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LASERS
Objectives
• To outline the behaviour and Nature of Light
• To describe the processes of Absorption and Emission of Light
• To discuss the processes of Amplification of Light and The Laser
• To describe some of the common Types of Laser and their application
Table of Contents
1
• The Nature of Light
o Waves
o Photons
• Absorption and Emission of Light
o Gaseous Light Sources
o Emission from Solids
• Amplification of Light
o Population Inversion
o Optical Resonant Cavity
o Longitudinal and Transverse Cavity Modes
o Processes of Laser Action
o Properties of Laser Light
• Types of Laser
o Gas Lasers
o Solid State Lasers
o Semiconductor Lasers and Light Emitting Diodes
• Atomic Structure
o Excitation & De-excitation of Atoms
o Emission of Light from an Atom
• Behaviour of Solids
o Conduction in Metals
• Semiconductors
o Intrinsic Semiconductors
o Extrinsic Semiconductors
• The pn Junction
o Forward Potential Difference
o Reverse Potential Difference
2
• The invention of the LASER is one of the most significant developments in
science and engineering
• To enable us to understand and appreciate the operation of this unique device
requires
o an understanding of the behaviour and the properties of light itself
• Light is the medium by which we carry information through an optical system
o our immediate task is to ask ourselves
what is light?
what are its origins?
• Light is not the easiest of natural phenomena to describe
o for many centuries, scientists have debated, and argued over, the nature
of light
o we will not take part in this debate but will try to present a description of
light which will satisfy our working needs
• To understand the operation of the LASER and other light sources, we need to
appreciate the unique character of the light emitted from gases and solids
o all radiating bodies when viewed by the naked eye appear to possess a
characteristic colour:
sunlight is white
a piece of hot iron may be orange-red
a sodium street lamp is yellow
o If the light from any of these sources is passed through a prism it spreads
out in a series of component colours known as a SPECTRUM
sunlight appears as a continuous band of colours ranging from
red through to violet
a piece of iron also shows a continuum from dull red to orange
a sodium lamp displays a series of bright, narrow lines
o whether the spectral distribution is a CONTINUOUS SPECTRUM or in
DISCRETE SPECTRAL LINES depends on
the nature of the source
the temperature of the source
• To completely describe the properties of light requires us to adopt two different
models of behaviour:
o the ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE model
o the PHOTON model
Waves
3
• The propagation of light through space can be described in terms of a travelling
wave motion
• The wave is composed of a combination of mutually perpendicular electric and
magnetic fields
o the direction of propagation of the wave is at right angles to both field
directions:
this is known as an ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE
o the wave carries energy with it
• Light, radio waves, microwaves, X-rays and gamma rays are all electromagnetic
waves
o they differ only in their characteristic wavelength or frequency
the whole range of electromagnetic waves is encompassed in the
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
• LIGHT is defined as the range between
o 200 nm, in the short ULTRA-VIOLET, and 20 µm, in the far infra-red
o VISIBLE LIGHT stretches from a wavelength of about 400 nm at the
violet end of the spectrum to around 700 nm at the red end
• The theory of ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION which describes the above
phenomena is one of the cornerstones of electrical engineering
o first proposed in mathematical form by the great Scottish scientist James
Clerk Maxwell, in the late 19th century
• To completely and formally describe the propagation of light through free space
and the energy transferred by it requires that
o we treat electromagnetic radiation as a VECTOR wave
o and specify it, in three-dimensional co-ordinates, in terms of its
magnitude and direction
• For most purposes, we may represent a travelling light wave as a one-
dimensional, scalar wave
o provided that we remember it has a direction of propagation
o we usually only describe such a wave in terms of the electric field
since the magnetic field is always at right angles we can extract it
if necessary
4
The electromagnetic spectrum
5
• The frequency ( ) and wavelength ( ) of the wave are related to the velocity
of propagation of light in free space, by
c=
Photons
• Although light may be described as a travelling wave propagating through space
o we can also discuss its behaviour in terms of the amount of energy
imparted in an interaction with some other medium
• In this case, we can imagine a beam of light to be composed of
o a stream of small lumps or QUANTA of energy, known as PHOTONS
o each photon carries with it a precisely defined amount of energy
this energy depends only on its wavelength or frequency
• The energy of a single photon is given, in terms of its frequency, f, or
wavelength, , as,
Wph = hf = hc/
6
Problem: Energy of a Photon
To illustrate the use of the above equations, calculate the energy of a photon of 600 nm
wavelength. This photon would be in the red part of the spectrum.
