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Physics of the Marimba and Tuning In physics, sound can be described as a wave. We cannot see the vibrating movement of air molecules, so we do not have a visual sense of sound. However, wave phenomena in water are familiar to everyone. If a stone is dropped into a pool of water, waves propagate away from the stone in a circular pattern. A casual observer might reason that the wave is caused by horizontal movement of water away from the stone, but this is not true. Leonardo da Vinci described it eloquently: "it often happens that the wave flees the place of its creation, while the water does not; like the waves made in a field of grain by the wind, where we see the waves running across the field while the grain remains in place." In the case of the water wave, the visual effect is caused by the cyclical rise and fall of the water level and can be depicted as a sine wave graphically.

The graph is useful in defining some of the dimensions of the wave. The x axis represents the direction of wave propagation and the y axis represents the amplitude (height) of the wave. The normal water level is represented by a value of y = 0. The top of the wave is +ym above the normal water level and the bottom of the wave is -ym below the normal water level. The wavelength ( ) is represented by the distance at which the wave pattern begins to repeat itself. Key positions on the wave are designated with the terms node (place where the wave crosses the x axis) and antinode (the position of maximum distance above or below the x axis). A dimension of sound waves that is of particular interest in music is the frequency. If we graph the wave with time as the x axis, then it is possible to determine the frequency (which is related to the musical note). The period T is defined as the time interval in which the wave motion begins to repeat itself. And the frequency is simply calculated by the following formula: f = 1/T. The standard unit for frequency is Hertz or Hz (cycles per second). The notation that I have used on these web pages sets middle C as C4. Then the next C above middle C is C5, etc. The A above middle C (A4) is used as the standard note for tuning purposes and in the United States a tuning standard of A4 = 440 Hz is usually used (however, my marimba and most commercial marimbas are tuned to A4 = 442 Hz to yield a brighter sound that is supposed to sound better with the orchestra).

The water wave is a transverse type of wave because the displacement of the water is perpendicular to the direction of travel. The sound wave is a longitudinal type of wave because the displacement of air is parallel to the direction of travel. The air molecules vibrate back and forth in the direction the wave is traveling, creating zones of compressed and expanded air, as depicted in the illustration below.

The animation below attempts to depict sound waves, with the black dots representing air molecules:

Sound waves can be graphically depicted by two methods: 1) variation in air pressure or 2) variation in air displacement. Both methods are compared in the illustration below:

The literature on musical acoustics is not always clear in regards to the type of graph depicted. You will note above that the waves in the two graphs do not line up (i.e. the peaks and valleys of one are not at the same place as the peaks and valleys of the other). A node of displacement (where wave crosses the x axis) is the same location as an antinode of pressure. In other words, the zone between an area of compressed air and a zone of expanded air (the pressure antinodes) is the zone of maximum air displacement (a displacement antinode). The zone of maximum displacement is the zone where air molecules are moving to the maximum degree. The distinction between displacement and pressure waves is particularly important when illustrating resonance phenomena for the marimba. The Marimba Resonator The marimba resonator is a tube, open at the end next to the vibrating bar and closed at the other end. A sound wave travels down the tube and is reflected back at the closed end. As a result, sound waves are traveling in two directly opposite directions in the tube. If the tube has the proper length (approximately 1/4 wavelength or odd multiples of 1/4 wavelength), a standing wave will develop. A standing wave is formed by the combination of the sound waves traveling in opposite directions. The combined wave form results in a wave that appears stationary, thus the name standing. The illustration below can be examined to understand the nature of a standing wave.

The yellow wave represents the wave traveling into the tube and the red wave represents the wave traveling out of the tube. When the waves combine, the standing wave depicted in green results. At time 0 the incoming and outgoing waves are in phase. The peaks add together to make the wave amplitude higher. It is the adding together of wave amplitudes that increases the volume of the sound, which is the job of the resonator. At time 1/4 T (time for 1/4 of wave to travel past a point), the incoming and outgoing waves are completely out of phase and when added together, the wave pattern is a flat line. As we proceed through one cycle, we see a pattern where the waves move up and down, but in place. And interestingly, there is no movement at all at the nodes. The animation below depicts the standing wave pattern over time.

The animation below depicts a 1/4 standing wave in the resonator tube. The black dots represent air molecules. You will notice that over the period of the cycle, the number of air molecules changes at the closed end but does not at the open end. The closed end is a pressure antinode while the open end is a pressure node.

