: In the discussions and structured question survey it is mentioned that employees and managers have got awareness trainings on TQM and ISO certification program. Though it is not adequate, on job trainings are given to some of the employees. The companys training programs are not drawn up with the alignment of companys strategy, objectives, available resources, employee skill and employee training requirements. Customer Focus: The Company has a claim policy that assures customer reliance on products failure due to manufacturing defects. The company pays 100 percent compensation for manufacturing failure. Even though it is not extensively done, the company conducts market investigation, collects customer information, and analyzes it. Questionnaire Analysis Thirty questionnaires were prepared and distributed to the employees and lower level managers, and all .
have recognition and reward scheme for teams and are collected and analyzed. The questionnaires contain twenty-two closed type questions. For the analysis purpose only twenty questions are considered. The 6th and 21st questions are excluded from the analysis. Because the 6th question is misunderstood by many respondents and the 21st are miss-worded when it is prepared. Since the questionnaire is prepared for the employees and lower managers its content focuses more on issues related to motivation, satisfaction, participation, reward and awareness issues. The issues mentioned in the questionnaire are information that is not found in documents or that is not comfortable for respondents to answer in face to face interviews. The questionnaire is divided in to seven elements. Yes answer indicates satisfactory or adequate condition for TQM implementation. No answer indicates un-satisfactory or inadequate condition for TQM implementation. The respondents indicate their answer by putting mark in the Yes or No box. But there are some respondents that do not put mark in the Yes or No boxes. Therefore the summery table contains Yes (satisfactory), No (Unsatisfactory) and Unfilled column. The final column contains the percentage of satisfactory answers. The percentage is calculated by dividing the Yes quantity by Yes+No quantity.
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Table1. Questionnaire Summery No. Questionnaire 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 2 2.1 2.2 3 3.1 4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 Education and Training Have you got any formal training on the job you perform? Have you got any chance of team learning? Have you taken quality awareness training? Have you taken TQM or ISO 9000 awareness training? Quality Awareness Do you know the vision, mission, and quality policy of the company? Do you know your internal supplier? Customer Focus Do you know the quality requirements of the companys external customer? Recognition and Reward Do you know the companys recognition and reward scheme for the employees? Do you think that the performance of employee is measured in the correct way? Are you satisfied with the salary promotion scheme of the company? Are you satisfied with the company bonus scheme? Are you satisfied with the companys moral reward, Example, thank you note, letters of praise, etc? Is the companys penalty rules are logical and acceptable in your view? Participation of Employee Does the top management encourage the employees and lower level managers to bring an improvement and new ideas? Have you ever participated in cross-functional teams to solve or investigate cross-functional problems? Have you ever participated in within-functional teams to solve or investigate problems within your working area? Yes 56 8 9 18 21 31 15 16 11 11 8 3 2 0 0 No 61 22 18 12 9 24 14 10 15 15 165 26 24 29 30 Yes+No Unfilled 117 30 27 30 30 55 29 26 26 26 173 29 26 29 30 2 0 3 0 0 4 1 4 4 4 7 1 4 1 0 % of Yes 47.9 26.7 33.3 60.0 70.0 56.4 51.7 61.5 42.3 42.3 4.6 10.3 7.7 0.0 0.0
4.5 4.6 5
0 3 29
30 26 55
30 29 84
0 1 6
0.0 10.3 34.5
5.1
24
30
20.0
5.2
18
27
33.3
5.3
14
13
27
51.9
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6 6.1 6.2 6.3 7 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9
Working Environment Do you have a written working instruction or manual you use in your regular job? Have you taken the QC tools awareness training? Is there a systematic job rotation scheme in your working area? Quality Tools Utilization and Awareness Quality function deployment Concurrent engineering Affinity Diagram/KJ Method Interrelationship Digraphs Tree Diagram Matrix Diagrams Matrix Data Analysis Process Decision Diagram Chart (PDPC) Deming Cycle
14 3 6 5 25 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 6 1 1 2 6 1 2
72 25 21 24 485 27 30 30 30 30 30 30 29 30 28 24 29 29 28 24 29
86 28 27 29 510 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30
5 2 3 1
16.3 10.7 22.2 17.2 4.9 10.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.3 0.0 6.7 20.0 3.3 3.3 6.7 20.0 3.3
7.1O Process-flowcharting 7.11 Check sheet 7.12 Histogram 7.13 Pareto analysis 7.14 Cause and effect analysis brainstorming 7.15 Control charts 7.16 Scatter diagrams 7.17 Benchmarking From the analysis of the questionnaire the companys effort to create quality awareness is relatively good. Fifty six percent of the respondents have responded Yes (satisfactory) answer. Under quality awareness vision, mission, strategic plan and know how on the companys customer needs are included. About Forty Eight percent of the respondent responded Yes (satisfactory) answer on education and training given by the company on the issues of quality. Participation of employee and working environment are 34.5 and 16.3 percent respectively. The least score indicated is recognition and reward scheme, and quality tools utilization. The scores are 4.6 and 4.9 percent respectively. Especially in the recognition and
28 30 6.7 reward scheme, the employees are totally unsatisfied on the salary, bonus and moral reward of the company. This figures show that, the company does not give due attention to the employees which are the main component in the TQM philosophy. Unless the company become alert and reverses this condition, it is impossible to think and implement TQM in the company. ISO 9001 certification does not assure TQM implementation. ISO 9001 certification could be realized with out the full commitment of the employee but TQM in its complete sense cannot be implemented with out the full commitment of the employee. Because the certification process focuses and audits the measurable activities and
49
procedure of the company system processes. This does not grantee the TQM implementation. Conclusion and recommendation Conclusion The reputation and management system of MATADOR Addis Tyre S.C. are found in the front line when it is compared from the domestic manufacturing industries. Almost all the domestic manufacturing industries follow the traditional management system. In contrast to the previous times, market barriers between countries are removed from time to time. The future fate of firms in the world is determined only by their competitive capability in the glob market. The globalization of the world creates an opportunity for competent firms and threat for incompetents. The trend of globalization indicates that countries can not block their territories from entry and exit of goods and services. This circumstance exposes domestic firms to the global market. The main difference between the competent and incompetent firms is their management system. Different literatures and studies have shown that those firms implemented TQM philosophy are leading the race in the market. The tire market has strong competition both domestically and internationally. To appear as a champion in the competition, MATADOR Addis Tyre S.C. has to implement the Total Quality Management system. The implementation of TQM in MATADOR Addis Tyre S.C. is not an option rather it is mandatory. The concern should be on the speed of implementation. Most competitors are found in a better technology and skill. Besides their current position they are continually improving their technology and employees skill at a higher rate. Hence to maintain and increase the market share, the company has to continually improve its quality at a faster rate than of its competitors to reach and to go beyond. Such a continual development both in the company level and nation wide can be achieved only if TQM is implemented. Long term oriented continuous quality improvement on the basis of customer requirement is the only strategy to increase the market share and profitability. Short term profit plan should not be practiced with the expense of long term quality strategy. The long term vision of the company should not be