Solution
Wph = hc/
= 332 x 10-21 J
• Therefore,
= 2.07 eV
• Visible photons range in energy from 1.74 eV (700 nm) to 3.34 eV (400 nm)
7
Prerequisites:
This section requires familiarity with the concepts and models of ATOMIC
STRUCTURE
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
• All atoms consist of a small, massive nucleus surrounded by smaller, lighter
electrons
o the nucleus consists of protons and neutrons
o the electrons are negatively charged (-q), protons are positively charged
(+q), neutrons are neutral (zero charge)
Fundamental unit of electric charge: q = 1.6x10-19 C
• The number of protons and electrons in an atom are equal; the net atomic charge
is zero, therefore the atom is electrically neutral
• On the basis of the QUANTUM MODEL of the atom
o electrons are held in stable ORBITS (ENERGY SHELLS) around
nucleus by a balance between two opposing forces:
o the force of electrostatic attraction pulls the negative electron towards the
positive nucleus
known as the COULOMB ELECTROSTATIC FORCE
o the force due to the mass-acceleration of the electron acts radially
outwards from the nucleus
known as the CENTRIPETAL FORCE
this is the force which acts along a string when a stone is
spun around your head
o this results in a BINDING ENERGY which holds electrons in orbit
around the nucleus
• The bound electrons do not possess any value of energy, but can only possess
specific discrete energies according to the allowed orbits
o the energy is said to be QUANTISED and the permitted values of energy
are known as energy levels
o the further the electron is from the nucleus the less tightly bound it will
be to the nucleus.
8
The orbital (quantum) model of a many-electron atom
• If energy is absorbed by an atom, the electrons are excited into vacant energy
shells
o the absorbed energy is equal in magnitude to the difference in energy
between shells
o
where Wl is the energy of the initial (lower) state and Wu is the energy of
the final (higher) state
9
Absorption and emission of light between atomic energy levels
10
Energy diagram of hydrogen showing some optical transitions
Solution
Wph = W = 1.89 eV
= hc/Wph
= 657.7x10-9 m = 657.7 nm
11
Gaseous Light Sources
• The situation described above relates to that of a single isolated atom
• When vast numbers of atoms combine to form a low density gas
o all the atoms exist in different states of excitation
o the behaviour of the whole gas is characterised by the behaviour of the
individual atoms
thus the energy structure of a gas is the same as that of the
individual atom
o many more electrons are now involved
• If gas is excited by addition of energy (e.g. thermal)
o all the atoms will be in different states of excitation.
some will be in the ground state
some will be in excited states
• For a gas in thermal equilibrium with its surroundings at a temperature T
o the numbers of atoms per unit volume, the POPULATION DENSITY, in
a particular energy state depends solely on
the temperature of the gas, and
the difference in energy between the excited level and a known
lower level
• The population density of atoms, Nu, in an excited state, Wu, in relation to those,
Nl, in a lower energy state Wl
o is given by the Boltzmann relationship, as,
o
12
o the ground state will contain most of the atoms
o the higher levels will contain relatively few atoms
• Raising the temperature of the gas pushes more atoms into the higher levels of
excitation
o they subsequently de-excite by spontaneous release of photons back to
the lower levels
o the population ratio of any pair of states at a particular temperature is
governed by the Boltzmann equation at that temperature
• The processes we have just described form the basis of light emission from
THERMAL LIGHT SOURCES
• A thermally excited atomic gas will emit light across all the energy transitions
available to it
o the light emitted is composed of many discrete, separate wavelengths or
spectral lines
governed by the distribution of atoms amongst the available
energy levels
giving rise to the CHARACTERISTIC SPECTRUM for that
element
CHARACTERISTIC SPECTRUM
13
A train of incoherent photons
14
o above the valence bands are a range of primarily empty bands
these are the CONDUCTION BANDS
• Excitation raises atoms from the heavily populated valence bands into the
relatively empty conduction bands
• Emission of a photon occurs when an electron in a conduction band relaxes to a
valence band
o with the release of the corresponding amount of energy
• Because emission occurs between BANDS of closely spaced energy levels,
rather than the well-defined levels described earlier
o the characteristic spectrum is a broadband continuum in which the
individual transitions are indistinct
like that of the sun
• The overall spectral distribution of energy radiated from such a source
o is given by the BLACK-BODY relationship
o which relates the radiant energy emitted by a hot body to its temperature