Resonance occurs because part of the sound energy is reflected back into the tube as it exits. In the vicinity of the open end of the tube, the impedance drops. The change in impedance is the cause of wave reflection back into the tube. The reflected wave undergoes a phase change of 180 degrees, which is required for maintenance of the standing wave condition. The sound energy that is reflected back into the tube adds to the energy from the vibrating bar to increase the volume of the sound. The closed end of the resonator tube represents a pressure antinode and the open end a pressure node. If you think about it, this should be logical. The closed end is furthest removed from the outside atmosphere, and is the place where the pressure fluctuates the most. The open end is very close to the outside atmosphere, and thus can't support wide fluctuations in air pressure. Conversely, the closed end of the tube represents a node of air displacement while the open end represents an antinode of air displacement. This is also logical: the air is allowed to move more freely at the open end than at the closed end. For those unfamiliar with this subject, confusion can arise when a wave form is drawn inside the resonator tube. The conventional diagram places a node at the closed end. It is assumed that the reader understands that the wave form depicted is a displacement wave form, not a pressure wave form. A pressure wave form has the antinode at the closed end, where the maximum fluctuation in air pressure occurs. The illustration below shows the standing wave form for a 1/4 wave with the displacement node at the closed end.

The tones produced by musical instruments are actually a mixture of sound frequencies, usually in a harmonic series. The mixture gives rise to the timbre (tone quality) of the instrument. The lowest frequency sound wave of the tone is called the fundamental or first harmonic. The overtones (sound waves with higher frequencies) are called harmonics if they are whole number multiples of the fundamental. For example, suppose a tone is analyzed and found to contain the following frequencies: 440 Hz, 880 Hz, 1320 Hz and 1760 Hz. The 440 Hz frequency is the fundamental and establishes the tone as the note A4 (the A above middle C). The 880 Hz overtone is the second harmonic (i.e., twice the fundamental frequency). And 1320 Hz is the third harmonic and 1760 Hz the fourth harmonic.

An interesting property of a closed resonator tube is that only odd-numbered harmonics resonate. The reason for this is that a displacement node must be located at the closed end and an antinode must be located at the open end. These conditions can't be met by even-numbered harmonics. For example, lets take a 1/2 wave, which is twice the frequency of the 1/4 wave illustrated in the tube above. The half wave could be drawn with a displacement antinode at the open end but then the node is located in the middle of the tube, not at the closed end.

So let us try to place the node at the closed end.

But now there is also a node at the open end, which won't work. Therefore, even-numbered harmonics cannot resonate in a closed tube. What is the next wave pattern that will resonate in a closed tube? We can fit a 3/4 wave pattern in the tube with the node and antinode in the correct position.

Recall that the 1/4 wave form represents the resonance condition for the fundamental. Then the 3/4 wave form represents the resonance condition for the third harmonic (3 x 1/4 = 3/4), which is the first available resonance for an overtone.

So, how do you calculate the tube length for the resonator? The formula is given below. This formula is actually the formula to calculate the length of 1/4 of a sound wave at a given frequency. Since the velocity of sound varies with air temperature, the wavelength at a given frequency will vary with the air temperature. Many marimbas have stoppers in the tube that are not adjustable (at least not easily). Resonators of this design can only resonate properly at one air temperature since the wavelength varies with temperature. This becomes particularly critical for bass resonators, where the changes in wavelength are large. That is the reason why some high-end marimbas have adjustable resonator stops on the bass end. Some also have adjustable stops on all resonators, which allows for fine tuning. L = v/f/4 Where: L = length of column (from opening to closed end) in feet v = Speed of sound (1129 ft per second @ 70 F, 1132 ft per second @ 72 F, 1146 ft per second @ 85 F.) f = frequency of desired pitch in Hertz 4 = Quarter-wavelength factor There is also an end correction factor that should be applied to the calculation. As it turns out, the wave is not reflected back into the tube at its opening, but slightly past the opening. There may be other factors that add to the end correction as well, such as the presence of the bar. Therefore, it is necessary to subtract an end correction from the length of the tube. The theoretical end correction for a resonator closed at one end is 0.61 r, where r is the inside radius of the tube. But keep in mind that this theoretical end correction is for a resonator without an obstruction near its open end. In the case of the marimba (and other similar instruments) the builder will likely find that the real end correction is greater than 0.61 r. Also see the section below for more about end correction. Keep in mind that the calculated tube length is from the surface of the stopper, so you will need

to add extra length to accommodate the thickness of the stopper. And if you want to fabricate an adjustable stopper, so that the resonator can be tuned to the bar at different air temperatures, then you must accommodate the highest air temperature you want to be able to tune. Actual air column lengths required for resonance of the La Favre marimba Upon completion of the marimba, I set out on the task of tuning the resonators. The tuning was done by ear, listening for maximum resonance as the bar was struck with a mallet, adjusting the resonator stopper as needed. After the stoppers were all set, the distance from each stopper to the open end of the tube was measured (except for the mitered resonators, where accurate measurement is not possible). I found that the column lengths measured were short of the lengths calculated with an end correction of 0.61 r. The end correction required for my marimba was in the range of 0.78 to 0.85 r.