bounded in the local market. In the current market condition if firms dont go to the competitors market zone, the competitors will come to the firms market. There is no means for firms to survive both in the local and global market with a lower an overall performance and poor quality. The implementation of TQM is the road map for the journey to long term success. The analogy of Total Quality Management against traditional management is like a war field of opposite armies fighting each other one with modern weapon the other with stick and stone. Recommendation The current status of the company in implementing total quality system has been assessed through the study conducted and the system gaps between the current condition of the company and the TQM implementation model has indicated. The findings of the study have shown that the company has accomplished many activities in relation to the certification of ISO 9001. The development of this activity has a significant role in the implementation of TQM. However evaluation of the company on each elements of the model indicates that the company has left many tasks to be done. In this section recommendations on each element of TQM implementation process are forwarded. Leadership: The commitment of the leadership towards awareness, training, and in establishing different committees for the certification process of ISO 9001 standard is more or less satisfactory. This effort of the management has to be consistently continued in the future. However, the commitment of the leadership towards encouragement of employee in different aspects is found to be very low. In this area the management has to work hard to encourage employees to participate in the continuous quality improvement process of the company products and services. The other issue the management has to focus is on the salary and bonus scheme of the company. The result of the study shows that employees are completely dissatisfied on the salary and bonus scheme. In this regard the management has to give due attention to the complaints of the employee and improve the salary and bonus scheme. Especially the new salary payment scheme that the company wants to follow has very distractive outcomes in the TQM implementation. The
50
intention of the management seems to enforce the employee to work hard. TQM is Management by carrot whereas traditional management is management by sticks. For the long-term development of the company the management has to refrain and think how the employees can be motivated and quality improvement comes. Suppliers Quality Improvement: The supplier selection procedure and received material inspection methods of the company are well managed and controlled. There is also an information exchange system and claim procedure whenever discrepancy is encountered between the received material and the request. But this information exchange system is not sufficient. The company has to have a continuous and consistent information exchange system with the supplier. Bilateral involvement and cooperation in the quality improvement system between the company and the suppliers has to be developed and implemented in a systematic way. Vision and Plan Statement: The Company has gone far in development and documentation of vision, mission, quality policy, strategic plan, etc. But still many are left to be done. Detail quality plan, an explicit identification of the performance and reliability of its product, and dissemination of the vision, mission, quality goals, etc of the company through the employee have to be done in the future. The other task the company has to work is to align the vision, mission, corporate strategy, business strategy etc of the company to every department, division, section and employee of the company. Evaluation: Despite the many evaluation system the company has, most of the evaluation processes lack consistency, integrity and computerization. The company has to do on these issues for the future. Process control and improvement: The Company has shown significant improvement both in production capacity and different facilities. But there are many things that have to be improved. For the continuous quality improvement different TQM tools has to be utilized. The working environment such as the temperature of the curing room and the cleanness of the mixing area has to be improved. Quality system improvement: The Company has prepared and documented the different
requirements of ISO 9001 standard. To finalize the preparation for ISO 9001 certification, work instructions, gap analysis, etc has to be completed. Employee Participation: As it is mentioned in the previous sections the management is expected to improve the encouragement scheme for employee participation. Recognition and reward: The motivation and encouragement of the employee are deteriorated since the formation of the joint venture. Before the formation of the joint venture the reward and payment system were on the front line when it is compared with the domestic manufacturing industries. This reputation has to be kept and improved by the joint venture, MATADOR Addis Tyre S.C. Customer focus: In the continuous improvement process customer is the center of the firms focus. Therefore the full involvement of customer in every activity of the company is mandatory. In TQM all doors are open for customers. Customers are Alpha and Omega of the firm. References David Hoyle. (2001): ISO 9000 Quality System Handbook, A number of the Re Ethiopian Management Institute, Production Management Department, Total Quality Management, Addis Ababa. Goetsch, D. and Davis S. (2000): Quality Management, Introduction to Total Quality Management for Production, Processing, and Service; Third Edition, Prentic hall. John S. Oakland. (1995): Total Quality Management, text with case, Text John 5. Oakland,. James w. Dean, Jr., James R. Evans. (1994): Total Quality Management, Organization, and Strategy, West Publishing Co. Jenny Waller, Derek Allen, Andrew Burns. (1993): The Quality Management Manual, How to Write and Develop a Successful Manual for Quality Management System, Nichols publishing. Matador Addis Tyre. (2006): Magazine. Terry L. Richardson. (1997): Total Quality Management, Delmar Publisher,
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PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF SOME TREES AND SHRUBS UNDER INHOSPITABLE SITE CONDITIONS OF KULUMSA (ARSI), SOUTHEAST ETHIOPIA
Yigremachew Seyoum 1, Girma Shumi
1 2 2
Kulumsa Agricultural Research Center, P. O. Box. 489, Asela, E-mail: Yigremachewseyoum@yahoo.com. Dresden University of Technology, P.O.Box: 117,01735, Tharandt, Germany, E-mail: gshumi@yahoo.com and construction wood is predicted to increase significantly (FAO, 2001). However, the existing plantation efforts are by far insufficient to address rapidly increasing demand for different forest products. Lack of productive land, among others, is a major constraining factor that impairs forest plantation efforts. If forestry is to expand, even if to hold its own- trees must be profitably grown on some sites that formerly were considered to be so poor that they were of little value for forest production (Zobel and Talbert, 1984). Species that best adapt to harsh site conditions should be evaluated to implement successful plantation programs for both production and protection purposes. Tree improvement programs aimed at selecting species and populations that adapt to inhospitable sites are, therefore, very important. Inhospitable sites are sites where special, and usually more costly, establishment methods are needed. Among others, extreme soil conditions- lack or no top soil and/or nutritional problem makes a site inhospitable (Evans, 1992). The highlands of Ethiopia are very suitable for human inhabitation. As a result, 88% of the population, 95% of the cropped land and about three fourths of the livestock is found on highlands (EFAP, 1993). This population pressure on the highlands accompanied by sedentary agriculture, extensive cattle herding activities and socio-political instability, has resulted in heavy deforestation and impoverishment of ecosystems in general. Uncontrolled deforestation has caused ecological and socio-economical threats harmful to the well-being of the inhabitants. Efforts towards achieving sustainable management and utilization of natural forest resources are still lagging behind the pace of the destruction. As a result, the rate of loss of biodiversity of the natural forest ecosystem is accelerating. Some of the remnant tree species in the Northern and Central highlands are endangered, since they are found as isolated individuals, and their ability to form viable populations is very much in doubt (Esheu Yirdaw, 2002). Continual soil and water resource loss, following vegetation removal, is inflicting an acute decline in land productivity. Consequently, land degradation is challenging the lives of millions in the country. Rehabilitation of
