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An exploration of mens brand relationships

Linda Tuncay Zayer and Stacy Neier
Loyola University Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
Abstract
Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine the applicability of the consumer-brand typology developed by Fournier to a segment of heterosexual male shoppers of fashion and grooming products. Design/methodology/approach In-depth interviews, collage constructions, and shopping trip observations are the three methods of inquiry in this research. Findings A total of 13 of the 15 brand relationships detailed by Fournier are afrmed. Three new relationships emerge in the data demonstrating the uidity of the typology across market segments and sociocultural contexts. Research limitations/implications The research ndings provide implications for other consumption contexts which aid in identity construction. In addition, some of the new relationships that emerge from the text may be prevalent among other segments of men, and/or women. Practical implications Managers must be cognizant of the variety of brand relationships that men form with regard to fashion and grooming in order to effectively appeal to this growing market. The new relationships identied exhibit the goal-driven nature of mens engagement with brands. The prevalence of secretive and adversarial relationships also demonstrates that marketers and retailers must be mindful of mens boundaries of consumption. Originality/value Fournier highlights the importance of context to brand relationships. However, little research has investigated the relevance of the original typology across contexts and across segments. This research explores a particular sociocultural consumption context and discovers new relationship forms not previously identied among a segment of male shoppers. Keywords Qualitative research, Retailing, Shopping, Gender, Relationship marketing, Brands Paper type Research paper

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Over a decade ago, Fournier (1998) introduced a typology of 15 consumer-brand relationships based on her research of consumer-brand narratives. This typology is signicant because her research conceptualizes the brand as an active relationship partner (Fournier, 1998, p. 344) and captures the multitude of ways in which consumers bond with brands. Fournier (1998) discusses the need to move away from measuring brand loyalty strictly as a metric based on repeat purchases and instead points to researchers who recognize the talismanic relationships consumers form with that which is consumed (Belk et al., 1989, p. 31). However, she cautions that emphasis solely on long term, affective relationships do not adequately capture the full range of brand relationships. Instead, Fournier (1998) advocates a more nuanced understanding of brands. She refers to Hinde (1995) in detailing the necessary criteria for relationships; they are reciprocal exchanges, are purposeful and hold meaning, and are multiplex and process phenomena in that they vary in their form and change over time. Since Fourniers initial theoretical contribution, branding research has examined various brand relationship issues, such as the impact of value congruence
The informant data used in this paper are drawn from Tuncay and Otnes (2008).

Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal Vol. 14 No. 1, 2011 pp. 83-104 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 1352-2752 DOI 10.1108/13522751111099337

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(Zhang and Bloemer, 2008), brand counterfeiting (Commuri, 2009), and self-concept connections (Escalas and Bettman, 2005; Swaminathan et al., 2007), among other factors. Other branding research has focused in large part on brand community practices (Schau et al., 2009; Fournier and Lee, 2009) or relationship marketing outcomes (Aaker et al., 2004; Hennig-Thurau et al., 2002; Garbarino and Johnson, 1999). However, Fournier (1998) emphasizes the importance of the psychological, sociocultural, and relational contexts of relationships, stating (1998, p. 346), Relationships both affect, and are affected by, the contexts in which they are embedded. For instance, Fournier (1998) explains that ve sociocultural factors inuence relationship features such as relationship initiation, termination, and strength, among others. These ve factors include age/cohort, life cycle, gender, family/social network, and culture (Fournier, 1998, p. 346). While Fournier (1998) acknowledges the importance of contextual embeddedness, little research directly examines how consumers brand relationships differ, depending on the marketing context or within specic market segments. The studies that do exist are limited in their scope due to their focus on particular subcultures (Kates, 2000) or because they examine children ( Ji, 2002). While some researchers have taken a rst step in understanding the contextual elements of branding (e.g. Auty and Elliot, 1998 on the inuence of individual differences on the interpretation of brands), little research specically examines if mens brand relationships are different from, say, womens brand relationships. In fact, Fournier (1998) suggests this may indeed be the case. Fourniers (1998, p. 347) research is based on case studies of three women and points to Guest (1964) and Sherrod (1989), to explain women exhibit more and stronger interpersonal relationships and brand involvements relative to men. In addition, research has demonstrated signicant sex differences in consumer behavior, including the fact that men employ varied consumer decision-making styles (Bakewell and Mitchell, 2004) and shop differently (Otnes and McGrath, 2001). This paper will explore the applicability of Fourniers typology to a particular sociocultural and consumption context and to a segment of growing interest to marketers heterosexual male shoppers who purchase fashion and grooming good. This investigation is important for several reasons. First, these goods have historically been regarded as beyond the limits of the heterosexual masculine ideal and thus, offer an interesting context within which to observe potential differences in brand relationships. Heterosexual male consumers of fashion and grooming have been discussed by recent researchers as culturally vulnerable in terms of their identities (Tuncay and Otnes, 2008), due in part to the fact that shopping in general is still deemed by society as a largely feminine activity (Miller, 1998). Moreover, past research (Belk et al., 1982, p. 4) has shown that individuals make inferences with regard to others consumption patterns and that this phenomenon can lead to prejudicial stereotyping. Second, from a managerial perspective, though the fashion, apparel, and grooming arenas have traditionally been dominated by women, men are now important consumers in these markets. In fact, half of men now buy apparel for themselves (versus, for example, wives or mothers who have traditionally purchased these goods for men). In addition, nine in ten men even purchase apparel for their children (Cotton Incorporated Lifestyle Monitor, 2008). Moreover, large multinational companies such as Procter & Gamble are recognizing the multibillion dollar potential of the mens grooming industry by expanding their presence in the marketplace (Pitman, 2009).