The Marimba Bar Before dealing with the bars of a marimba, we should examine the prominent modes of vibration for a simple rectangular bar (i.e. without an undercut arch), for example, the bars of a glockenspiel. Let us take a real example of a C6 glockenspiel bar, which we find by empirical methods to vibrate at the following frequencies: 1046 Hz, 2810 Hz, 3906 Hz, 5494 Hz. By experimentation we find that the bar vibrates strongly at 1046 Hz when struck in the center or at the ends. Furthermore, we find that the bar vibrates very little at the same frequency when struck at a certain location between the center of the bar and the end. These observations can be explained by a vibration mode as illustrated below.

The illustration above depicts vibration mode 1 of the bar (1046 Hz), which gives rise to the fundamental. This type of vibration in a bar is named Transverse. In addition to Mode 1, this mode is also known as the first transverse mode. Striking the bar in the center results in maximum excitation of mode 1 vibration because this is the location of maximum deflection. Conversely, striking the bar at one of the nodes results in very little excitation of mode 1 because there is little movement of the bar in this zone for mode 1. Therefore, the bar can be supported at the nodes with little damping effect on mode 1 vibration (and in fact, glockenspiel, xylophone and marimba bars are supported at the nodes of mode 1). Experimenting further, we touch the bar in the center with a finger and strike the bar fairly close to the finger. Touching the bar in the center with a finger dampens mode 1 vibration and we find that our methodology results in a strong sounding of the 2810 Hz overtone. These results can be explained by a vibration mode as illustrated below.

The illustration above is vibration mode 2 of the bar (2810 Hz), which gives rise to the first overtone. This is also a transverse mode and can be named the second transverse mode. You will note that there are three nodes in this mode and that one of the nodes is located at the center of the bar. Therefore, mode 2 vibration will not be dampened if we touch the bar in the center with a finger. At this point it would seem logical that the next mode of vibration (3906 Hz) should be the one illustrated below.

Thinking about the illustration above, we should anticipate a strong excitation of this mode by placing fingers at the nodes adjacent to the center of the bar and then striking the bar in the center. But when we do this, we find that the bar vibrates strongly at 5494 Hz rather than 3906 Hz. Therefore, the illustration above is of vibration mode 4! Alternatively, we can call mode 4 the third transverse mode. Then what is the nature of vibration for mode 3 (3906 Hz)? Mode 3 is a torsional (twisting) type of vibration as illustrated below. We can also call this the first torsional mode.

Normally the player does not excite a torsional mode of vibration to any great degree because the bar is struck along the nodal lines. However, if the inexperienced player strikes the bar near one of its corners, then mode 3 will be excited. Sometimes a torsional mode of vibration will clash with other frequencies on a marimba. For instruments with a high degree of tuning, the torsional modes may be tuned when they cause problems. For more information on torsional modes CLICK HERE Now we can state that modes 1, 2 and 4 of the glockenspiel bar result from a transverse type of vibration. That is, the bar moves up and down in a sine wave pattern along its length. Furthermore, mode 3 vibration is unlike the others, it is a torsional (twisting) type of vibration. It should be noted here that the bar can vibrate in more than one mode at a time. In fact, the modes 1, 2 and 4 illustrated above will usually be active simultaneously when the bar is struck. Tuning the Marimba Bar We can use the information above to formulate a tuning strategy for the marimba bars. Unlike the glockenspiel, the overtones of the marimba bars are harmonically tuned (that is, the overtone frequencies are whole multiples of the fundamental frequency). Due to the nature of modes of vibration in a bar, there are relativity few overtones produced and these are fairly distant from the fundamental. Therefore, it is not possible to create a bar that vibrates with a rich set of harmonics, like second, third and fourth harmonics. The first transverse mode of the marimba bar is tuned to the fundamental, the second transverse mode is tuned to the fourth harmonic and the third transverse mode is tuned to the tenth harmonic. I triple tuned bars for the bass register, C2 to G#3 (first, second and third transverse modes tuned to fundamental, 4th harmonic and 10th harmonic respectively), which imparts a more consonant tone and prevents the overtones from beating against other frequencies produced by the marimba. Bars in the middle register (A3 to C5) were double tuned (first and second transverse modes tuned to fundamental and 4th harmonic respectively). Overtones of the higher register (C#5 to C7) reside above the range of the instrument and are sustained for a very brief time period. For these reasons, tuning overtones in the higher register was not attempted. I should note here that tuning of overtones becomes more difficult in the higher registers due to the very brief