Abstract Species-site matching is a corner-stone of successful plantation. Performance evaluation study was carried out at Kulumsa Agricultural Research Center to select among 16 tree and shrub species that best survives and grows well under inhospitable sites. An experiment was conducted using Randomized Complete Block Design with three replications. Seedlings were raised from seeds obtained from Forestry Research Center and planted on June, 2003. Data were collected on survival, height and collar diameter at the age of 52 months and analyzed using analysis of variance. Olea africana, Juniperus procera and Albizia gumiffera showed the highest survival which was significantly higher (P<0.05) than Cordia africana and Acacia saligna. Acacia decurrens and Eucalyptus camaldulensis showed the highest height growth which was significantly different from all other species except that of Acacia saligna (P<0.05). Acacia saligna, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Juniperus procera and Acacia decurrens showed the highest diameter growth. We recommend the three species with the highest survival for inhospitable sites and their potential as catalytic species in rehabilitation programs. Acacia saligna, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, and Acacia decurrens are suggested for high biomass yield with appropriate establishment techniques that improve their survival. The responses of the species to different establishment techniques should be further investigated across different levels of degradation. Key words: Collar diameter, Height, Survival Introduction Interest in plantations continues to increase rapidly in the tropics and many countries with huge natural reserves of timber are also implementing plantation projects (Evans, 1992). In Ethiopia, the current rate of deforestation is estimated to be between 150,000200,000 hectares per year FAO (2003), indicating a critical need for plantations in order to satisfy the current and future demand for various forest products. Ethiopia has a long history of plantation with an extensive and successful eucalypt plantation carried out in 1894-1895 in order to solve the fuel wood problem during that time caused by severe deforestation (Esheu Yirdaw, 2002). Demand for forest products such as industrial wood, fuel wood
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degraded lands, therefore, warrants an urgent research and development interventions. Rehabilitation schemes, which include afforestation, are considered as priority forestry programs of the country. These schemes are believed to be best remedies or measures in the highlands which are intensively degraded and nowadays reaching the point of no return (Tumcha Belguda, 2004). Despite apparent challenges of deforestation and ecological imbalance, there are only limited successful restoration plantations in degraded sites of Arsi highlands. Among others, lack of information regarding which species to plant under such inhospitable site conditions has substantially limited the achievements. Because of lack of optimal growth conditions in degraded sites, species well-adapted to and that thrive under inhospitable edaphic and climatic conditions of planting sites should be systematically selected. Species-site matching is a key step that guarantees successful tree plantations. Evaluation of growth and survival of species under different site conditions has been reported by many authors (Tesfaye Abebe, 1994; Betre Alemu et al.; 2000; Abebe Yadessa et al.; 2000). Since local conditions vary and that the response of tree species follows distinct pattern, trials should be carried out to identify species that suit specific site conditions. In response to severe deforestation there is a critical need to rehabilitate degraded sites of Arsi highlands with restoration plantations in order to utilize the marginal lands for productive purposes and to maintain the ecological balance of the area. The regeneration of the natural flora can also be hastened through catalytic plantations. Recent research on tropical forest plantations indicates that plantations may enhance the recruitment, establishment and succession of native woody species by functioning as foster ecosystems (Parrotta, 1992; Lugo et al., 1993; Otsamo, 2000). For both purposes, i.e., restoration and catalytic plantation programs, species screening aimed at selecting those best thrives under inhospitable site conditions is a primary task. Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate early growth and survival of 16 tree and shrub species to select species suitable for inhospitable site conditions at Kulumsa, Arsi, and other sites with similar agro-ecological conditions. Material and Methods Study site The experiment was established at Kulumsa Agricultural Research Center. Kulumsa is located at 8o 08N latitude and 39o 08 E longitude, about 167
km Southeast of Addis Ababa and 8 km North of Assela town, the capital city of Arsi Zone. The altitude of the area is 2200m above sea level. The mean annual rainfall is 820 mm, the maximum mean annual temperature is 22.8o C and minimum mean annual temperature 10.5o C. The major soil type in the area is Clay soil (Luvisols). The natural vegetation is characterized by remnant trees of huge Acacia abyssinica trees and as the altitude rises by the mixed relic trees of Juniperus procera and Afrocarpus falcatus. Species tested The species tested for their survival and growth were Olea europeana, Juniperus procera, Moringa stenopetala, Afrocarpus falcatus, Schinus molle, Cordia africana, Hagenia abyssinica, Acacia seyal, Acacia albida, Pinus patulla, Acacia saligna, Eucalyptus globulus, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Acacia nilotica, Albizia gummiffera and Acacia decurrens. Seeds of these species were obtained from Forestry Research Center, and seedlings were raised in the nursery of Kulumsa Agricultural Research Center. Field management The experimental site was selected in a manner to represent degraded sites. Therefore, it was conducted on a marginal site that lost its top soil and with the bare rock visible on the surface. Only limited tending activities were performed at the early stage of the establishment and guarding was the only management continuously provided to protect the seedlings from livestock damage. Experimental design and layout The experimental design employed was Randomized Complete Block Design with three replications. Each species was planted in 10m*10m plot with 2m spacing between rows and there were 25 seedlings within each plot. Data were collected from the inner 9 trees leaving out the rows in the border of the plots. Blocks and plots were 5m apart from each other. Data collection and statistical analysis Data were collected for survival %, diameter and height growth every March and September since March 2005. Statistical analysis was performed on the data collected at the age 52 months. Prior to Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) the data were checked for the homogeneity of variances and normality and arcsine transformation was carried out for the survival percentage data. Tukey's honest significant difference was used to detect possible variations among tree species. All statistical
53
comparisons and level of significance were set at P0.05. Results and discussion Seedling survival The differences in survival among species were significant (P<0.05). Among the 16 species tested M. stenopetal, A. albida, E. globules, H. abyssinica and P. patula died at the early stage of the establishment. The result implies that these species are not suitable to marginal sites in Arsi highlands and other areas that have similar climatic and edaphic conditions with Kulumsa. O. europea, J. procera and A. gumiffera had the highest survival. The survival of these three species was significantly higher (P<0.05) than the survival of C. africana and A. saligna (Table 1). In agreement with the present result, Abebe Yadessa et al. (2000) reported an outstanding survival of A. gummifera (94%), following Markhamia lutea, among the tested 10 multipurpose trees and shrubs at Bako. The present result substantiates that these three species are potential candidates for indigenous tree plantation programs designed for inhospitable site conditions. The inherent adaptability of these species to marginal sites for restoration purposes can be further enhanced by an appropriate arbuscular mycorrhizal association (Tesfaye et al., 2003). The result supplements other studies made on seed viability, regeneration ecology and asexual propagation methods of important indigenous trees (Legesse, 1995; Demel and Granstrom, 1997; Demel, 1997; Desta and Legesse, 1998; Eshetu Yirdw and Luukkanen, 2003) which are useful to stimulate indigenous tree plantations and enhance rehabilitation and ecosystem conservation efforts. Table 1. Survival (%) of different tree species at age of 52 months
Species Olea europeana Juniperus procera Albizia gumiffera Acacia nilotica Schinus molle Acacia decurrens Afrocarpus falcutus Acacia seyal Eucalyptus camandulensis Cordia africana Accia saligna