Thus, the purpose of this research is to examine the relevance of Fourniers (1998) consumer-brand relationship typology to a segment of young men who often consume fashion and grooming goods. Specically, this segment of male consumers has sometimes been labeled by the popular press as the metrosexual, or the man who is actively concerned about his appearance, fashion and grooming and is estimated at 24 percent of the male consumer population ( Jargon, 2006). In particular, we explore two central research questions: RQ1. What types of brand relationships do young, heterosexual male consumers of fashion and grooming goods form? and RQ2. In relation to Fourniers (1998) typology, do new brand relationships emerge among this segment and in the context of shopping for these goods? Method Because few studies examine the brand relationships of male consumers, a qualitative, discovery-oriented approach (Wells, 1993) is tting for this research. To recruit informants, the authors used a snowball sampling technique. Among other factors, characteristics such as age, social class, and sexuality can inuence a mans gender identity (Beynon, 2002) and thus, his shopping behavior (Otnes and McGrath, 2001). Therefore, the informant pool was restricted to young, urban, heterosexual men, largely in white collar occupations. A total of 15 male informants, who are avid consumers of fashion and personal care products and services, were chosen for participation. The men range from 25 to 32 years of age and reside in Chicago and New York City. Please see Table I for more biographical detail of the informants. For this research, we utilized three qualitative techniques and detail these below. First, informants were asked to construct a collage of their gender role. Gender roles are dened as the culturally derived behaviors and activities associated with masculinity or femininity that individuals choose to adopt (Palan, 2001). While this focus on gender did not address mens shopping behavior per se, the collage data did aid in contextualizing the ndings within the domain of each mans identity. Since gender is a core component of the self and the informants consumption habits challenge traditional gender roles, the collages provide a more in-depth picture of consumers lived experiences. Moreover, the collages are often lled with brands and serve as an un-prompted discussion point for many informants as they discuss how these brands relate to their gender role, their identity as a whole, and their consumption habits. Collages have proved illuminating in past research in a variety of areas, including branding (Chaplin and John, 2005) and consumer desires (Belk et al., 2003). Moreover, past scholars (Heisley and Levy, 1991) have used pictures to investigate the subconscious thought processes and consumption practices of consumers. While collages proved useful in providing us with insights into how men perceive their own sense of gender identity, we relied on the depth interview as our second and main method of inquiry. This method is useful because it taps into the social and cultural worldview of the informant. Also, germane to this study, it was used by Fournier (1998) in her research of brand relationships. Two interviews with each informant were conducted and followed guidelines recommended by McCracken (1988). Specically, grand tour questions were used to prompt informants to discuss how they shop for and consume fashion and grooming products and services. Both authors separately acted as

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Informant pseudonym Ben Brandon

Biographical information Ben is a 32-year-old, single, Caucasian man, residing in New York City, working in technology and making over $100K a year. He has some college education Brandon is a 31-year-old, college educated, married man who has a 12-year-old son. He works in sales, earning $75-$100K per year and lives in the Chicago area Darren is a 32-year-old, Caucasian married man, who has one child and resides in Chicago. He is college educated, works in business, and makes over $100K a year Galen is 31-years-old, married, and expecting his rst child. He is a senior vice president, earns over $100K a year, and holds an MBA. He resides in Chicago George is a 27-year-old single, Caucasian man who lives in Chicago. He is college educated and works in technology making between $50-75K a year Jim is a 31-year-old, single, Caucasian man, who resides in Chicago. He has a graduate degree and works in business making over $100K a year Jay is a 26-year-old recently married, Caucasian man, who lives in New York City. He is college educated and works in business making over $100K a year Matt is 31-years-old, in a long-term relationship, Caucasian, who lives in Chicago. He is a college graduate working in business, making over $100K per year Michael is a 25-year-old, single, Caucasian man, residing in the Chicago area. He is a graduate student and makes less than $25K a year Nick is a 26-year-old single, Caucasian man, living in New York City. He is college educated, works in business, and makes between $50 and 75K a year Ryan is 25-years-old, married, Caucasian, living in Chicago. He is a medical student making under $25K per year Sam is a 30 year old, single, Caucasian man, working as an actor. He is college educated and earns between $25 and 50K Tom is a 28-year-old, single, African-American man, who resides in Chicago. He has a college degree and works in business earning between $50 and 75K Tyler is a 25-year-old, single, Asian-American man living in the Chicago area. He is a graduate student and makes less than $25K a year William is a 30-year-old, single, African-American man, who resides in Chicago. He is an entrepreneur with some graduate education making between $75 and 100K a year

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Darren Galen George Jim Jay Matt Michael Nick Ryan Sam Tom Tyler William

Table I. Informant information

Source: Adapted from Tuncay and Otnes (2008)

interviewers and probed the informants as to their consumption practices. Importantly, due to the potentially sensitive nature of the topic, the researchers were careful to ask questions in a face-saving manner (Nancarrow et al., 2001) in order to acquire the most forthright information from the informants. Also, 14 out of the 15 interviews were conducted in informants homes in order to create an atmosphere where the men would feel the most comfortable. The researchers also asked informants to display and comment on the grooming and fashion goods that they used. This component of the interview, known as autodriving (Heisley and Levy, 1991), offered more information on the mens brand consumption patterns. Although questions regarding brand relationships were not the focal point of the collage, the interview guide, or the shopping trips, all of the consumers discussed a multitude of brands within each part of the study. Thus, the data are rich with brand relationship narratives.