sustain. The third transverse mode has the shortest sustain time and becomes difficult to tune above G#3. Higher up, the second transverse mode also becomes very difficult to tune. With my strobe tuner, it is not possible to get a fix on the frequency for these overtones. You could tune some higher bars if you have a tuning device that can fix frequency with a short sample period. But then there is the question of the value of tuning these high frequencies - would this result in a significant change in the timbre of these bars? In any case, there is a physical limit where it becomes impossible to tune the higher bars to multiple frequencies. As noted above, the simple rectangular bar does not vibrate with harmonic overtones. In order to tune the bar to harmonic overtones, it is necessary to cut an arch from the bottom. The triple tuning process begins by cutting a very conservative arch, which results in a bar several semitones above the target note. Then small amounts are removed from specific areas of the arch to achieve the harmonic intervals (the fourth and tenth harmonics, i.e. 4 and 10 times the fundamental frequency). The fundamental is lowered more than the overtones when material is removed from the center of the arch (area 1 in illustration below). The second transverse mode is lowered most when material is removed somewhere between the center and end of the arch (area 2). The third transverse mode is lowered most when material is removed near the end of the arch (area 3). When all three frequencies are at the desired harmonic intervals, then material is removed evenly across the arch to approach the target note.

This tuning method should seem logical if you recall the modes of vibration for the bar. The first transverse mode of vibration (the fundamental) requires maximum flexing of the bar in the center (its antinode). By removing material in the center, the bar becomes more flexible (less stiff), which results in a slower rate of vibration. The antinodes for the second transverse mode of vibration (tuned to the fourth harmonic) are on both sides of the bar center, so removal of material there results in a more flexible bar in the locations where this mode requires maximum flexing. The third transverse mode of vibration (tuned to the tenth harmonic) has antinodes at the bar center and near each of the zones labeled 3 in the illustration above. Therefore, removing material from the areas labeled 3 results in more flexibility for two of the three antinodes of this mode. Cutting the arch The amount of wood removed from the bottom of the bar varies, with more removed as you move toward the bass end of the instrument (see photo of bars below). I selected the C4 bar as a starting point. An arch was penciled in along the bar edge, centered along the length, starting 1/4 of the length from each end and running along the center of the bar thickness in the middle of the bar length. For the first few bars I used a band saw to cut the rough arch. Later I developed a more accurate method using the table saw, which I will describe later. Once the rough arch is cut, the strobe tuner is used to determine the frequencies of the fundamental and the first two overtones (see below for measurement procedure). Then you must proceed carefully to tune all three frequencies to the required harmonic intervals. The second overtone will probably have a frequency greater than ten times the fundamental. If so, then remove material near both ends of the arch (area 3), and be careful to remove equal amounts on both ends (my table saw method insures this). You may also need to extend the length of the arch as well. The key is to remove small amounts of wood and make frequency measurements after each removal. After the second overtone equals a frequency of ten times the fundamental (three octaves plus a major third), work on bringing the first overtone to an interval of two octaves above the fundamental. Then remove material evenly along the arch to drop the fundamental and both overtones to the required frequencies. As you do this, you will probably need to make minor adjustments by removing more material from specific zones to maintain the proper harmonic spacing of the fundamental and overtones. Continue the rough tuning until you are about 50 cents above the target note (then finish is applied to the bar and the holes are drilled for the cord, then the final tuning is done). You must have patience. I spent up to 4 hours per bar doing the rough tuning on the first bars. As you do more tuning the process speeds up. In the end I could triple tune bars in 1.5 to 2 hours. And I am sure a professional can do it faster. You might try using some scrap wood like pine to try tuning a bar or two before doing the actual bars for the instrument. This is advice I have read elsewhere, but I was too anxious to start the real tuning and skipped this step. I was lucky in that I only needed to scrap one bar which ended up tuned too low. Again, the key is to work very slowly, especially on the first few bars you tune. After you get a feel for the tuning, you can become more bold and remove more material with each tuning cycle. After I had rough tuned the C4 bar, I used it as a reference for the arch shape. I worked my way to the top of the instrument, using the tuned bar as reference for the next higher note. Then I worked my way down the bass region, starting with B3. I simply transferred the shape of the arch from a rough tuned bar to the uncut bar. But when I made the first cut, I did not cut all the way down to the line, I left about 1/16 to 1/8 inch extra wood. Remember, if you cut off too much, you will have to discard the bar and start over. I used a table saw and belt sander (6 x 48 inches) to remove wood from the underside of the bar. After drawing the arch on the bar edge, I used the table saw to cut the rough arch. The process is slow, but insures a very accurate arch symmetrically (I doubt this method would be adopted in a production shop). Measure the length of