J. procera Hocht. ex Endl. belongs to the family cupressaceae and commercially known as an African pencil cedar is the largest Juniper in the world (Legesse Negash ,2002). It is one of the dominant species that constitute the dry afromontane forests of Ethiopia (Tesfaye et al., 2002). Within the dry afromontane forests of the Ethiopian highlands, J. procera dominates from 2300 to 3200 m asl, where the mean annual rainfall ranges from 500 to 1100 mm. This tall (up to 50 m), evergreen forest tree is the only tropical African juniper and is indigenous to the East African tropical highlands (Couralet et al., 2000), Successful plantations of this species have been established in South Africa since 1912 (ICRAF, 2004). J. procera is an indigenous tree with multiple uses. The wood is suitable for making hardboard and particleboard. It is also used for construction, power transmission posts, fencing and telegraphic poles, manufacturing pencils, furniture. After seasoning the wood is very durable, immune to fungal attacks, termites or wood- borers (Pohjonen and Pukkala 1992; ICRAF, 2004). In Ethiopia, timber from J. procera is highly valued for the construction of orthodox churches as well as for the construction of houses mainly because of its durability, termite resistance, workability, beautiful grains and distinct scent (Legesse Negash, 2002). Successful planting material that can be obtained from juvenile stock plants of J. procera through vegetative means which is documented by Legesse Negash (2002) offers an option to seedling production and further justifies the suitability of the species to plantation programs under inhospitable sites. The modest height growth of J. procera together with its highest survival observed in the present study makes the species an important candidate for plantation schemes designed for rehabilitation of degraded sites.
O. africana, belonging to the family Oleaceae, is a shrub or a small to medium sized tree 5-10 m in height, occasionally reaching 18 m. Olive trees have Mean been cultivated for oil extraction and for edible fruit 96.26 A for at least 5 000 years. The deliberate propagation of 96.26 A O. africana cultivars has long been practiced in Mediterranean countries as well as southern Africa, 88.83 A Australia and the New World where olive trees were 70.3 A B introduced by Italian and Spanish travelers. O. 70.3 A B africana is known for its drought tolerance (ICRAF, 2004) which might have attributed to is good survival 55.5 A BC observed in the present study. Local attempts in 55.5 A BC Eritrea to reforest this species have been unsuccessful 51.8 ABC due to seed germination ranging from 0-5%. However, Legesse Negash (1990) studied 51.8 A BC germination and nursery establishment of O. africana 22.2 BC and concluded that no germination stimulators are 16.65 C required for obtaining maximum percentage Journal of Adama University, Vol. 1, No. 1, January, 2010
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germination, provided that the fruits are collected at their appropriate developmental stage and the hard seed coats are carefully removed. A. gummifera is a potential leguminous genus for establishment on vast areas of waste lands, because of its adaptability to fairly dry conditions. Albizia species are pioneers in forest regrowth, produce abundant seeds and show rapid growth (Parrotta, 1992). A. gummifera belonging to the family Fabaceae Mimosoideae is a large deciduous tree 4.5-30 m, branches ascending to a flat top. A. gummifera is common in lowland and upland rain-forest, riverine forest, and in open habitats near forests (ICRAF, 2004). Higher mass loss and release of N was reported for leaves from A. gummiffera than C africana (Tesfay Teklay and Anders Malmer, 2004) suggesting the potential of the species to rehabilitation programs by improving soil fertility and productivity of degraded sites. A. gummifera has features that make it a potential species for reclamation of degraded sites. The root system of A. gummifera holds soil and prevents gulley erosion, known to fix Nitrogen and provides abundant leaf litter during the leaf shedding season (ICRAF, 2004).
Table 2. Height (m) of different tree species at age of 52 months
Table 3. Root collar diameter (cm) different tree species at age of 52 months
Species Acacia decurrens Eucalyptus camandulensis Acacia saligna Juniperus procera Olea europeana Albizia gumiffera Cordia africana Afrocarpus falcutus Acacia nilotica Schinus molle Acacia seyal Mean 4.99 A 4.00 A 3.24 AB 1.37 BC 1.04 BC 1.01 BC 0.78 BC 0.78 BC 0.73 C 0.72 C 0.34 C
Note: Means followed by the same letter are not significantly different Height and collar diameter growth Though survival is often used to select among species, growth parameters have a considerable significance to evaluate species for plantation programs targeted for fuel wood, timber and construction wood production. Significant variation (P<0.05) was detected among the species in height growth over 52 months. A. decurrens and E. camaldulensis have shown the highest height growth which was significantly different from all other species except that of A. saligna (P<0.05). Diameter growth was also significantly different among species, A. saligna, E. camaldulensis, J. procera and A. decurrens showing the highest diameter growth over 52 months of growing period. In agreement with the current finding, Tesfaye Hunde and Mohammed Adilo (2007) reported higher growth rate of E. camaldulensis in Harar. Similarly, the present result agrees with Orlander (1986) that reports poor survival of E. camaldulensis under dry land conditions of Northern Ethiopia. Conclusions and recommendations
Species Accia saligna Eucalyptus camandulensis Juniperus procera Acacia decurrens Cordia africana Olea europeana Shinus molle Albizia gumiffera Afrocarpus falcutus Acacia nilotica Acacia seyal
Mean 4.48 A 4.14 AB 3.97 AB 3.97 AB 2.75 ABC 2.63 ABC 2.25 ABC 2.14 ABC 1.88 ABC 1.46 BC 0.71 C
Note: Means followed by the same letter are not significantly different
The present result implies that J. procera, O. africana and A. gummifera are the best species suitable for plantation programs designed for inhospitable sites in Arsi highlands and similar agroecological conditions elsewhere in Ethiopia. In view of critical vegetation loss in the mid and high altitude of Arsi, these species could be of a profound importance as a potential species for restoration activities. In addition to their
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uses as material for rehabilitation plantation programs, these species can play a pivotal role as catalytic plantation species in area closures because of the highest survival they have exhibited under degraded site conditions. Despite their poor survival, E. camaldulensis, A. saligna and A. decurrens have shown superior growth in collar diameter and height indicating high rate of biomass accumulation in these species. Therefore, these species should be planted with appropriate establishment techniques and tending activities that improve their survival under stressful conditions. Response of the recommended species to different establishment techniques should be further investigated across different levels of degraded site conditions in order to complement the practical importance of the present finding to commercial plantation and rehabilitation programs launched in Arsi highlands. Acknowledgment: We would like to thank Ato Zewge Bahiru for his unlimited contribution in managing the experiments and data collection activities. The costs of the experiment were fully financed by Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research. References: Abebe Yadessa, Diriba Bekere and Taye Bekele (2000): Growth performance of different multipurpose tree and shrub species at Bako, Western Oromi, Proc. 5th ESS conference, 177186. Betre Alemu, Tekalign Mamo, Alemayehu Zemedie and Ebrahim Ahmed (2000): Promising multipurpose tree species and their response to land form on highland Vertisols at Chefe Donsa, central highlands of Ethiopia, Proc. 5th ESSS conference, pp 145-155. Couralet, C.; Sass-Klaassen U.; Sahle Y.; Sterck F.; Bekele T. & Bongers F.(2000). Dendrochronological investigations on Juniperus procera from Ethiopian dry afromontane forests Demel, T. (1997): Seedling populations and regeneration of trees in dry Afromontane forests of Ethiopia. Forest Ecology and Management 98, 149165. Desta, B., Legesse, N. (1998): Asexual propagation of Juniperus procera from Ethiopia: a contribution to the conservation of African pencil cedar. Forest Ecology and Management, 112, 179190