The third research method employed was shopping with consumers. This method provided further insights into how men navigate the marketplace and allowed us to closely observe how these men relate to brands. The researchers followed the technique outlined by Otnes et al. (1995) and Lowrey et al. (2005), who recommend accompanying informants on a minimum of two shopping trips in order to gain an enhanced understanding of the informants shopping behavior. The authors accompanied each man on shopping trips to retailers who offered fashion and apparel, and to a drugstore pharmacy or salon. Shopping trip choices included tourist-centric retailers along Chicagos Magnicent Mile, department stores in a suburban mall, urban street vendors, a neighborhood drugstore, and an upscale skin care boutique, among other settings. The shopping contexts of a fashion retailer and a drugstore/salon allowed the researchers to observe behavior across different product categories, price points, service levels, and a mix of publicly consumed versus privately consumed goods (e.g. clothing versus shampoo). Informants purchased a range of brands from discount brands to more upscale prestige brands. Product purchases ranged from clothing and clothing accessories (e.g. belts and hats) to personal care and grooming items such as facial creams and deodorants. Each informant was given $40 to purchase whichever product(s) or service(s) he desired at his retailer of choice. Informants were allowed to spend their own funds as well, and some contributed hundreds of dollars of their own money during the trips. The researchers closely observed these shopping behaviors and typed up comprehensive eld notes after each trip. Over 180 pages of single-spaced text were generated from the collage discussions, the interviews and the eld observations. In total, the collage discussions and interviews lasted from 1 to 3 hours, while the shopping trip lengths varied from 30 minutes to a few hours depending on the location chosen and the extent to which the informant took his time shopping. In analyzing the text, the researchers referred to the existing literature, while simultaneously identifying emergent themes in the data (Strauss and Corbin, 1998) in order to seek out new and existing patterns. Moreover, because this research is an extension of Fournier (1998), the researchers strategically examined the data for the presence of the consumer-brand relationships detailed in her typology, while also noting any new relationship forms that emerged from the text. That is, the two authors read all of the interviews several times to become familiar with the text. Each author was then primarily responsible for coding the interviews and the eld notes for the presence of the 15 brand relationships identied by Fournier (1998), classifying the informants comments into one of 15 relationships (if possible), or formulating emergent categories if none of the a priori relationships were descriptive of the male informants experiences. If the two authors categorizations diverged, the researchers revisited the data and reconciled any differences. Because there were numerous brands mentioned in the interviews, the authors focused on brand discussions where rich data emerged in the form of more prolonged discussions, rather than those mentioned in passing by the informants. Findings Our research questions for this study are RQ1 and RQ2. Salience of previously identied brand relationships Fourniers (1998) consumer-brand relationship typology intended to expand the understanding of brand loyalty and brand personality by attempting to capture

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the nuances of brand relationships. Of the 15 consumer-brand relationships that Fournier identies, 13 are prevalent in this research. Some of the most salient brand relationships among this segment of men included marriages of convenience and committed partnerships. Fournier (1998, p. 362) describes a marriage of convenience as a long-term, committed relationship precipitated by environmental inuence versus deliberate choice, and governed by satiscing rules. In this vein, Tyler discusses buying a particular brand of jeans because it was convenient and fullled his needs, although he did not actively seek out the brand:
I bought jeans at Abercrombie (& Fitch), and I dont like Abercrombie at all but their jeans are comfortable and I think that they are good for casual days and because I am in class all the time I think I just need to invest in more casual clothes.

On the other hand, informants discussed certain brands that they were very loyal and committed to, exemplifying a committed partnership, or a long-term, voluntarily imposed, socially supported union high in love, intimacy, trust, and a commitment to stay together despite adverse circumstances, along with a desire for exclusivity (Fournier, 1998, p. 362). For instance, Michael is very loyal to the Aveda brand and will not use other brands of toner for his facial routine. On a shopping trip with Michael, the researcher notes:
We then head to the Aveda store. He got a free gift coupon in the mail (he is on their mailing list) and wants to use it (for a free tube of lotion). Also, he knows exactly what he is going there for, a toner that he is very loyal to.

Informants also discussed interim relationships with brands, such as Flings, or short-term, time bounded engagements of high emotional reward but devoid of commitment and reciprocity demands (Fournier, 1998, p. 362). Matt discusses his lack of commitment to a brand of deodorant. Yeah, if all of Right Guard was out and I needed deodorant, I would have no hang-ups about trying a different brand. Some of the most interesting discussions center around the Secret Affair, dened as being a highly emotive, privately held relationship, considered risky if exposed to others and the enmity, or an intensely involving relationship characterized by negative affect and desire to avoid or inict pain on the other (Fournier, 1998, p. 362). The eld notes are abound with examples of men who experience conicts regarding not only their consumption, but also their brand choices. At times, informants had secret affairs with less expensive, discount brands, as evidenced by Nicks consumption of plain t-shirts from Kmart, as long as they remained incognito. He explains, if [the t-shirt] has a big logo that says Kmart on it then it is a different story. Other informants experienced secret affairs because they expressed concern that they may be perceived as feminine or gay by others due to the products and brands they purchased. For example, it is only after the taping of the in-depth interview that Darren reveals his consumption of certain facial creams because while he wants to share his story with the researcher, he does not want it on tape. Similarly, Matt does not readily confess to the researcher about his use of a facial exfoliator. This type of behavior is akin to the masking behavior, or actions individuals take to hide or deemphasize the consumption behavior they display to others, exemplied in past research on heterosexual male shoppers (Tuncay, 2005, p. 231). That is, the informants in this research were diligent about avoiding the perceived stigma associated with crossing the bounds of heterosexual, masculine consumption.