the bar and divide by two. Set the table saw fence to this number. Now raise the saw blade to a height that is 1/16 to 1/8 inch less than the full depth needed to reach the arch line in the bar center. Position the bar against the miter gauge and butt the end of the bar against the table saw fence. Then run the bar through the blade to make a cut. Then retract the fence the thickness of the saw blade and make another cut (you will need to make two cuts for each fence setting, one with each end of the bar against the fence). Continue making cuts, and drop the height of the blade as you go to maintain the cuts 1/6 to 1/8 inch below the penciled arch line. Yes, this is a very slow way to cut an arch, but you can't beat it for symmetric accuracy and for uniform depth of cut across the width of the bar. After you cut the arch on the table saw, smooth the arch with the belt sander. Then take measurements with the strobe tuner. If a great deal of wood remains to be removed from the arch in specific areas, then use the table saw. Use the belt sander for removing smaller amounts. I alternated between using the table saw and sander as I worked the arch down. You don't want to use the belt sander to an excessive degree because this hand method can yield a non-symmetrical arch. You need to be very careful with the belt sander as it removes wood quickly. Sand just a small amount and then make measurements with the strobe tuner. After a while you will have a better feel for the amount of sanding required to drop the frequency a certain amount. After you have applied the finish to the bars, you are ready for the final tuning. Bars vibrate at different frequencies at different temperatures. Therefore, it is best to do the final tuning in a temperature controlled environment. If you don't have a temperature controlled environment, restrict your final tuning to parts of the day when the temperature is similar. In my case I did the final tuning at a time of year when my house was being heated. For final tuning the temperature was always between 71 and 75 degrees F and the very final tuning of each bar was done at 73 degrees F. Keep in mind that when you sand the arch, the bar will heat up. So you must wait for the bar to return to room temperature before you make a determination of the final tuning. You should do the final tuning at a temperature similar to that which you anticipate for a typical performance with the instrument. Torsional Modes of Marimba Bars Due to the undercut arch of the marimba bar, the first torsional mode of vibration lies between the first and second transverse modes (i.e., the first torsional mode is mode 2 of the bar). I did not start to investigate torsional modes until after the rough tuning of my marimba bars. Since the bars were close to the final tuning point, I decided not to try any tuning of torsional modes. New information (1/15/05) - tuning torsional modes. I tested a scrap bar from my marimba to try a method of tuning the first torsional mode. You might find this useful if you have a bar where a torsional mode causes a problem by beating against a frequency of one of the transverse modes. The bar was a C4 bar, with a fundamental of C4 -6 cents, first torsional mode of D5 exactly, and a second tranverse mode of C6 - 6 cents. The bar was 1 31/32 inches wide. The width of the bar was reduced with a table saw to 1 29/32 inches wide. The tuning of the bar was then C4 -3 cents, D5 -18 cents, C6 -2 cents. The bar width was reduced again to 1 27/32 inches wide. The tuning of the bar was then C4 exactly, D5 - 45 cents, C6 +2cents. Reducing the width of the bar should have little effect on the transverse modes and this experiment shows this to be true. However, the width of the bar should have an effect on torsional modes of vibration. And again, this experiment shows this to be true as well. Therefore, you should be able to change the frequency of torsional modes of a bar by changing its width while having much less effect on the transverse modes. CLICK HERE for torsional mode data of the bars. CLICK HERE for more information on torsional modes. Tuning Analysis of Two Commercial Marimbas I just received a copy of a paper by Junehee Yoo and Thomas D. Rossing (Department of Physics, Northern Illinois University) and Barry Larkin (Iowa State University) entitled Vibrational Modes of Five-Octave Concert Marimbas (Proceedings of the Stockholm Music Acoustics Conference, August 6-9, 2003 [SMAC 03], Stockholm, Sweden). In this study the authors examined the first 4 transverse modes of vibration and the first 5 torsional modes of vibration in a Malletech and a Yamaha five-octave instrument. For the Malletech instrument, the second transverse mode was tuned to the fourth harmonic for bars ranging from C2 to D5, after which the ratio (first vs. second transverse mode) slowly decreased to a minimum of about 2.5, and the third transverse mode was tuned to the tenth harmonic for bars ranging from C2 to C4, after which the ratio decreased to less than 5 in the highest bars. For the Yamaha instrument, the second transverse mode was tuned to the fourth harmonic for bars ranging from C2 to F5, after which the ratio slowly decreased to a minimum of about 2.6, and the third transverse mode was tuned to the tenth harmonic for bars ranging from C2 to C#4, after which the ratio decreased to less than 7 in the highest bars. The authors found that the first torsional mode frequency ranged from about 1.9 times the fundamental frequency (lowest notes) to about 1.2 times the fundamental frequency (highest notes). Furthermore, the second torsional mode ranged between 9.4 times the fundamental frequency (F3 bar) to 3.9 times the fundamental frequency (C7 bar). The authors have this to say about the importance of torsional modes: "The large bars on these marimbas are quite wide, and thus the torsional bars (I believe they mean torsional modes here) can