Demel, T., Granstrom A. (1997): Seed viability of Afromontane tree species in forest soils. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 13, 8195. Eshetu Yirdaw (2002): Restoration of the native woody-species diversity, using plantation species as foster trees, in the degraded highlands of Ethiopia, PhD thesis, Helsinki. Evans J. (1992): Plantation Forestry in the Tropics (2nd ed.): Tree planting for Industrial, Social, Environmental and Agroforestry Purpose. Clarendon press, Oxford. Eshetu Yirdaw and Luukkanen O. (2003): Photosynthetically active radiation transmittance of forest plantation canopies in the Ethiopian highlands, Forest Ecology and Management, 188 (1724). EFAP (1993): Ethiopian Forestry Action Program. Volume II-The challenge for development. Ministry of National Resources Development and Environmental Protection. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. FAO (2003): State of the Worlds Forests. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. FAO (2001): State of the World's Forests 2001. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, FAO, Rome. ICRAF (2004): Agroforestry tree database, a tree species reference and selection guide. Legesse, N. (1995): Indigenous trees of Ethiopia. Biology, uses and propagation techniques. SLU Repro. Umea, Sweden. Legesse, N. (2002): Successful vegetative propagation techniques for the threatened, African pencil cedar (Juniperus procera Hocht. ex Endl.).Forest Ecology and Management 161(53-64). Legesse Negash (1990): Investigation on the germination behavior of wild olive seeds and the nursery establishment of the germinants, Ethiopian Journal of Science 13 (1): 71-81, Addis Ababa Lugo, A.E., Parotta, J.A. and Brown, S (1993): Loss in species caused by tropical deforestation and their recovery through management. Ambio 22: 106-109. Orlander, G. (1986): Growth of some forest trees in Ethiopia and suggestions for species
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selection in different climatic zones. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umea. Otsamo, R. (2000): Secondary forest regeneration under fast growing forest plantations on degraded Imperata cylindrica grasslands. New Forests 19: 69-93. Parrotta J.A. (1992): The role of plantation forests in rehabilitating degraded tropical ecosystems. Agriculture Ecosystem and Environment, 41: 115-133. Pohjonen, V., Pukkala, T.(1992): Juniperus procera Hocht. ex Endl. in Ethiopian forestry. Forest Ecology and Management 49: 75-85. Tumcha Belguda (2004): The vision of ministry of agriculture on natural resources of Ethiopia by 2025, In: Proceedings of the public meetings on Integrated forest policy development in Ethiopia, Forum For Environment and Interchurch Organization for Development Cooperation, eds., Seyoum Mengistu and Negussu Aklilu, Addis Ababa. Tesfaye Abebe (1994): Growth performance of some multipurpose trees and shrubs in the semi-
arid areas of Southern Ethiopia, Agroforestry systems 26: 237-248. Tesfaye, W., Kottke I., Demel T. and Oberwinkler F. (2003): Mycorrhizal status of indigenous trees in dry Afromontane forests of Ethiopia, Forest Ecology and Management 179 (387399). Tesfay Tekelay and Malmer Anders (2004): Decomposition of leaves from two indigenous trees of contrasting qualities under shaded-coffee and agricultural land-uses during the dry season at Wondo Genet, Ethiopia Soil Biology & Biochemistry 36 (777786) Tesfaye Hunde and Mohammed Adilo(2007): Evaluation of some multipurpose trees and shrubs grown in Harer, Eastern Ethiopia, Ethiopian Journal of Natural Resources 9(2): 281-288 Zobel B. and J. Talbert (1984): Applied forest tree improvement, John Wiley and Sons, Toronto, Canadacedar. Forest Ecology and Management, 112, 179190.
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OBSTACLES IN JOB CREATION AND EMPLOYMENT FOR TVET GRADUATES IN ETHIOPIA: THE CASE OF OROMIYA REGIONAL STATE Bedada Mergo Lecturer, Adama University which individual and community development depends. It is true that the betterment and development of a nation mainly depends on the quality of education being provided. Of course, quality in education is relative and not easy to define and measure. Many educators agree that an adequate definition of quality of education must be related to students achievements (outputs) as its basis. Ethiopia is a country located in the horn of Africa, covering a landmass of 1 million square kilometers. Administratively, the country is divided into nine Federal States and two City Administrations following the decentralized system of governance established since 1992. Although the country is endowed with favorable climate, fertile land, and large number of livestock (first in Africa), 45.5% of the total population is living in poverty. Per capital income is around USD 100, which is one of the lowest in the world. Similarly, the human development index is very low, which is about 0.359 in 2001 (UNDP and World Bank, 2003 as cited in Aregash, 2006). Despite its possession of resources, historical relics, distinct customs, and pleasant weather condition for most portions of its history, Ethiopia has been devitalized by economic decline, social tragedy, civil war, and the spread of fatal diseases. These problems resulted in rampant poverty in the country (Woube, 2002 as cited in Bedada, 2006). Ethiopia wants to improve the living standards of its people by fostering productivity in different perspectives. To this effect, among other things, Ethiopia needs to expand its TVET institutions to get trained human power which is critically required for development and poverty reduction. In this regard, TVET institutions expanded from 17 in 1992/3 to 133 in 2003/4. Moreover, at the present these institutions are increasing even more and more from time to time. In line with this mission of poverty reduction and making Ethiopia to be one of the middle income countries in the 2020, the Ethiopian Ministry of Capacity Building has been working with different fund raising organizations in general and with the German Development Cooperation (GTZ) in particular to realize the attainment of this mission.
Abstract This research was aimed at assessing the obstacles in job creation and employment opportunities for Technical-Vocational Education and Training institutes (hereafter TVET) graduates of Ethiopia in general and that of the Regional State of Oromiya in particular. There is a need for conducting research on the issue of TVET institutions in line with the Ethiopian government policy of poverty reduction and making Ethiopia to be one of the middle income countries in 2020. Ethiopia, like any other developing countries, wants to improve its productivity to upgrade the living standards of its people and cope up with the dynamics of science and technology, especially in the current information era. To this end, among other things, Ethiopia needs to expand its TVET institutions to get middle level manpower which is highly required for boosting sustainable development in the country. Accordingly, Ethiopia has dramatically increased the number of TVET institutions from time to time. Despite this, research and experience show that the graduates of these TVET intuitions become job seekers rather than job creators. Hence, to bridge this policypractice gap and to make the graduates to become entrepreneurs as stated in the TVET policy documents, the root causes of the problems should be identified thereby remedial suggestions should be forwarded. Introduction For a nation, which is backward in terms of technology and economic development, there is an acute demand for highly educated and skilled manpower and technology, which are crucial for the different sectors of development. The demands for productive work and services are growing from time to time as we are living in a dynamic world. As a result, what is considered satisfactory today may become obsolete after some years. Education is certainly a precondition and the most crucial factor to adjust ourselves to the changing world or modify it to fit to our needs. Just as the environmental degradation affects the ecological system on which life eventually depends, so does the education crisis threaten the human resources of knowledge, skill, attitude and self-confidence on
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The German Development Cooperation (GTZ) in collaboration with the Ministry of Education is doing its level best in engineering capacity building program (ECBP) in general and human resources development in particular. One of the four components of ECBP is TVET Reform. This reform stresses the need for creating one coherent, outcome-based TVET system which includes formal, non-formal, informal, initial and further training for all sectors. Specifically, the central objective of the reform (TVET Reform, 2007) states the Ethiopian Technical and Vocational Education and Training system delivers its services with regard to technical and entrepreneurial skills development according to the labour market. In the Ethiopian TVET strategy, different competencies are set for the different levels of qualifications. For instance, the competencies set for the middle level technical/vocational diploma is performance of advanced vocational/entrepreneurial competencies in a selected occupation to carry out advanced skilled work activities (analysis, evaluation, operation and maintenance of complex equipment/systems and workshop organization) within a non-routine work process required autonomy and particular guidance of others. Even if technical and vocational education has paramount importance in creating job opportunities, its status in Ethiopia, like in the case of other African countries, is not promising. In many countries, especially in Eastern and Southern Africa, the formal system of technical and vocational education cannot provide adequate training for those leaving general education institutions. Further, access to technical and vocational education is often limited to adults. Even graduates from formal technical and vocational education institutions are often unable to find adequate employment. In addition, they are frequently not equipped with the know-how and the material prerequisites to establish their own businesses. Thus, they are not able to contribute significantly to the alleviation of poverty and to sustainable development by creating and engaging in small business enterprise (National Policy Definition Information Document, 1997). If the education and the training of technical and vocational schools have to be in line with the demands of the present day work force and the requirements of technology at large, among other things, the need for making training of technical and vocational education and training institutes is to be of the type that can enable the learner to develop