This is in stark contrast to the informants in a study of gay mens brand choices who profess open and loyal relationships with brands of companies that are deemed as gay-friendly (Kates, 2000). In fact, in Kates (2000) study, the gay men saw brands that they perceived to be discriminatory against homosexuals as enmities. Thus, both of the ndings in the study by Kates (2000), and the current research reect the notion that value congruence has a direct and positive impact on brand relationships (Zhang and Bloemer, 2008). In addition, informants discuss intense feelings with regard to the avoidance of certain brands, exhibiting an enmity relationship, sometimes because they are deemed as feminine or gay. For example, Jim discusses his distaste for high fashion brand clothing which he states as the epitome of pushing femininity. He further explains, Gucci, I dont do that [. . .] Thus, informants engage in a type of ight, or distancing themselves from certain brands (see the impact of counterfeiting on consumer-brand relationships in Commuri (2009, p. 88)). However, unlike the potential stigma of counterfeited goods, the fears of the informants in this research are most likely due to the fact that purchases of fashion and grooming goods have traditionally been associated more with women and gay men (Kates, 1998), and is now only becoming more mainstream among heterosexual men. The discussions above are only a few examples of the prevalence of the brand relationships previously identied by Fournier (1998). Please see Table II for informant quotes that support the existence of these and other brand relationships. In addition, because counting can be an appropriate way to map textual data (Miles and Huberman, 1994), for illustrative purposes, the table also indicates the number of informants that exhibited a particular type of relationship. New consumer-brand relationships which emerged among our informants In addition to the consumer-brand relationships identied by Fouriers original typology, we observe men also employ three additional consumer-brand relationships 2 cheap dates, mentors, and business partners. First, we identify cheap dates, or relationships intensely driven by sensitivity to the costs associated with being with the partner. They are usually short term or interim, much like the Fling and with easy entry and exit, similar to the compartmentalized friendship, both identied by Fournier. However, the difference between these relationship forms and the newly observed form is that cheap date formations are driven solely by the male consumers sensitivity to the cost attached to the brand. For instance, Georges apparel shopping is characterized by price consciousness, as he regularly engages in price comparisons when browsing brands during his shopping trip. In fact, during the shopping observation, he gravitates to $9.99 t-shirts. In another example, Jay notes he is adamant about shopping not by brand, but by price. This emphasis on low-priced brands among men is not surprising since bargain shopping has been identied by past researchers as a way for them to win or gain a sense of achievement while shopping (Otnes and McGrath, 2001). Moreover, it is this sense of achievement that seems to most often characterize this relationship, rather than the desire to engage in satiscing behavior, as Fournier (1998) found in her identication of the marriage of convenience. The next brand relationship that emerges from the data is the mentor, or a long-term, voluntary relationship that is high in socioemotional rewards and affect. It is often accompanied by respect and an aspiration to emulate the qualities of the mentor. As Fournier (1998, p. 344) suggests, brands can be animated, humanized,

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Brand relationship/number of informants who exhibited relationship Denition of brand relationship

Evidence of Fourniers (1998, p. 362) typology of brand relationships Arranged marriages (1) Nonvoluntary union imposed by preferences of third party, intended [Matt] I try to keep it (cologne) the same, and I am about out right now. What is it, Acqua Di Gio (by Giorgio Armani). Again, it was an for long-term, exclusive commitment, although at low levels of endorsement. My girlfriend likes it, so I think we got it when we were affective attachment in France Causal friends/buddies (6) Friendship low in affect and intimacy, characterized by infrequent or [Ben discussing purchase of ClarinsMen shaving oil] I just ran out of sporadic engagement, and few expectations for reciprocity or reward my pre-oil treatment for shaving [. . .] that was all they had [. . .] I had seen it before [. . .] it was a little bit more of an impulse buy [Darren, eld notes] We walk to a nearby Walgreens and he says that he is going to buy shampoo, which he said is not his favorite thing because he doesnt have a lot of hair. He looks through the brands and says that they dont have the brown Neutrogena shampoo he got last time [. . .] He grabs a bottle of Finesse shampoo since I know this brand and smells it. He decides to purchase it [Jay discusses how he normally shops at Bloomingdales or Macys department stores but during his shopping trip he purchases a belt at the Gap which he sometimes shops at] [. . .] its a more pedestrian item so for that I was less concerned about what brand it was [. . .] [Tom] Calvin Klein, Polo (Ralph Lauren), (Tommy) Hilger. I would have went with Polo but they didnt have them. Then CK, then last but not least Tommy (Hilger). I went with (Nicole) Miller because that is a brand that women like, Nicole Miller. And gured that she has to make quality mens underwear if she makes quality womens clothing [. . .] Marriages of convenience (7) Long-term, committed relationship precipitated by environmental [Jay] I was looking for a certain hair product that was a non-gel. I inuence versus deliberate choice, and governed by satiscing rules found this packaging was kind of a male packaging. It was in a brown bottle and it said American Crew (Forming Cream for Hair) and Crew seemed like a masculine thing. It seemed like a very male product. So, I tried it [. . .] been using it ever since [Jim satiscing on choice of department store retailers based on his current level of income] Marshall Fields, Lord & Taylors, those are probably the two Im at (continued)

Table II. Informant quotes

Excerpts from informant generated text (listed alphabetically)

Brand relationship/number of informants who exhibited relationship Denition of brand relationship Excerpts from informant generated text (listed alphabetically)

Committed partnerships (8)

Long-term, voluntarily imposed, socially supported union high in love, intimacy, trust, and a commitment to stay together despite adverse circumstances. Adherence to exclusivity rules expected

Best friendships (6)

Voluntary union based on reciprocity principle, the endurance of which is ensured through continued provision of positive rewards. Characterized by revelation of true self, honesty, and intimacy. Congruity in partner images and personal interest common

[Williams discussion of satiscing for certain clothing categories versus others] Men basically categorize clothes into three categories, disposable, staples, prestige items [. . .] undershirts you go to Target, even Kmart or wherever you can get them at a good price. A step up is bargain hunting at Marshalls [. . .] Then your staple are items that are basics that you wouldnt want to pay prestige price for [. . .] You can get these from mid-tier stores like Gap or Banana Republic [. . .] Kenneth Cole is lowest end prestige [. . .] so all three of those make a wardrobe [Brandon, displaying his grooming products] My favorite shampoo that I use is [. . .] I have Aussie Mega, that stuff in the purple bottle, and I have been using that for probably 15 years [. . .] [Darren] Probably the most important things that I used 2 lotion because I have eczema. Really good lotion so I got that. Cetaphil and Aveeno for my hands because they got so dry [. . .] this was from my doctor, he said it was the best [. . .] and then the (Philips) Sonicare (Power Toothbrush) which Julies (his wife) sister is a dentist and she tells us we got to use the Sonicare so we do [Galen] I will probably always be a Crest (toothpaste) guy [. . .] [George] (I) like using Edge (Shave Gel), which I used all my life [Jay, displaying his grooming products] This is my deodorant, Old Spice, which is a manly brand. It has a sort of cool smell to it which is a typical male deodorant [Matt] I actually had a friend that used it [American Crew Pomade] I probably have used the same type of product for about 6 years, 7 years [. . .] a product that is expensive but does the job and does it repeatedly [. . .] the consistency and knowing what you are going to get each time [Matt on his purchase of Mitchum deodorant] As far as deodorant, you want obviously to feel comfortable and that your perspiration can be contained, and I think that is a brand without an overpowering odor. And I have been satised with it (from past usage) (continued)

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Table II.