radiate an appreciable amount of sound. In normal playing, the bars are struck near their centers, where the torsional modes have nodes, and thus they will not be excited to any great extent. On the other hand, if the bars are struck away from the center, deliberately or not, the torsional modes could contribute to the timbre. The first torsional mode, in the larger bars, is between a fifth and an octave above the nominal frequency. A bar would be expected to have a brighter timbre if struck away from the center axis so as to enhance the torsional modes, an effect that some players have noted." Judging from the torsional mode data, it is clear that the first two torsional modes have the potential to create some problems in clashing (beating against) with the transverse modes. If a torsional mode frequency is near a transverse mode frequency or a whole multiple of it (but not exactly the same), then there could be a problem if the torsional mode is excited to any significant degree. If the torsional mode is a problem, it may be possible to fix the problem by reducing the width of the bar. The authors cite an investigation by Bork and Meyer regarding the tuning of the third transverse mode. In the study, Bork and Meyer compared tunings of the following six intervals above the third octave: major second, major second +50 cents, minor third, minor third +50 cents, major third, and major third +50 cents. They found a preference for a minor third + 50 cents (i.e. a ratio of 9.88 to the fundamental frequency) However, the manufacturers of the Malletech and Yamaha instruments apparently prefer a slightly different tuning for the third transverse mode. For the Malletech, the tuning was about a major third plus 17 cents and the Yamaha was about a major third plus 34 cents (frequency ratios of 10.1 and 10.2, respectively). Using the Strobe Tuner to Measure Frequencies of the Bar The frequencies are measured with a strobe tuner. The different modes are emphasized depending on where the bar is grasped and where it is struck with the mallet. A mode is brought forth by holding the bar at a position that coincides with a node (a location where the bar does not vibrate in that specific mode). A mode is muffled if the bar is held at a position that coincides with its antinode (the location of maximum vibration for the mode). To bring forth the fundamental, the bar is held at the node of the first transverse mode and struck at the center of the bar (locations of the nodes are illustrated below).

To bring forth the second transverse mode, the bar is grasped at its center (which is the position of the antinode of the first transverse mode and a node of the second transverse mode - see illustrations above and below) and struck at a position between the center and end of the bar (slightly more toward the center, where the antinode for the second transverse mode occurs - trial and error with the mallet will allow you to locate the position where the second transverse mode will sound loudest when struck).

To bring forth the thrid transverse mode, the bar is grasped near one end and struck in its center. Note that the outer nodes for the third transverse mode are closer to the end of the bar than the nodes for the first and second transverse modes. Therefore, holding the bar near the end coincides with a node for the third transverse mode but not for nodes of the first and second transverse modes.

To bring forth the first torsional mode of vibration, the bar is grasped in the center and struck at one of the bar corners. Make sure to position the microphone of the tuner near the corner that is struck, where the torsional vibration is the strongest. Wave forms of complex tones (containing more than one frequency) As mentioned earlier, the vibrating bar can vibrate in more than one mode at a time. As an example, let us examine the C3 bar, which when tuned at a standard of A4 = 440 Hz, has a fundamental at 130.81 Hz, a fourth harmonic at 523.25 Hz and a tenth harmonic at 1318.5 Hz. First, listen to each of these frequencies in isolation (click the links below to hear each frequency - these tones were generated with computer software): 130.81 Hz 523.25 Hz 1318.5 Hz Now listen to the combination of all three frequencies (simulated C3 marimba bar): 130.81+523.25+1318.5 Hz Below you will find the wave forms of each of the three frequencies (these are copies of the wave forms from the computer software used to generate the tones). In generating these tones, I have attempted to mimic the type of wave forms that the marimba makes, but keep in mind that this is synthetically produced sound. The length of the wave form (the x axis) is a representation of the duration of the sound. The height of the wave form (amplitude) is an indication of the strength (energy) of the sound (not necessarily the loudness since the human ear has a variable sensitivity to different frequencies). The fundamental wave form has the longest duration (I made the duration equal to 0.7 second). The fourth harmonic has a duration of 0.35 second and the tenth harmonic is 0.1 second. The vertical line at the left of the wave form represents time 0, when the bar is struck. Notice that the fundamental builds more slowly in strength than the overtones. This is due to the lower frequency and the lag time required to build resonance in the tube. You should also note that the fundamental has the highest amplitude, followed by the fourth harmonic and the tenth harmonic has the lowest amplitude.