• In essence, the hotter the body is the more energy it will emit and the longer will
be its wavelength of peak emission
15
o as a piece of iron is heated up it will begin to glow a dull red, changing
to orange-red and yellow as it gets hotter
o such materials form the basis of arc discharge sources or incandescent
lamps
Stimulated emission
STIMULATED EMISSION
16
o the emitted photon is in phase with the incident photon
o the emitted photon has the same wavelength as the incident photon
o the emitted photon travels in same direction as incident photon
• The key to the above behaviour lies in the likelihood, or PROBABILITY, that an
optical transition will actually occur:
o not all transitions, upwards or downwards, occur with equal probability
some are more likely than others to absorb or emit a photon
• For spontaneous emission of a photon, the probability of occurrence is
o inversely related to the average length of time that an atom can reside in
the upper level of the transition before it relaxes
known as the SPONTANEOUS LIFETIME
o typically, the spontaneous lifetime is some tens of nanoseconds
o the shorter the spontaneous lifetime, the greater is the probability that
spontaneous emission will occur
• For some pairs of energy levels in certain materials
o the spontaneous lifetime can be of the order of microseconds to a few
milliseconds
we call this a METASTABLE STATE
o the likelihood that a spontaneous transition will take place between these
levels is relatively low
• As the likelihood of spontaneous emission decreases the conditions which
favour stimulated emission are enhanced
o if an atom is excited into a metastable state it can stay there long enough
for a photon of the correct frequency to arrive
o this will stimulate the emission of a second photon
we have one photon in and two out
what we have done is add photons to the incoming beam by
promoting stimulated emission at the expense of spontaneous
emission
we have amplified light!
• The emitted photons all possess the same wavelength and vibrate in phase with
the incident photons
• The above behaviour forms the basis of laser action and gives us the origin of
the name LASER
o Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
Population inversion
• The above mechanism on its own is not enough to ensure laser action
o as we have described it above, we have only created two photons from
one
o to be really called an amplifier we need to produce millions of photons
• We need a mechanism by which we can
o add more and more atoms to the upper metastable state
o hold them long enough to store energy
17
allow the production of great numbers of stimulated photons
• Because of the existence of the longer lifetime states described earlier it is
possible to create a situation
o where the rate at which atoms are PUMPED into one of these states
exceeds the rate at which they leave
o a large number of atoms can be excited into, and held in, the upper state
leaving an almost empty state below them
o atoms can stay in this metastable state without de-exciting while the
population is being built up
this is known as a POPULATION INVERSION
we have stored atoms in this upper energy state
• A population inversion arises when more atoms are in a higher state of excitation
than the one below
o this situation is in violation of the conditions relating to thermal
equilibrium
• In practice, it is not possible to create a working laser based on absorption and
emission between only two energy levels as described above
• For any pair of levels
o the rate at which the upper level is populated by absorption equals that at
which atoms leave by stimulated emission
o the best we can hope for in a two-level system is an equality of
populations in the upper and lower levels
population inversion cannot be achieved
o laser systems utilising three or four energy levels are needed
• In a three level system:
o atoms are pumped into the highest of the three levels
called the pump level
o spontaneous de-excitation occurs from the pump level to the metastable
level
which lies between the pump level and ground and serves as the
upper level of the laser transition
o laser emission occurs between the metastable level and the ground state
18
o where the laser transition takes place between the third and second
excited states
o we need depopulation of the lower laser level to be rapid
to ensure that the upper level is always full and the lower level
always empty
19
o this is necessary to ensure that some laser light can escape and provide
useful optical power
• The cavity provides a method of OPTICAL FEEDBACK such that
o the stimulated beam is made to pass backwards and forwards several
times
it stimulates further emission as it goes
• Stimulated photons can bounce back and forward along the cavity, creating more
stimulated emission as they go
o any photons which do not travel along the optical axis are lost