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Brand relationship/number of informants who exhibited relationship Denition of brand relationship

Compartmentalized friendship (5)

Rebounds/avoidance-driven Union precipitated by desire to move away from prior or available relationships (4) partner, as opposed to attraction to chosen partner per se

Courtships (5)

Table II.
Excerpts from informant generated text (listed alphabetically) Highly specialized, situationally conned, enduring friendship characterized by lower intimacy than other relationship forms but higher socioemotional rewards and interdependence. Easy entry and exit attained Interim relationship state on the road to committed partnership contract [Tom] Sean John is a label. Its like Polo (Ralph Lauren) or Tommy (Hilger) [. . .] for hip hop culture. I dont think Im hip hop but I know its like a label made from a black man so [I] dress in style so I can appreciate it [. . .] [Georges engagement with Kenneth Cole since moving to Chicago a brand which his friends use.] However, he states, I never bought into any Kenneth Cole advertising [Michael] Banana Republic is more styles for going out after work or out with some friends. Gap is more like going to school or on the weekends [. . .] so you got the two ends [. . .] [Tom, discussing shopping trip purchase] Because it was a brand (City of London) that I have seen before at department stores that I shop at like Marshall Fields, Lord & Taylor, I had a level of comfort in purchasing the shirt [Galen, discusses that he prefers Prada clothing, not Polo Ralph Lauren] I dont wear Polos. I am not a Polo guy [Nick] I get a lot of suit stuff (at Marshall Fields) because I wear suits to work every day [. . .] youre older and in the business world. I like to dress (in) more traditional, conservative suits. You dont dress like youre in the Banana Republic anymore [Ryan] On an absolute scale of 1 to 10 with 10 being Old Spice (cologne), and you know, 0 being female perfume, I would say the cologne I wear is probably a 7-8 range as opposed to [. . .] you know, it is a trade-off. No one wants to smell like their dad, especially at this age, but then again, you dont want to smell like a girl either [. . .] [Brandon on his experimentation with different hair products] I use a couple of different things in my hair. I use a (pomade) from American Crew right now [Michael] He typically shops for his apparel at Gap and Banana Republic, but he states he is interested in seeing what Express has for men After the visit to Express For Men, he states, Now I have another store besides Banana (Republic) and Gap where I can get my clothes (continued)

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Brand relationship/number of informants who exhibited relationship Denition of brand relationship Excerpts from informant generated text (listed alphabetically)

Dependencies (3)

Flings (6)

[Tom] [. . .] yeah, I have a couple of pants, shorts from (Hugo) Boss. Its not as mainstream as some of the others, but (Hugo) Boss is still respected Obsessive, highly emotional selsh attractions, cemented by feeling [George discussing use of American Crew shaving lotion] [. . .] my that the other is irreplaceable. Separation from other yields anxiety. face gets really dry when I shave and I have a pretty thick beard so I have to shave every day with the stuff [. . .] I would have to put lotion High tolerance from others transgressions results all over my face or else I look like I had leprosy or something. So that stuff does the job and I have been using it ever since [Ryan] I actually have two of them (containers of American Crew Fiber Pliable Molding Creme) because of the recent airline thing where you cant bring pastes on, so I had to buy one when I went to Minnesota [. . .] [William] I wont wash my face if I dont have that soap ( Johnson & Johnson Purpose facial soap) [. . .] I went to the doctor and they said that Purpose was a good soap. When I use it my skin is good. So that is all I use and that is all I have used since 94 Short-term, time bounded engagements of high emotional reward but [Galen] Like I went on an eShave (Shaving Cream) kick, you know I devoid of commitment and reciprocity demands purchased the eShave product versus going with the normal Gillette or whatever. Cause I thought there were so many elements of the skin that I used (it) for a while and then I kind of got, I didnt feel like there was a lot of benet to it, so why am I throwing away $20 on shaving cream? [Matt discusses his shopping trip purchase of Hanes Mens Boxers] I went with Hanes. No particular reason. I dont even know if my other boxers, what other brands I have as far as boxers go, I think probably Old Navy and maybe something else [Tyler] I bought Lab Series (Lift Off! Body Lotion) [. . .] its a good opportunity to try something new [William discusses his use of Ice Blue hair gel which he discovered by trial and error] He states he will switch products if something is not working and something else has a better claim (continued)

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Table II.

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Brand relationship/number of informants who exhibited relationship Denition of brand relationship

Enmities (6)

Secret affairs (6)

Table II.
Excerpts from informant generated text (listed alphabetically) Intensely involving relationship characterized by negative affect and [Ben discussing picture of Miller Lite on his collage] Miller Lite (beer) desire to avoid or inict pain on the other just epitomizes football, sports and getting drunk and hitting on women [. . .] Its a lack of control, partially consumerism [. . .] I put that in a negative area [. . .] [Brandon] I love clothes, and I have a lot of them [. . .] (I) will wear whatever I think looks good [. . .] I dont spend a ton on individual things. I am not going to go out and buy a $6000 suit by Hugo Boss [Nick, eld notes] He comments, Now I tell you what store I wouldnt go into, Abercrombie (& Fitch). When I ask why he says, Too high school. [William] [. . .] the guys shopping at Banana Republic are a bunch of fruity guys and its so feminine, dressing in button down shirts. It was like, Hey, I am very heterosexual but I like looking crispy, button down shirts, not tight tting but stretch material. I like that sh * *. The society evolved to having the appropriate gender classication for it [. . .] the we want to dress nice but yet dont want people to think we are gay. Highly emotive, privately held relationship considered risky if [Darren, eld notes] After the interview, I ask him to show me his exposed to others grooming products [. . .] He takes various things out and discusses them on tape. After the tape is turned off, he says that he has one last thing to show me but that he doesnt want to be on tape...He brings out a bottle of Lancome Primordiale (Skin Recharge Cream) which is some kind of face moisturizer/anti-wrinkle cream [Michael] Well, like for instance, this is a humbling experience for me to tell you [. . .] I have a lot of hair and littler hair on my back, I didnt have a lot. And so I hated it. So, there is a place called Hair Today, Gone Tomorrow, that they basically take it off and it actually works very well [. . .] And I have felt better about myself and I am less selfconscious (continued)

