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Spencer Gillis Describe how bacteria cells have advanced to become the modern mammals we see today.

To be able to visualize the evolution of bacteria to modern mammals, one must start with the most basic living cell, a bacterium. Bacteria belong to the Kingdom Monera, and are unicellular prokaryotes, which means that they act individually and have no nucleus. From this, bacteria have evolved through the endosymbiotic theory whereby bacteria are gathered together to form a large cell with a nucleus. Evidence for this can be seen when examination the mitochondria and chloroplasts, which have their own DNA and have a double membrane. These new cells are called protists, from the Kingdom Protista, and are generally unicellular and eukaryotic. While there are some multicellular protists, they do not undergo specialization of cells. From these early life forms, bacteria and protists can reproduce asexually through binary fission, and all three can reproduce through conjugation. In addition, fungi can also reproduce through the use of asexual and sexual spores, as well as through budding and fragmentation. The specialized, complex Kingdom Animalia is the result of the development and evolutionary advancements made by bacteria, protists, and fungi. The simplest animals in this kingdom are the sponges from Phylum Porifera. Sponges are the first animals to show both multicellularity and basic specialization. They have no nervous system, are asymmetrical, and are completely sessile. To feed, sponges create currents, which draw food into themselves and absorb it. The next significant evolutionary advancement is seen by the cnidarians, from Phylum Cnidaria. These organisms show the first forms of symmetry in the form of radial symmetry and are diploblastic. Well-known organisms from this phylum are corals, jellyfish, and sea anemones. Next are the flatworms from the Phylum Platyhelminthes. These worms are triploblastic and show bilateral symmetry, though are still acoelomate. They also show cephalization, which is accumulation of nerve cells towards the head region. Continuing, pseudocoeloms are developed in Phylum Nematoda. Nematodes also show the first signs of a one-way digestive system, providing a more efficient way to digest food. True coeloms develop from the nematodes and divide into two super phyla: Protostomia and Deuterostomia. While there are two deuterostomia, Phylum Echinodermata offers little in the development mammals. Phylum Chordata from Deuterostoma share multiple common features including a notochord, a hollow dorsal nerve tube, pharyngeal gill slits, as well as a tail. In Chordata there are three subphyla that exist, two of which are considered ancestors or Chordates. These two are called the urochordates and cephalochordates. It is believed that cephalochordates evolved their filter feeding lifestyles to become urochordates, which are better-developed filter feeders as adults. They are better developed because the larvae of urochordates became mature earlier and therefor prompted the development of vertebrae. Therefor, that is the reason for the third subphylum, Subphylum Vertebrata. Lampreys, the first vertebrates known as jawless fishes are from the Class Agnatha. These fish rely on prey, even thought they have teeth, rather than biting and eating them. Next come the cartilaginous fishes and bony fish, Class Chondrichthyes and Class Osteichthyes. These fish first developed jaws from gill arches and then, with the introduction of the operculum, were

Spencer Gillis Describe how bacteria cells have advanced to become the modern mammals we see today.
able to develop a more efficient respiratory system. More advanced fishes, for example a lungfish, have a more advanced respiratory system derived from their swim bladder. Lungfish are supposedly they ancestors of land vertebrates, starting with the Class Amphibia. Being the link between land and sea for vertebrates, amphibians develop their limbs later in life, which allow them to travel on land. In their young age, they mature and develop in water and as adults they live on land. A further development of amphibians comes from the significant advancement of amnion in Class Reptilia. The amnion allows animals to move away from water by providing protection to their embryos. In reptiles it is used to encase them in shells so that they no longer need to worry about drying out. The final evolutionary advancement to modern mammals is the introduction of mammary glands to secrete milk for their young and develop hair from the scales in reptiles. Throughout these many revolutionary steps, the process from bacteria to modern mammals can be clearly seen. Paragraphs: Kingdom Monera Kingdom Protista Kingdom Animalia Phylum Cnidaria Phylum Platyhelminthes Phylum Nematoda, Phylum Echinodermata Phylum Chordata

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