Albert Einstein and

the Theory of Relativity

Newton's theory of gravitation was soon accepted
without question, and it remained unquestioned until
the beginning of this century. Then Albert Einstein
shook the foundations of physics with the introduction
of his Special Theory of Relativity in 1905, and his
General Theory of Relativity in 1915 (Here is an
example of a thought experiment in special relativity).
The first showed that Newton's Three Laws of Motion
were only approximately correct, breaking down
when velocities approached that of light. The second Albert Einstein
showed that Newton's Law of Gravitation was also 1879-1955
only approximately correct, breaking down in the
presence of very strong gravitational fields.

Newton vs. Einstein: Albert's Turn to Kick Butt

We shall consider Relativity in more detail later. Here, we only summarize the
differences between Newton's theory of gravitation and the theory of gravitation
implied by the General Theory of Relativity. They make essentially identical
predictions as long as the strength of the gravitational field is weak, which is our
usual experience. However, there are three crucial predictions where the two
theories diverge, and thus can be tested with careful experiments.

1. The orientation of Mercury's orbit is

found to precess in space over time, as
indicated in the adjacent figure (the
magnitude of the effect is greatly
exaggerated in this figure). This is
commonly called the "precession of the
perihelion", because it causes the
position of the perihelion to move. Only
part of this can be accounted for by
perturbations in Newton's theory. There is an extra 43 seconds of arc per
century in this precession that is predicted by the Theory of General
Relativity and observed to occur (a second of arc is 1/3600 of an angular
degree). This effect is extremely small, but the measurements are very precise
and can detect such small effects very well.
2. Einstein's theory predicts that the direction of light propagation should be
changed in a gravitational field, contrary to the Newtonian predictions.
 Precise observations indicate that Einstein is right, both about the effect and
its magnitude. A striking consequence is gravitational lensing.
3. The General Theory of Relativity predicts that light coming from a strong
gravitational field should have its wavelength shifted to larger values (what
astronomers call a "red shift"), again contary to Newton's theory. Once
again, detailed observations indicate such a red shift, and that its magnitude
is correctly given by Einstein's theory.
4. The electromagnetic field can have waves in it that carry energy and that we
call light. Likewise, the gravitational field can have waves that carry energy
and are called gravitational waves. These may be thought of as ripples in the
curvature of spacetime that travel at the speed of light.

Just as accelerating charges can emit electromagnetic waves, accelerating

masses can emit gravitational waves. However gravitational waves are
difficult to detect because they are very weak and no conclusive evidence has
yet been reported for their direct observation. They have been observed
indirectly in the binary pulsar. Because the arrival time of pulses from the
pulsar can be measured very precisely, it can be determined that the period
of the binary system is gradually decreasing. It is found that the rate of
period change (about 75 millionths of a second each year) is what would be
expected for energy being lost to gravitational radiation, as predicted by the
Theory of General Relativity.

The Modern Theory of Gravitation

And there is stands to the present day. Our best current theory of gravitation is the
General Theory of Relativity. However, only if velocities are comparable to that of
light, or gravitational fields are much larger than those encountered on the Earth,
do the Relativity theory and Newton's theories differ in their predictions. Under
most conditions Newton's three laws and his theory of gravitation are adequate. We
shall return to this issue in our subsequent discussion of cosmology.

For a more comprehensive introduction to both Special and General Relativity, see
the links at Relativity on the WWW, and The Light Cone (An Illuminating
Introduction to Relativity), and Albert Einstein Online