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Brand relationship/number of informants who exhibited relationship Denition of brand relationship Excerpts from informant generated text (listed alphabetically)

Nonvoluntary union governed entirely by desires of the relationship [Jim] Why did I choose the conditioner that I said before (Herbal Essence)? I chose the shampoo from a certain brand, so I gured you partner. Involves negative feelings but persist because of have to buy the conditioner from the same brand that you bought as circumstances the shampoo that you bought. If you dont, your hair will fall out. I dont know, its just a weird thing [. . .] When I buy the shampoo, the conditioner has to be the same brand Evidence of new relationship forms [Brandon] That shirt was a Grant Thomas. I had heard of it before, Cheap dates (9) Relationship intensely driven by sensitivity to the costs associated with being with the partner. Usually short-term or interim, with easy but I had never purchased it. It was just a shirt that I liked and it was on sale, so that was part of it, the motivation behind it was that it was entry and exit on sale [. . .] [Darren discusses his love for bargains] [. . .] I would go to Nordstrom Rack for the bargains [. . .] you dont have to always buy the most expensive thing [. . .] [Galen] I am looking for a clean shave. I need to be clean-looked. Barbasol (Shaving Cream) gets me there [. . .] $20 shaving cream gets me there too but it is not worth it [Jim] So, I bought the detergent (Era) and that was purely based on price [Sam explaining his purchase during a shopping trip of a generic branded hat from a street vendor] I spent $5 on a hat [. . .] when you want to make your budget last or you want to get the most for your buck [. . .] no one can tell that I bought a $5 hat [George discussing two pictures of George Bush on his collage] I see Mentors (10) Long-term, voluntary relationship that is high in socioemotional rewards and affect, often accompanied by respect and an aspiration to Bush as a very strong leader with strong moral character which in some respects is what I would like to be like [. . .] I see him as a man of emulate the qualities of the relationship partner character [. . .] [Jay discussing a picture of the business magazine, the Economist on his collage] I think the Economist is something I aspire to be, procient in money management. Thats kind of my career aspiration [Jim discussing picture of Donald Trump on his collage] I chose Donald because he is successful. I am trying to convey the top echelon of my gender [. . .] he denes success. Thats a very important trait for our gender (continued)

Enslavements (1)

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Table II.

96

Brand relationship/number of informants who exhibited relationship Denition of brand relationship

Business partners (6)

Fourniers (1998, p. 362) relationships not found in text Kinships (0) Nonvoluntary relationship due to lineage ties Childhood friendships (0) Infrequently engaged, affectively laden relationship reminiscent of earlier times. Yields comfort and security of past self

Source: Data adapted from Tuncay and Otnes (2008)

Table II.
Excerpts from informant generated text (listed alphabetically) Voluntary relationships devoid of intimacy, largely instrumental in nature, sustained solely to obtain positive rewards [Tom, discussing picture of Budweiser Beer on his collage] [. . .] condence is the sexiest thing you can wear. Budweiser, its just having the condence and living life like a king [Tyler, discussing items on his collage] I picked the Indiana Jones, James Bond [. . .] I will always want to be a ghter, be a lover, be a really suave guy and sensitive. I want to be all those things, but I think thats what all guys want [. . .] [Jay] You can often tell where a man is in his company by the clothes he wears [. . .] if you are always wearing stuff that obviously comes from J. Crew and Gap [. . .] you dont stand out at all [. . .] in shoes, I know Johnston & Murphys are good. If I want a nice pair of shoes, Ill go there. Pink for shirts [. . .] [Michael] I believe in making sure your teeth are clean [. . .] I think the electric one (toothbrush) does a better job [. . .] and then I use, although its a Crest one (toothbrush), I use Colgate (toothpaste). I like Colgate because it has whitening on it and plus it has total and the total means like you have 24 hour protection [Nick looks at a pair of Nike running shorts and Nike shirt because he feels he must dress well even at the gym.] I dont keep track of brands that closely but I know enough to know that Nike has been (in) sports apparel for a number of years, so you cant go wrong with Nike [Sam on his use of St. Ives Apricot Scrub] This is run of the mill sh * * that you see everywhere, but (it) does its job [Tyler discussing Banana Republic wool pants and dress shirt] I assumed that school was going to be business professional just like Banana Republic was. So, at Banana Republic I built up a huge business professional wardrobe [. . .] I just felt that was standard N/A N/A

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or somewhat personalized. In this vein, informants discuss brands with respect and a sense of awe, and hope to gain positive attributes by consuming or being associated with the brand. For example, Michael uses a Gillette Mach 3 razor when he need[s] to look exceptionally nice. When he is probed by the interviewer as to why he selects that brand in particular, he explains the inuence of the media:
Commercials, they are wonderful. They take a person who wants to look good and put a good person on TV and then its like I want to look like him.

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Thus, he looks to his special razor to ensure that he will achieve the attractive appearance he desires, just like the Gillette brand image portrayed in the commercials. This relationship shares the admiration quality of the Secret Admirer dened by Ji (2002, p. 381) in her study of children as when a child has great admiration for a brand and wants to own it, but cannot accomplish this goal because of limited resources and abilities to obtain the brand. However, unlike the children in Ji (2002), the men in this research have the means and capabilities in most cases to purchase their desired brands of fashion and grooming goods. Interestingly, while the focus of our informant encounters was on apparel and grooming, some informants digress to discuss brands of alcohol, and even, in Toms case, a brand of credit card. Tom notes several brands which he personies to portray ideal attributes, such as having nancial freedom. He discusses a picture of an American Express credit card that he has put on his collage, even repeating the tag line for the brand. He states, American Express, just dont leave home without it [. . .] get your credit right [. . .] American Express is just you [. . .] got the ability to do whatever you want to do. Tom likely includes this picture because he is a nancial planner, and thus maintaining good credit is a key part of his identity. In this regard, American Express serves as a trusted guide along this path. One possible reason for these digressions could be that informants conceptualize their choice of alcohol and credit cards as fashion accessories, as they are both goods consumed in public and can potentially signal cultural meanings to others (Belk, 1988). Moreover, informants also mention movie brands like James Bond and Indiana Jones, or other male icons, like Hugh Hefner and Donald Trump, as exemplifying a masculine ideal that is aspirational to them. For instance, Tom explains several pictures on his collage:
This is James Bond. He looks pretty much [. . .] no more needs to be said. He is the guy who can rescue you (the woman), but then take care of you in bed also.