practical and problem-solving skills is imperative. In other words, according to the current policy, the training of the technical and vocational education and training schools should emphasize on technical subjects; especially on 70% practical and 30% theoretical training. In spite of this fact, research and experience show that after graduation even if the graduates of technical and vocational education and training schools are expected to be job creators, they become job seekers. This problem has a serious impact on the implementation of the technical and vocational education and training policy in general and on the students competence in the world of work in particular. This is so because this level is the basis and foundation of the world of work. From the above discussions, one can apparently understand that even though these schools are remained to be the sources of people who are assumed to be productive and change agents in the country, there has always been dissatisfaction with regard to the practical ability of the graduates (MoE, 2002 and MoE, 2003). A number of reports indicate that the teachers who are involved in teaching within the technical and vocational schools lack practical skills more than the theoretical aspects. As a result, they train young graduates who do not satisfy the demands of the works in industries and services areas (Mesfin, 2004). Hence, to bridge this policy-practice gap thereby to make the graduates of TVET institutions job creators rather than job seekers, the root causes of the problems should be identified. Objectives of the study To pinpoint the major factors that attribute for Oromiya TVET graduates not to become entrepreneurs as stated in the TVET policy documents of Ethiopia and to propose feasible strategies as to how to tackle the problems. Research Design In the study, descriptive survey research method was employed. The data were collected from 100 purposely selected TVET graduates of the Regional State of Oromiya, selected TVET teachers, and TVET program coordinators using questionnaire, interviews and focus group discussions. Both quantitative and qualitative approaches were employed in analyzing the data. The data gathered through the close-ended items of the questionnaire were analyzed quantitatively by applying a statistical method involving chi-square (x2). Nevertheless, before applying chi-square (x2) as a method of data
59
analysis, the results obtained from the 100 TVET graduates through the close-ended items of the questionnaire were sorted out and tallied. In scoring the responses of the respondents, the positively and negatively stated items were sorted out and the negatively stated items were reverse-scored and assigned scores and frequency numbers accordingly. Then, chi-square was employed to determine the statistical significance of differences between proportions of responses in the groups. To this effect, the five-point scale was reduced into a dichotomous scale, as the central intention of the study was to Discussion This part of the study presents analysis and interpretations of the data collected from different respondents and informants. Accordingly, the data Table. Data gathered from the sample TVET graduates
figure out the prominent factors that hinder TVET graduates from creating their own job or get employment opportunities. In so doing, the value of the neutral option; namely, that of 'no opinion' was liquidated proportionally to the disagree and agree sides (Babbie, 1995). Besides, the level of significance, in all the above cases, was determined at p<0.05. On the other hand, the data collected through the open-ended items of the questionnaire, interviews and focus group discussions were analyzed qualitatively, and were included in the interpretation and conclusion of the study gathered from the sample TVET graduates using close-ended items of the questionnaire are presented as follows, table below.
Observed Frequency No. Item Disagree 1+2 1 I couldnt create my own business as I have not internalized the essence of entrepreneurship. The existence of poor public-private partnership is one of the factors that make Oromiya TVET graduates not to become job creators. When I was in TVET institute, I used to devote most of my time on practicing things than listening to teachers lectures. In my opinion, the curricula of TVET institutes make the graduates job seekers as they are theory-dominated. The prevalence of inadequate attachment between TVET institutions and companies/industries is one of the factors which make TVET graduates job seekers. I feel, minimal stakeholders involvement in the TEVT training program is one of the factors that make the graduates not to create their own enterprise. Making students who could not pass the EGSECE join TVET institutions without interest is one of the factors which make the graduates job seekers. Socio-cultural impacts like sex roles, giving little attention to being blue collars and the like have significant impacts on TVET graduates not to be job creators. Most TVET graduates in Oromiya could not create their own enterprise due to lack of vocational guidance. Absence of impact assessment or continuous support is one of the factors which hinder graduates of TVET institutions from having their own business. Overall obstacles 2.04 Agree 4+5 97.96 92.00* x2
4.17
95.83
84.02*
85.12
14.89
49.32*
14.29
85.71
51.00*
6.25
93.75
76.56*
6.00
94.00
77.44*
15.22
84.78
48.38*
14.89 8.00
85.11 92.00
49.30* 70.56*
10
18.75
81.25
39.06*
174.73
825.28
637.64*
60
* P < 0.05 N.B *= p<0.05 df = 1 The expected frequency for agree and disagree columns is 50 and that of the overall obstacles are 500. X2 cri= x2 (1, 0.05) = 3.84 As can be seen from the table above, the calculated x2 value of all of the items is greater than the x2 critical value (1, 0.05) which is 3.84. The description of each of the items is presented as follows. In the table, the first item deals with whether TVET graduates internalized the essence of entrepreneurship as expected in the policy during their stay in TVET training institute. Regarding this, the chi-square calculated value (92.00) is greater than the chi-square critical value (1, 0.05), which is 3.84. As can be seen from the table, the magnitude and direction of the difference indicate that the graduates have not internalized the essence of entrepreneurship as expected in the policy. This implies that they lack the know how of creating their own job as stated in the policy. The table also shows the degree to which poor public-private partnership affects the job creation of the graduates. In this regard, the calculated x2 value is 84.02. As compared to the x2 critical value (1, 0.05) which is 3.84, it is by far greater which indicates the fact that the existence of poor public-private partnership in Oromiya is one of the factors that makes them not to create their businesses. In the same way, the table presents the extent to which TVET graduates used to devote most of their time on practicing things than listening to their teachers lectures. In this regard, the calculated x2 value (49.32) is greater than the chi-square critical value (1, 0.05) = 3.84. Hence, most of the graduates were not practicing things practically during their stay in their respective TVET institution. The above table also depicts whether the curricula of TVET institutes make the graduates job seekers as they are theory-dominated. With