130.81 Hz, the Fundamental

523.25 Hz, the Fourth Harmonic

1318.5 Hz, the Tenth Harmonic Below you will find wave forms for 130 Hz and 1300 Hz. Note that there is one wavelength for the 130 Hz wave form and ten wavelengths for the 1300 Hz wave form. These are the wave forms for each tone in isolation. If we mix the wave forms together to synthesize a complex tone of the fundamental (130 Hz) and one overtone at the tenth harmonic (1300 Hz), then we obtain a wave form like the second illustration below. The more frequencies we add together, the more complex the wave form becomes. In this case I have kept the example simple so that it is easier to make out the two frequencies in the combined wave form.

separate wave forms for 130 Hz and 1300 Hz

wave form for a tone with fundamental and the tenth harmonic The wave form immediately above depicts a complex tone. If we were able to visualize the air molecule movement represented by the wave form, we would notice a pattern of strong pressure waves passing a point of reference with a frequency of 130 per second. But each of those strong pressure waves would not be smooth. Rather, they would have ripples of lower pressure variation with a frequency of 1300 per second. In order for a complex tone to sound harmonious, the higher frequencies (overtones) must be whole number multiples of the fundamental frequency. Below you can listen to a complex tone with two harmonic overtones plus another complex tone that contains overtones that are not harmonic. Listen to both and decide which one sounds better. Hopefully you will agree that the first link sounds better. This is the reason why the marimba bars are tuned with harmonic overtones. 130.81+523.25+1318.5 fundamental with two harmonic overtones 130.81+587.33+1479.9 fundamental with two overtones that are not harmonic

NEW! (1/10/05) Wave Traces of Real Bars I have recently completed a study of the wave forms of my marimba bars using a digital audio recorder and computer software. CLICK HERE to see results Some details about tuning and musical scales Modern western music employs an equal tempered scale, which is a compromise developed to facilitate music played in different keys. An older system, known as Just Intonation, employs a scale whereby each step up the scale is a whole number ratio as follows: C 1/1, D 9/8, E 5/4, F 4/3, G 3/2, A 5/3, B 15/8, C 2/1. Just Intonation results in a collection of notes that are very consonant due to the whole number ratios employed. However, if one attempts to shift keys while playing music on an instrument tuned in this manner, the results are not acceptable. Some musical instruments, marimba included, have fixed tunings. In order to play in different keys with Just Intonation, these instruments must be retuned (or in the case of a marimba, a different set of bars must be used!). To solve this problem, the equal temperament scale was developed. In the chromatic scale of 12 semitones, each step is the 12th root of 2, which preserves the doubling of frequency with each octave. The 12th root of 2 is 1.059463. Therefore, you can calculate the frequencies of notes in the scale by starting at a given point and simply multiplying by 1.059463 to obtain the frequency of the next semitone. For example, suppose we are tuning to a standard of A4 = 440 Hz. Then to calculate the frequency of A#4, calculate as follows: 1.059463 x 440 Hz = 466.16 Hz. To calculate B4, multiply 1.059463 x 466.16 Hz = 493.88 Hz, etc. If you continue calculations in this way, you will find that A5 calculates to 880 Hz (i.e., the frequency doubles on the octave). Below you will find a table that compares the frequencies of an octave in Just Intonation and Equal Temperament. Note C D E Just Intonation (Hz) 264 297 330 Equal Temperament (Hz) 261.63 293.66 329.63

F G A B C

352 396 440 495 528

249.23 391.99 440.00 493.88 523.25

The reason I have added this section is to clarify a detail on tuning the tenth harmonic of the bar. In the case of the fourth harmonic, the frequency should be exactly four times the fundamental frequency since the interval is two octaves. However, the tenth harmonic is not an interval of octaves, and with equal temperament tuning, the frequency of the tenth harmonic will not be exactly 10 times the fundamental (with Just Intonation, the tuning would be exactly 10 times the fundamental). To clarify further, a table of tunings in equal temperament for the bottom octave of the marimba is provided. Fundamental C2 (65.70 Hz) C#2 D2 D#2 E2 F2 F#2 G2 G#2 A2 (110.5 Hz) A#2 B2 Fourth Harmonic C4 (262.81 Hz) C#4 D4 D#4 E4 F4 F#4 G4 G#4 A4 (442 Hz) A#4 B4 Tenth Harmonic E5 (662.25 Hz) F5 F#5 G5 G#5 A5 A#5 B5 C6 C#6 (1113.77 Hz) D6 D#6