Later, he states, We got big Hugh Hef with the ladies [. . .] Hef, I mean, its Hef [. . .] most guys wouldnt mind being him for a day or two. One informant even speculates about the consumption of these gures. For example, Ben posits, James Bond wouldnt use Old Spice, he would use some super rare Russian cologne, given to him by some princess somewhere [. . .] Thus, it is evident that whether it is through the personal branding of men like Hefner and Trump, or a brand image carefully crafted by a movie studio, men form attachments to human brands (Rindova et al., 2006; Thomson, 2006) and look to them for guidance and mentorship on how to behave both in and out of the marketplace. The third and last new brand relationship that emerges in the data is what we dene as the business partner. This relationship is classied as voluntary, devoid of

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intimacy, largely instrumental in nature, and sustained solely to obtain positive rewards. This relationship may be long term, as long as rewards continue to be attained. Informants display their achievement motivations by using particular brands either to elevate their careers or to accomplish a set objective, often involving the opposite sex. As discussed previously, achievement is a key underlying motivation for mens consumption and shopping habits (Otnes and McGrath, 2001; Holt and Thompson, 2004; Tuncay and Otnes, 2008). Thus, it is appropriate that men would look to certain brands as essential to accomplishing particular life goals. However, men exhibit little intimacy with these brands, as they are consumed only because they will aid in the accomplishment of their objectives. For instance, Jay discusses at length how dressing well at work is essential to his career advancement and his preference for Pink branded shirts that provide him with more status than the more mainstream Gap brand. In another example, Tom explains his goal-oriented reason for his preference for John Paul Gaultier cologne:
[. . .] the response they (women) give you [. . .] smelling good is one of the most important things to me in regards to masculinity. You have to smell good [. . .] every girl is not going to think you are hot, but if youre together and you smell good, they cant deny that.

Thus, Tom uses cologne as one tool in his toolkit to be romantically successful with women. In summary, three new brand relationships emerge among this segment of male shoppers of fashion and grooming goods. These relationships exhibit strong ties to notions of masculinity such winning and achievement, and an aspiration to emulate popular male icons in society. Discussion As gender roles become more varied and fragmented (Beynon, 2002), men are increasingly trying on new and different masculine identities. Brands assist men in establishing and reinforcing their desired identities, both to themselves and to others around them. The marketplace serves as a prime arena in which they can seek out brands to express their desired cultural meanings about gender and identity as a whole (Tharpe and Scott, 1990). However, much like the informants in studies of consumer cosmopolitanism (Thompson and Tambyah, 1999; Caldwell et al., 2006) who must resolve their tensions, the men in this research must cope with tensions as they navigate their brand relationships in the marketplace. Thus, male consumers reconcile these conicts by forming a diversity of consumer-brand relationships that allows them to overcome any perceived tension experienced from the consumption of these goods, such as secret affairs or enmities. We believe that the 13 existing consumer-brand relationship forms identied previously by Fournier (1998) and the three new relationships exhibited by our informants provide further evidence of the conceptualization of brand relationships as nuanced phenomena and one that is uid across contexts and segments of consumers. This research validates and extends the work of Fournier (1998) by examining its relevance to a particular type of consumer, the heterosexual man who consumes fashion and grooming products and services. This study reveals that the existing typology is useful in explaining many of the relationships men assume when forming bonds with brands. However, two of the relationship forms, kinship, or a nonvoluntary relationship

due to lineage ties, and childhood friendships, or an infrequently engaged, affectively laden relation reminiscent of earlier times (Fournier, 1998, p. 362), were not readily applicable to the men in this study as they were to the female informants in Fourniers case studies. Although researchers have documented intergenerational inuences on consumer brand choices (Moore-Shay and Lutz, 1988) and the existence of brand relationships at an early age among children ( Ji, 2002), several possible reasons could explain why kinship and childhood friendship did not emerge in the data. One practical reason could be that since brand relationships were not the focal line of questioning in the data collection, issues regarding the use of brands as a child or due to familial connections were prevalent, but not necessarily revealed by the informants. However, a more likely possibility is that as boys become men, they consume more age-appropriate goods and brands, and therefore, they may have abandoned brands they once used as a child. Thus, unlike Jis (2002, p. 378) examples of children forming a rst love or a deep and life-long bond with a brand, such as Cheerios, relationships with fashion and grooming brands are likely different. One last reason for the absence of the kinship and the childhood friendship could be that the men selected for this research actively consume fashion and grooming goods and reside in urban settings. This segment is in stark contrast to the man sometimes referred to by the popular press as the retrosexual. These men embrace traditional male ideologies and are estimated to be 16 percent of all male consumers (Jargon, 2006). Perhaps childhood friendships would be more prevalent among a more traditional segment of men because they may express their masculinity through brands used by their fathers or brands that are reminiscent of earlier times. Moreover, while one informant discusses using a particular brand because he grew up with it, this is not perceived by the informant as a nonvoluntary relationship, as is characteristic of kinship. As a grown adult in his mid-20s, he did not express an obligation to consume the brand. Instead, Ryan explains his inertia, I had Dial soap growing up, and it always worked out well, so I gured why change? Another informant, Darren, mentions he had used Finesse shampoo a long time ago and therefore bought it again and speculates that perhaps his mother had used it. However, again, his comments do not indicate a sense of obligation or affect. Finally, it is important to note that only one case of enslavement and one instance of the arranged marriage are identied in the research. Enslavement can be dened as a nonvoluntary union governed entirely by desires of the relationship partner. Involves negative feelings but persist because of circumstances while the arranged marriage is a nonvoluntary union imposed by preferences of third party, intended for long-term, exclusive commitment, although at low levels of affective attachment (Fournier, 1998, p. 362). The lack of prevalence of Enslavement is likely due to the fact that consumers are offered a number of choices of fashion and grooming products and thus, in most cases, are unlikely to continue to consume a brand that they are unhappy using. For example, Fourniers brand stories of enslavement were of products and services where consumers did not have another option (e.g. a particular cable provider). Moreover, arranged marriages may not be as salient in the data because men are not likely to engage in a nonvoluntary relationship unless there are other benets which supersede a desire for control. For instance, Matt consumes a particular brand of cologne because his signicant other wants him to. In addition, control is