o any photons which are not of the correct frequency are lost
20
• Because of the laser wavelength in relation to the length of the cavity
o many million modes are theoretically possible
o but only those modes which are close to the laser frequency can be
supported
• Energy will build up in these allowed modes until
o the gain of the system exceeds the accumulative effect of the losses
• Laser action takes place when
o the gain provided by stimulated emission from the upper laser level just
exceeds any losses due to spontaneous emission, off axis photons and
absorption and scattering at the mirrors
• Laser light is emitted in a highly pure, directional beam along the optic axis of
the cavity
o the spectral linewidth of laser lines is typically around 1 to 500 GHz
21
o the upper level of the laser transition by, Wu
o the lower (ground) level by, Wl
• Initially, the system is in thermal equilibrium with its surroundings
o the populations, Np, Nu and Nl, of the respective levels are given in
accordance with the Boltzmann relationship
Np is much less than Nu, which is, in turn, much less than Nl
• Supplying pump energy to the system, equivalent in magnitude to Wp
o will raise atoms in the ground state, l, to the upper pump level, p
• De-excitation from the pump level to the upper laser level can occur
o by spontaneous emission
o or by non-radiative processes such as collisional de-excitation
• If the rate at which the upper laser level is fed from the pump level exceeds that
of spontaneous de-excitation from the laser level
o a population inversion can be established between u and l, such that Nu
becomes much greater than Nl
• Ideally the rate at which the upper laser level is fed from the pumping level
should be rapid
o with consequent depopulation to the ground level taking place relatively
slowly
• The LASER is now primed for action
• Initially while the inversion is building up
o photons may be spontaneously emitted between the laser levels
o most of these photons will be emitted in random directions and will
ultimately pass out of the laser cavity
o a few, though, may travel along the axis of the laser system
these photons can stimulate the emission of more photons
between the laser levels
o as they pass back and forward along the optical cavity the amount of
stimulated emission will build up
as will the population inversion
o at some point the number of photons being produced by stimulated
emission will exceed all other mechanisms
at this point a cascade of photons will be emitted through the
output mirror in a short sharp burst
• The emitted photons all have same wavelength, phase, amplitude and direction
• We have just described the operation of a pulsed laser
o If we can continually re-establish the population inversion
o then we can produce a continuous wave LASER beam
• In reality it is light OSCILLATION we are dealing with, but who wants to back
a LOSER?
22
The processes of laser action
Coherence
23
• All the emitted photons bear a constant phase relationship with each other in
both time and phase
o the light is said to be COHERENT
Beam divergence
High irradiance
Solution:
• We should note that the irradiance of sunlight at the earth is about 1400 W/m2!
TYPES OF LASER
24
• Many hundreds of different lasers are now available,
o only a few types are in regular use in engineering
• We will try to give a broad insight of the operation and properties of such lasers
• We should bear in mind that optimum laser design is more complex than
outlined here
o we are only attempting to get a feel for what is involved
o for example, in all our analyses so far we have assumed an optical cavity
bounded by parallel reflectors
in practice many different mirror arrangements involving
combinations of curved and plane are adopted
Typical properties for the lasers discussed here are listed in the table below.
25
Approx Cost £800 £25000 £35000 £15000 £35000 £200 £0.40
Practical Lasers
• The basic requirements of any laser are similar, they all comprise:
o an ACTIVE MEDIUM with a suitable set of energy levels to support
laser action
o a source of PUMPING ENERGY in order to establish a population
inversion
o an OPTICAL CAVITY to introduce optical feedback and so maintain the
gain of the system above all losses
• Lasers are usually classified in terms of their active (lasing) medium.
o For example, some of the more important classes of interest to engineers
are:
Solid state lasers
Gas lasers
Semiconductor lasers
Gas Lasers
The Helium-Neon (HeNe) LASER
A HeNe laser
26
• The lighter He atoms are excited by collisions with electrons in the discharge
o the He atoms collide with the heavier Ne atoms and transfer their energy
to them
o Ne atoms are excited by the collisions into their metastable state where
population inversion builds up
• Randomly emitted photons trigger de-excitation from the metastable level to the
ground state.