this regard, the x2 calculated value (51.00) by far exceeds the x2 critical value (1, 0.05) that is 3.84. Therefore, the magnitude and direction of the difference show that the majority of the graduates feel that the curricula of TVET institute do not serve the purpose they are intended for. The table above still presents whether the prevalence of inadequate attachment between TVET institutions and companies/industries is one of the factors which make TVET graduates job seekers. Concerning this, the x2 calculated value (76.56) is greater than the x2 table value (1, 0.05) that is 3.84. Hence, the magnitude and direction of the differences indicate that the prevalence of inadequate attachment between TVET institutions and the nearby companies/industries is one of the factors that hinder the graduates not to be creators of their own enterprises. This might be due to the fact that the trainees lack awareness about the real context of companies/industries thereby unable to satisfy the current demands of them. The table above still depicts whether or not minimal stakeholders involvement in the TVET training program is one of the factors that make the graduates not to create their own enterprise. Regarding this, the x2 calculated value (77.44) is greater than the x2 table value (1, 0.05) that is 3.84. Thus, the magnitude and direction of the differences clearly show that the prevalence of minimal stakeholders involvement in the TVET training program is one of the factors that hinder the graduates not to be creators of their own businesses. The table above assesses whether or not making students who could not pass the Ethiopian General Secondary Education Certificate Examination (EGSECE) join TVET institutions without interest is one of the factors which make the graduates job seekers. Concerning this point, the calculated value of x2 is (48.38). Compared to the x2 critical value (at 1, 0.05 =3.84), it is by far great, which shows that the current trend of assigning students to TVET institutions is one of the factors which make the graduates job seekers. The table also presents whether socio-cultural impacts like sex roles, giving little attention to being blue collars and the like have significant impacts on TVET graduates not to be job creators in the Regional State of Oromiya.
61
Regarding this, the calculated value of x2 is (49.30); which apparently indicate that sociocultural impacts like gender stereotyping, giving little attention to being blue collar and so on have significant impacts on Oromiya TVET graduates not to become entrepreneurs as stated in the TVET policy documents. Besides, the same table shows whether or not most TVET graduates in Oromiya could not create their own enterprise due to lack of vocational guidance. Regarding this issue, the calculated value of x2 is (70.56). Compared to the table value, it is by far great. Hence, the direction and magnitude of the differences show that lack of vocational guidance is one of the factors that are hurdles for the TVET graduates to become job creators. Lastly, the table depicts whether or not absence of impact assessment or continuous support is one of the factors which hinder graduates of TVET institutions from having their own business. Concerning this, the calculated value of x2 is (39.06). Compared to the critical value (at 1, 0.05 =3.84), it is by far great, which clearly shows that lack of continuous support or impact assessment is one of the factors which makes graduates of TVET institutions not to be entrepreneurs. In general, as it is indicated in the table above, regarding the overall obstacles, the calculated value of x2 is (637.64). Compared to the x2 critical value (at 1, 0.05 =3.84), it is by far great, which indicates that the factors which are incorporated into the table in this way or another affect TVET graduates not to create their own businesses. To get additional information, interviews were made with 8 randomly selected TVET teachers and TVET program coordinators. Moreover, focus group discussions were also made with 12 randomly selected TVET teachers. The overall results of the study showed that the inadequacies of TVET graduates in creating their own businesses or getting employment opportunities emanate from the following detail factors: Inadequate experience regarding practical training on the part of the trainers; Existence of poor public-private partnership; Minimal stakeholders involvement in the training programs;
Prevalence of inadequate attachment between TVET institutions and the nearby companies and/or industries; using structured and rigid curriculum in the face of changing economic circumstances; Minimal success in developing alternative financial sources; Absence of follow-up studies of the graduates; Recruitment and placement of the trainees i.e. making students who could not pass the Ethiopian General Secondary Education Certificate Examination enter into TVET institution without interest; Keen interest of the people of Ethiopia to make their children become white collars instead of becoming blue collars up on completing training programs; Availability of cheap labour in the black market; The prevalence of experience-based rather than training-based business transaction in the country; Socio-cultural impacts like sex roles or gender stereotyping i.e. considering physical works as if they are meant only for males; conducting training programs based on anticipated employment rather than on planned labour need; Existence of stagnant employment opportunities; and Using a single model namely Dacum Model in designing the curriculum of TVET institutions rather than being eclectic. Conclusion As Ethiopia is a developing country, a comprehensive improvement in education is the starting point for the all rounded development of the nation. This comprehensive improvement enables the country to get a well-trained and productive manpower, which is the immediate need of the country. At the moment, Ethiopia has been using technical and vocational education as one of the strategies for human resources development. To this end, TVET institutions have expanded significantly than ever before. However, despite the expansion, the graduates of these institutions
62
are not in a position to create their own enterprises and/or getting employment in companies/industries. These inadequacies emanate from a number of factors out of which lack of practical training, absence of attachment between TVET institutions and companies, socio- cultural impacts, level of development of the country, absence of tracer study or impact assessment, not using competency-curriculum, and using a single model in developing the curricula of TVET institutions and so on are the major ones. To rectify these and similar problems, there is a need for joint effort and commitment of the government, non-government organizations, stakeholders, TVET institutions, employers, chambers, and the like to create conducive situations for the TVET graduates. This could be effected by giving technical-vocational guidance and counseling services, creating strong link with employing sectors concerning curriculum development, apprenticeship and job placement and the like. Moreover, the concerned bodies should prepare economic venue in which the graduates create their own jobs in the form of small business enterprises. In this regard, the initiative taken by the government of Ethiopia in organizing the graduates in micro enterprise should be strengthened through research-based strategies. Making follow-up study and sorting out skill gap thereby giving short term training to rectify it. Besides, the mode of TVET training should be demand-driven and should take the context of Ethiopia into consideration. References Aregash Samuel. (2006): The State of Human Resource Development in the Ethiopian Leather and Leather Products Technology Institute. The Engineering Capacity Building Program
Document. (2007). Building Ethiopia; Outline of the University Reform Program. Bedada Mergo. (2006): Assessment of the Contributions of Madda WalabuUniversity to the Regional State of Oromiya. The Ethiopian Journal of Ethiopian Journal of Higher Education. 3(2) 33-68.Babbie, E. R. (1995). The Practice of Social Research. (7th ed.) Belmont: Wadsworth Publication Company Higher Education. 3(1) 133-152. Mesfin Silesh. (2004): An Assessment of the Technical and Vocational Teacher Education Program by Technical and Vocational Teacher Educators. Proceeding of Summer Research Seminar (Unpublished). Ministry of Education. (2002): Technical and Vocational Education and Training Strategy of Ethiopia. Addis Ababa: Berhanena Selam Printing Press. Ministry of Education. (2002): Education and Training Policy and Its Implementation. Addis Ababa. Ministry of Education. (2003): Educational Statistics Annual Abstract. Addis Ababa. Transitional Government of Ethiopia. (1994): New Education and Training Policy. Addis Ababa: EMPDA. Transitional Government of Ethiopia. (1994): Education Sector Strategy. Addis Ababa: Berhanena Selam Printing Press. UNESCO. (1989): Convention on Technical and Vocational Education. Paris: ILO UNESCO. (1997): National Policy Definition in Technical and Vocational Education: Beyond the Formal Sector. Nairobi
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i ISSN 1998-0531

