Chapter 31 Maxwells Equations and Electromagnetic Waves

James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879)

Electromagnetic theory
Maxwell united all phenomena of electricity and magnetism in one magnificent theory which became the base of physical (wave) optics

31-1 Review of the basics ideas of electromagnetic theory

Gauss Law: Electric charges Q are the sources of electric field E:

E dA =

Q
0

From Gauss theorem- an integral of any vector function over a surface equals its volume integral over the volume enclosed by the surface.

E dA = EdV = dV
0

Where:
= i + j + k x y z

and

dV
E = 0

And so:

31-2 Gausss Law for Magnetism

Gausss law relates the electric field on a closed surface to the net charge enclosed by that surface. The analogous law for magnetic fields is different, as there are no single magnetic point charges (monopoles):

 B dA = 0
B = 0

31-1 Faradays Law

The electromotive force around a closed circuit is proportional to the rate of change of magnetic field flux through the circuit.

dB E dl = dt

Stocks theorem relates a line integral around a closed path to the surface integral over any surface enclosed by that path.

E dl = E dA =
dB = = B dA dt t
B E = t

31-1 Ampres Law

Ampres law relates the magnetic field around a current to the current through a surface.

31-1 Changing Electric Fields Produce Magnetic Fields

In order for Ampres law to hold, it cant matter which surface we choose. But look at a discharging capacitor; there is a current through surface 1 but none through surface 2:

31-1 Changing Electric Fields Produce Magnetic Fields; Ampres Law and Displacement Current
Therefore, Ampres law is modified to include the creation of a magnetic field by a changing electric field the field between the plates of the capacitor in this example:

Magnetic field is created by a current and a changing electric field.

31-1 Changing Electric Fields Produce Magnetic Fields; Ampres Law and Displacement Current
The second term in Amperes law has the dimensions of a current (after factoring out the 0), and is sometimes called the displacement current:

where

Using Stocks theorem again:

B dl = B dA = 0 j dA + 0 t E dA
E B = 0 j + 0 0 t

31-3 Maxwells Equations

We now have a complete set of equations that describe electric and magnetic fields, called Maxwells equations. In the absence of dielectric or magnetic materials, they are:
E =

B = 0 B E = t E B = 0 j + 0 0 t

31-4 Production of Electromagnetic Waves

Since a changing electric field produces a magnetic field, and a changing magnetic field produces an electric field, once sinusoidal fields are created they can propagate on their own. These propagating fields are called electromagnetic waves.

31-4 Production of Electromagnetic Waves

Oscillating charges will produce electromagnetic waves:

31-4 Production of Electromagnetic Waves

Close to the antenna, the fields are complicated, and are called the near field:

31-4 Production of Electromagnetic Waves

Far from the source, the waves are plane waves:

31-4 Production of Electromagnetic Waves

The electric and magnetic waves are perpendicular to each other, and to the direction of propagation.

31-5 Electromagnetic waves, and their speed, derived from Maxwells Equations
In the absence of currents and charges, Maxwells equations become:
E = 0 B = 0 B E = t E B = 0 0 t

31-5 Electromagnetic Waves, and Their Speed, Derived from Maxwells Equations
To derive the wave equation we are going to use a vector identity:
E = ( E) 2 E

Lets first prove this.

 2 2 2 = 2 + 2 + 2 y z x 2 2 2 2 E = 2 + 2 + 2 ( Ex i + E y j + Ez k ) z x y
2

( E) 2 E

 E
i E = x Ex j y Ey

k E y Ex Ez E y Ex Ez = i j + x y k z y z z x Ez

( E) 2E i

( E) 2 E j

( ( E) E ) k
2

E = 0 B = 0 B E = t E B = 0 0 t

( E) 2 E = E
0

2 E = E = B ( B) 2E = = 0 0 2 = t t t
2E 2 E = 0 0 2 t

v=

0 0

= 3 108 m/s
2 Ex 2 E y 2 Ez 2 E = v2 2 + + 2 2 x t y z 2

Wave equations
2 Ex 2 E y 2 Ez 2 E = v2 2 + + 2 2 x t y z 2 2 Bx 2 By 2 Bz 2B = v2 2 + + 2 2 2 x t y z

31-5 Plane Waves Solutions

This figure shows an electromagnetic wave of wavelength and frequency f. The electric and magnetic fields are given by
.

where

31-5 Electromagnetic Waves, and Their Speed, Derived from Maxwells Equations
Applying Faradays law
E = i x 0 j 0 E
y

B E = t

k 0 0 E y = k x

gives a relationship between E and B:

.

31-5 Electromagnetic Waves, and Their Speed, Derived from Maxwells Equations
From the plane wave solution:
.

E = ( E0 sin(kx t ) ) = kE0 cos(kx t ) x x

B = ( B0 sin( kx t ) ) = B0 cos(kx t ) t t

E = =c B k

kE0 = B0

31-6 Light as an Electromagnetic Wave and the Electromagnetic Spectrum

The magnitude of this speed is 3.0 x 108 m/s precisely equal to the measured speed of light. The frequency of an electromagnetic wave is related to its wavelength and to the speed of light:

Example 31-2: Determining E and B E B in EM waves.

Assume a 60-Hz EM wave is a sinusoidal wave propagating in the z direction with pointing in E the x direction, and E0 = 2.0 V/m. Write vector B expressions for and as functions of E position and time.
The wavelength is c/f = 5.0 x 106m. The wave number is 2/ = 1.26 x 10-6 m-1. The angular frequency is 2f = 377 rad/s. Finally, B0 = E0/c = 6.7 x 10-9 T. B must be in the y direction, as E, v, and B are mutually perpendicular.

E = i (2.0V/m)sin (1.26 106 m 1 )z (377rad/s)t B = j(6.7 109 T)sin (1.26 106 m 1 )z (377rad/s)t

31-6 Light as an Electromagnetic Wave and the Electromagnetic Spectrum

Electromagnetic waves can have any wavelength; we have given different names to different parts of the wavelength spectrum.

Example 31-3: Wavelengths of EM waves.

Calculate the wavelength (a) of a 60-Hz EM wave, (b) of a 93.3-MHz FM radio wave, and (c) of a beam of visible red light from a laser at frequency 4.74 x 1014 Hz.
a. 5.0 x 106 m b. 3.22 m c. 6.33 x 10-7 m

Example 31-4: Cell phone antenna.

The antenna of a cell phone is often wavelength long. A particular cell phone has an 8.5-cm-long straight rod for its antenna. Estimate the operating frequency of this phone.

The frequency is the speed of light divided by the wavelength (which is 4 times the antenna length): f = 880 MHz.

Example 31-5: Phone call time lag.

You make a telephone call from New York to a friend in London. Estimate how long it will take the electrical signal generated by your voice to reach London, assuming the signal is (a) carried on a telephone cable under the Atlantic Ocean, and (b) sent via satellite 36,000 km above the ocean. Would this cause a noticeable delay in either case?
a) Distance from NY to London is 5000 km. The time delay is t =d/c= 0.017 s. b) Via satellite d=2x36000km and t=d/c=0.24s

The speed of light was known to be very large, although careful studies of the orbits of Jupiters moons showed that it is finite. One important measurement, by Michelson, used a rotating mirror:

31-7 Measuring the Speed of Light

31-7 Measuring the Speed of Light

Over the years, measurements have become more and more precise; now the speed of light is defined to be c = 2.99792458 108 m/s. This is then used to define the meter.