Unfortunately, we are not finished yet with the details! Apparently, human hearing is a bit quirky. We tend to hear high notes a bit flat. To compensate for this, an instrument with a wide compass can be tuned with the high notes slightly sharp. For my marimba, I will employ the following adjustments (stretch tuning): starting with C#6, one cent will be added to the tuning for each semitone (i.e., C#6 + 1 cent, D6 + 2 cents, etc.). A cent is 1/100th of the interval between semitones (i.e., there are 1200 cents to an octave). Keep in mind that the harmonics of lower bars must also be stretch tuned so that they will not beat against the stretched higher bars. Human Hearing at Different Frequencies and the Graduation of Bar Width You will note that the bars are graduated in width, growing wider with lower notes. One of the challenges in designing an instrument which sounds in the bass region is to provide tones that can be easily heard. The human ear has a remarkable range of sensitivity to sound at different frequencies. Sensitivity in the bass region is much less than in the range around 1000 to 4000 Hz. In order to partially overcome this problem, the bass bars are designed with wider width so that they generate sound at a higher energy level.

The graph below depicts the threshold of human hearing at different frequencies. You will note that the human ear is most sensitive to frequencies in the range of 1000 to 4000 Hz. The energy level of the sound is graphed in decibels (dB), which is logarithmic. An increase of 10 dB represents a 10 fold increase in sound energy and an increase of 20 dB represents a 100 fold increase in sound energy. Sound at a frequency of 62.5 Hz (lowest note on the marimba) must be about 30 dB greater than sound at the reference of 1000 Hz in order for the human

ear to detect it. That is, sound at 62.5 Hz must have an energy level 1000 times greater than a sound at 1000 Hz at the threshold of human hearing! Threshold of average human hearing at different frequencies

Actually the situation is not quite as bad as it might appear by looking just at the threshold of hearing (0 dB at 1000 Hz). As the sound level increases, there is less difference between frequencies in perceived volume, as the graph below indicates. For example, a tone at 1000 Hz and 40 dB would have volume approximately equal to a tone at 60 Hz at about 60 dB. In other words, the 60 Hz tone would need to have 100 times more energy than the 1000 Hz tone to be perceived at equal volume. In another example, a tone at 1000 Hz and 80 dB would have volume approximately equal to a tone at 60 Hz at about 90 dB. In other words, the 60 Hz tone would need to have 10 times more energy than the 1000 Hz tone to be perceived at equal volume. I am not sure what the sound levels of the marimba are in a typical performance, but I don't think the range of 40 - 80 dB is unreasonable (click here for chart of sound levels). Therefore, the C2 marimba bar must produce 10 to 100 times more energy than a bar near 1000 Hz to be perceived at equal volume. I think it is clear that the bass bars I have designed do not meet this level of energy production. Indeed, most bass instruments do not produce such sound levels and this is the reason that we commonly perceive them to have lower volume. Equal loudness curves for average human hearing

The audio link below demonstrates the variable loudness of tones at the same decibel level. Each tone is 0.5 second in duration starting with C2 (65.41 Hz), followed by C3, C4, C5 and then C6 (1046.5 Hz). C2 then C3 then C4 then C5 then C6

Marimba vs. Xylophone The marimba and xylophone are both fabricated with wood bars, yet the instruments are quite different in character. The differences are due to the tuning of the harmonics. The overtones of the marimba are tuned as even-numbered harmonics while the xylophone overtones are tuned as odd-numbered harmonics. The character of each instrument is further developed via the resonators. Each bar of the marimba is positioned just above a resonator, which amplifies the sound of the fundamental. The resonator tubes are closed at the bottom end and are tuned to the bar by achieving an air column length of 1/4 wavelength of the fundamental. A closed-tube resonator amplifies only the odd-numbered harmonics. Therefore, the 4th and 10th harmonics of the marimba are not amplified because they are even-numbered harmonics. This arrangement results in an instrument with a mellow or earthy character because the fundamental is emphasized and the overtones are subdued. In contrast, the xylophone has a bright character because the overtones are also amplified by its resonators. This occurs because the overtones of the xylophone are tuned to be odd-numbered harmonics (the first overtone is tuned to be the third harmonic).

You may contact me at jlafavre@jcu.edu regarding these web pages.

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