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a predominant theme of masculinity (Harris, 1995) and thus, men may be reluctant to give up long-term control of their consumption practices. Conclusion Theoretical contributions This research offers potential theoretical contributions. First, it provides an extension of prior work in the area of consumer-brand relationship forms, because the ndings serve to endorse some of the conclusions offered by Fournier (1998). Importantly, however, this research enhances our theoretical understanding by revealing that some segments of consumers may form relationships with varying degrees of temporality, intensity, commitment, and affect. The emergence of three new relationship forms demonstrates that certain men seek to accomplish highly instrumental goals associated with their brand choices, such as selecting a brand that will presumably enable career advancement. Moreover, the underlying notion of achievement emerges once again, much like in past studies (Otnes and McGrath, 2001; Tuncay and Otnes, 2008), as men look to brands for guidance and mentorship and focus on price and obtaining deals in order to win at shopping. Thus, this research expands our understanding of the relationship between gender, consumption, and brand loyalty by demonstrating the potential uidity of Fourniers typology. Moreover, the ndings provide additional theoretical insights through the identication of new consumer relationship forms and the drivers of these new relationships. Managerial implications This research also offers signicant implications for marketers and retailers. Brands of fashion and grooming goods are rich in meaning and serve as important tools in mens lives. Managers have a direct inuence on the personalities of these brands. By understanding how men form (or do not form) brand loyalties as they shop for and consume grooming and apparel brands, managers can develop marketing strategies to effectively appeal to male consumers. For example, the fact that the Secret Affair was so prevalent in the data suggests that marketers need to create retail environments where men feel comfortable consuming fashion and grooming goods. For instance, discount retailers such as Old Navy may nd selling goods that do not have an Old Navy logo may boost sales because men do not have to fear that they are signaling that they are consumers of less expensive clothing. Other retailers may be cognizant of mens apprehensions about being labeled feminine or gay, and train salespeople to appropriately provide service to hesitant male consumers of certain grooming products. Through appropriate brand messaging and in-store imagery, men can become more comfortable in consuming goods and services that have traditionally been stigmatized as feminine or outside the boundaries of perceived heterosexual male consumption. Instead of maintaining secret affairs, consumers can develop brand relationships with more positive rewards and without the fear of being ostracized. The emerging categories of cheap date, business partner, and mentor also provide implications for retailers and marketers. Managers should be wary of relationships such as business partners because they are void of intimacy and will only be sustained if men gain positive rewards. This suggests that consumers may be open to brand switching if the rewards are deemed better elsewhere, or if there is a temporary lapse in the relationship (e.g. product or service failure). Similarly, because cheap

100

dates are based solely on the consumers drive to obtain the lowest price, competitors can undercut each other to gain short-term sales. Thus, managers may emphasize the good value of their brands (rather just the lowest price) either through their packaging, in-store signage, promotional offers or their advertising. Moreover, the cheap date is likely even more salient among men and perhaps among women in todays marketplace as the troubled economic conditions have impacted consumers spending patterns signicantly. However, because the business partner and cheap date exhibit easy exit, they may not necessarily be the brand relationships that rms should foster. On the contrary, mentor relationships are more enduring because they are long-term, aspirational relationships. Through diligent efforts to present relevant and authentic brand messaging, marketers can continue to portray the brand image and personality that consumers seek to attain through the maintenance of these relationships. As long as the rm stays on course with its marketing efforts, they can gain a lifetime of loyalty from each customer, and do so in a manner that offers the consumer a positive relationship (rather than, for example, secret affairs, which create negative tensions in certain men). However, even with a mentor relationship, marketers should be careful to target consumers responsibly because men look to these brands for guidance. Managers must not only employ brand messaging that is realistic in the benets it offers to the consumer, but also be cognizant of the type of behaviors it encourages, even subtly, through the messaging and the spokespeople used to deliver this content. Future research The results of this research present implications for other segments as well as for other shopping contexts. First, while the current study examines men in their 20s and 30s who reside in urban areas, men in general may engage in the emergent relationships found in the study. For instance, brand relationships such as business partner and cheap date are both largely goal driven. Because achievement has been found as an underlying motivation in the shopping behavior of men in general (Otnes and McGrath, 2001), we believe that men in different age groups and different geographic regions may also engage in these relationships. Likewise, the emergent relationships, such as the mentor, could be relevant to women as well. Brands are powerful sources of aspiration. Future research, for example, could explore womens brand relationships with goods which specically aid in identity construction. Furthermore, the mentor relationship may also hold in other shopping contexts beyond just fashion and grooming. Goods such as smart phones or cars can be an important part of a persons extended self (Belk, 1988), and thus consumers may form mentor relationships with brands that they admire in electronic, automobile, and other product categories. Thus, it is possible that consumers in general may maintain mentor relationships with brands in a variety of categories, particularly ones relevant to self-concept. In conclusion, we encourage managers to explore what types of relationships are most common among their core customers. By understanding the dynamics of each type of relationship, marketers and retailers can tailor their brand advertising and retail settings appropriately and perhaps even strive to push for positive brand relationships such as the mentor. We charge academics and practitioners alike to

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answer the call to understand the male consumers brand portfolio in order to nd strategies that are appropriate, given the type of relationship men maintain with the product category or the brand. We also encourage the exploration of other market segments and other marketing contexts to further test the boundaries of brand relationship typologies.
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