• Laser light is emitted
o wavelength of 633 nm (red)
o powers in the range 0.5 to 50 mW
o beam divergence about 1 mrad
27
o to keep running temperatures low, metal discs are inserted inside the tube
to act as heat exchangers.
• Argon lasers
o emit around 1 to 20 W of flux distributed amongst all the lasing
wavelengths
o as much as 5 or 6 W can be obtained at the most powerful of these
wavelengths, the 514 nm line.
• Common uses of argon lasers are
o holography, eye surgery, spectrochemistry, optical image processing,
semiconductor processing and last, but not least in terms of numbers of
lasers supplied, laser light shows
28
ARGON LASER IN HOLOGRAPHY 1 ARGON LASER IN HOLOGRAPHY 2
29
• Unlike most other gas lasers, the CO2 has an appreciably high efficiency
o typically 10 to 15 %
• To reach the high powers required from these lasers, cavity lengths can stretch to
2 or 3 meters or more
30
Video 2a Video
2b
(Laserobot video reproduced with permission from Robomatix Technologies Ltd
(http://www.robomatix.co.il))
Video2c
(With permission from Howden Laser Division)
• The ruby laser takes its place in history by being the first working laser to be
demonstrated
• Theodore Maiman, working at Hughes Labs. In the USA, showed the first
working laser to the world in 1960
o the enthusiastic reader should get a hold of Maiman's original account of
his work:
"Stimulated optical radiation in ruby masers", Nature, Vol. 187,
p493, (1960)
31
• The active medium is a cylindrical crystal of synthetic sapphire (Al2O3)
o doped with roughly 0.05%, by weight, of chromium ions (Cr3+)
RUBY
• The ends of the rod are polished flat and parallel
o HIGH standards of flatness and parallelism are demanded:
the flatness over the entire end face should vary by no more than
32
A COMMERCIAL RUBY LASER IS SHOWN IN A FOCUSED BEAM FROM A RUBY LASER
PHOTO PRODUCING ABLATION AT A METAL
(Reproduced with permission from Lumonics Ltd) SURFACE IS SHOWN IN PHOTO
• Now supersedes the ruby as the most common doped insulator laser
• Host material is a crystal of yttrium-aluminium-garnate (Y3Al5O12), YAG
o doped with 0.7% by weight of neodymium (Nd3+) ions
• Laser emission takes place at 1.064 µm (infra-red)
33
Light Emitting Diodes (LED's
34
Laser diodes
• Laser diodes are constructed so that light emerges from ends rather than through
the wide gap
o narrow active layer contains holes across the whole length
o ends are cleaved, polished and made flat & parallel
o sides are roughened to trap light inside crystal
• Light which is spontaneously generated is reflected back & forth causing
stimulated emission
• High current densities are needed to produce stimulated emission & population
inversion
• Available across a wide range of wavelengths
o 633, 770, 809 nm, 1.1, 1.3 µm depending on material/structure
o AlGaInP, GaAlAs, InGaAsP - MQW, DH, DFB
• Powers range from a few mW's to several W's cw
• Pulsed powers up to 100's of Watts peak
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
• All atoms consist of a small, massive nucleus surrounded by smaller, lighter
electrons
o the nucleus consists of protons and neutrons
o the electrons are negatively charged (-q), protons are positively charged
(+q), neutrons are neutral (zero charge)
Fundamental unit of electric charge: q = 1.6x10-19 C
• The number of protons and electrons in an atom are equal; the net atomic charge
is zero, therefore the atom is electrically neutral
• On the basis of the QUANTUM MODEL of the atom
o electrons are held in stable ORBITS (ENERGY SHELLS) around
nucleus by a balance between two opposing forces:
o the force of electrostatic attraction pulls the negative electron towards the
positive nucleus
known as the COULOMB ELECTROSTATIC FORCE
o the force due to the mass-acceleration of the electron acts radially
outwards from the nucleus
35
known as the CENTRIPETAL FORCE
this is the force which acts along a string when a stone is
spun around your head
o this results in a BINDING ENERGY which holds electrons in orbit
around the nucleus
• The bound electrons do not possess any value of energy, but can only possess
specific discrete energies according to the allowed orbits
o the energy is said to be QUANTISED and the permitted values of energy
are known as energy levels
o the further the electron is from the nucleus the less tightly bound it will
be to the nucleus.