The Ethiopian Journal of Sciences and Sustainable Development

Journal of Adama University

January, 2010, Adama , ETHIOPIA

The Ethiopian Journal of Sciences and Sustainable Development

EDITORIAL ASSISTANT: Mr. Gemechu Waktola; Adama University, Adama, Ethiopia

BOARD OF EDITORIAL ADVISORS:

Journal of Adama University, Vol. 1, No. 1, January, 2010, ISSN 1998-0531

Journal of Adama University, Vol. 1, No. 1, January, 2010, ISSN 1998-0531

Journal of Adama University, Vol. 1, No. 1, January, 2010, ISSN 1998-0531

0.728 0.601 -0.279

0.652 0.514 -0.582 0.748

-0.394 -0.605 -0.966 -0.364 0.044

0.938 0.899 -0.472 0.394 0.355 -0.809

1.030 1.066 0.307 0.374 0.300 -1.004 0.298

0.163 0.184 -0.139 -0.152 0.198 -0.229 -0.225 0.379

-0.729 -0.735 -0.532 -0.461 -0.020 0.701 -0.317 -0.502 0.595

0.524** 0.225 -0.070 0.992** -0.033 -0.125 0.509**

0.242 0.254 0.047

Journal of Adama University, Vol. 1, No. 1, January, 2010, ISSN 1998-0531

Journal of Adama University, Vol. 1, No. 1, January, 2010, ISSN 1998-0531

Journal of Adama University, Vol. 1, No. 1, January, 2010, ISSN 1998-0531

Journal of Adama University, Vol. 1, No. 1, January, 2010, ISSN 1998-0531

Journal of Adama University, Vol. 1, No. 1, January, 2010, ISSN 1998-0531

yhv yhv =( Dhv Dhv )+( hv hv )+( hv hv )

Journal of Adama University, Vol. 1, No. 1, January, 2010, ISSN 1998-0531

86.39883 (2.31)** -94.46957 (-1.61) 37.29219 (0.47) 72.22372 (1.38)

-336.356 (-1.73)* -8.83016 (-0.03) 108.9463 (0.72)

5.915985(0.97) -26.36645 (-4.06)***

11.58956 (1.57) -22.669 (-3.83)***

-.9819237 (-0.52) -1.854707 (-1.02)

-4.691651 (-0.66) -1.842743 (-0.75)

-4.755227 (-0.62) -1.033344 (-1.50) 1.109372 (1.7)*

.155542 (0.63) 198.2745 (0.30) 0.6737

Journal of Adama University, Vol. 1, No. 1, January, 2010, ISSN 1998-0531

Journal of Adama University, Vol. 1, No. 1, January, 2010, ISSN 1998-0531

ln ( yhv / c ) <0 for poor households and

D hv , hv and hv are the

Where- the terms in bracket is estimated as one single

Journal of Adama University, Vol. 1, No. 1, January, 2010, ISSN 1998-0531

G0 /ej = Sj (RjGj-G0 ) j =1,2,,K.

S k is the share of yk in y0 ; Gk is the Gini

yk ; and Rk is the Gini yk and the distribution of

y0 and is defined as:

Journal of Adama University, Vol. 1, No. 1, January, 2010, ISSN 1998-0531

flows Dhv , hv , v and

Table 5: Gini decomposition by income flows as a result of specific household characteristics

0.393181 0.03248626 -0.0569977 -0.14497

Dependency ratio of the household

Proportion of good quality land (%)

Cultivated land per capita (ha)

Journal of Adama University, Vol. 1, No. 1, January, 2010, ISSN 1998-0531

Journal of Adama University, Vol. 1, No. 1, January, 2010, ISSN 1998-0531

Journal of Adama University, Vol. 1, No. 1, January, 2010, ISSN 1998-0531

Journal of Adama University, Vol. 1, No. 1, January, 2010, ISSN 1998-0531

Distance (kms) 16-22 P F P 18.7 7 3.6

Total F 192 192

Journal of Adama University, Vol. 1, No. 1, January, 2010, ISSN 1998-0531

Journal of Adama University, Vol. 1, No. 1, January, 2010, ISSN 1998-0531

Trees Bushes Agricultural residuals Animal dung Kerosene Total

Journal of Adama University, Vol. 1, No. 1, January, 2010, ISSN 1998-0531

Journal of Adama University, Vol. 1, No. 1, January, 2010, ISSN 1998-0531

Journal of Adama University, Vol. 1, No. 1, January, 2010, ISSN 1998-0531

0.524 0.225 -0.070 0.992 -0.033 -0.125 0.509**

Note: , , and indicates 10%, 5% and 1% significant level

Note: ,, and indicates 10%, 5% and 1% significant level