36
• Atoms can be further excited to higher energy states or can release this energy if
electrons drop back to lower levels
o the range of energies which the valence electrons can possess are shown
on an energy level diagram
37
o for a hydrogen atom this will occur if it receives 13.6 eV of excitation
energy
o when an atom loses an electron
the net charge is positive - we now have a POSITIVE ION
o when an atom gains an electron
the net charge is negative - we now have a NEGATIVE ION
38
The energy level diagram for the hydrogen atom
BEHAVIOUR OF SOLIDS
Energy Structure of Solids
Insulators
39
o low conductivity
• electric currents do not pass easily
Metals
Semiconductors
Conduction in metals
• Free electrons in metal have a wide range of energies & velocities
o they behave as a "cloud" or "sea" of electrons
o individual electrons collide with ion cores as they drift through crystal
o individual electrons may travel in many different directions
• There is no net flow of current
o the flow in one direction is randomly balanced by the flow in another
o the average velocity of the electrons is zero
• The electron cloud can be accelerated by applied external electric-field
o this constitutes a potential difference being applied across the ends
o the electron cloud moves in opposite direction to field with drift velocity
vd
o this constitutes an electric current in direction of field
• For n electrons/unit volume, the current flow through the conductor is (in the
direction of the electric field)
40
I = total charge/unit time
= - nqAl /t = - nqAvd
But,
F = mea
a = -qE/me = vd/
Thus
vd = -q E/me
J = nq2 E/me
Expressing conductivity as
= nq2 /me
J= E OHM's LAW
That the above equation is indeed a representation of Ohm's Law can be verified
by substitution of
E = V/ l, = 1/ , and J = I/A
SEMICONDUCTORS
• Typical semiconducting materials are silicon & germanium
• They are usually elements from Group IV of the periodic table
o 4 valence electrons in outer shell
o form 4-way covalent bonds with neighbours
41
Diagrammatic representation of a Si crystal
Intrinsic semiconductors
• Nominally pure material
• At low temps, down to absolute zero
o the valence electrons tightly bound to ion cores
thus conductivity is low, resistivity is high
they behave like insulators
• As the temperature increases
o the valence electrons gain energy (thermal)
o the bonds between electrons and the host ion can be broken
electron freed from host ion
o free electrons can move through crystal
thus the material conductivity increases
• Broken bond (absence of electron)
o can be treated as a "HOLE" in the lattice structure
this is a vacant site into which an electron may be attracted
o holes have similar properties to electrons but possess an effective
positive charge
o they move in same direction as applied field (opposite to electrons)
• Electrons & holes move through crystal under action of electric field
• The number of holes and electrons in an intrinsic semiconductor are equal
o ni = pi ~ 1016 m-3 at RT
Extrinsic semiconductors
• Contain impurities which replace some of original atoms in lattice
o these impurities alter the basic material properties
42
• Group V impurities (e.g. P)
o possess five valence electrons
each atom covalently tries to bond with five lattice atoms
o leaves an excess electron for every impurity atom
known as n-TYPE semiconductor
electrons dominate the conduction process
THE pn JUNCTION
Equilibrium conditions
43
these residual charges prevent further diffusion so that
recombination between holes and electrons is inhibited
• A potential difference develops across the junction
o equilibrium potential V0
o depletion region has high resistivity
because there are no mobile charge carriers
• The behaviour of the pn-junction may be altered on application of an external
voltage across its ends
o the potential may be applied in either
a forward potential difference
a reverse potential difference
44
• Depletion region is very resistive compared to rest of material
o any external potential dropped almost entirely across depletion region
the junction potential reduces to Vo-V
the width of the depletion region is also reduced
o the electrons in n-type can fall down the potential barrier to p-type
o the holes in p-type likewise fall down to the n-type
there is a net flow of current from p to n-types
• We can consider the MAJORITY CARRIERS in each side as being injected
across the junction
45
A pn junction under reverse potential conditions
46