Learning Preferences

Language learners use different kinds of language learning strategies, or specific actions
and behaviors to help them learn. Their strategies differ greatly, at least in part because
their general learning styles (overall approaches to learning and the environment) are so
varied. Recent research (Ehrman & Oxford, 1988, 1989; Oxford & Ehrman, 1988)
suggests that learning style has a significant influence on students' choice of learning
strategies, and that both styles and strategies affect learning outcomes.

What are learning styles?

The term learning style is used to encompass four aspects of the person: cognitive style,
i.e., preferred or habitual patterns of mental functioning; patterns of attitudes and
interests that affect what an individual will pay most attention to in a learning
situation; a tendency to seek situations compatible with one's own learning patterns;
and a tendency to use certain learning strategies and avoid others (Lawrence, 1984).
Learning style is inherent and pervasive (Willing, 1988) and is a blend of cognitive,
affective, and behavioral elements (Oxford & Ehrman, 1988). At least twenty dimensions
of learning style have been identified (Parry, 1984; Shipman & Shipman, 1985).

A key to getting (and keeping) students actively involved in learning lies in

understanding learning style preferences, which can positively or negatively influence a
student's performance (Birkey & Rodman 1995; Dewar 1995; Hartman 1995). It has
also been shown that adjusting teaching materials to meet the needs of a variety of
learning styles benefits all students (Agogino & Hsi 1995; Kramer-Koehler, Tooney &
Beke 1995).

Four learning Styles

The Visual/ Verbal Learning Style

You learn best when information is presented visually and in a written language format.
In a classroom setting, you benefit from instructors who use the blackboard (or
overhead projector) to list the essential points of a lecture, or who provide you with an
outline to follow along with during lecture. You benefit from information obtained from
textbooks and class notes. You tend to like to study by yourself in a quiet room. You
often see information "in your mind's eye" when you are trying to remember something.

The Visual/ Nonverbal Learning Style

You learn best when information is presented visually and in a picture or design format.
In a classroom setting, you benefit from instructors who use visual aids such as film,
video, maps and charts. You benefit from information obtained from the pictures and
diagrams in textbooks. You tend to like to work in a quiet room and may not like to
work in study groups. When trying to remember something, you can often visualize a
picture of it in your mind. You may have an artistic side that enjoys activities having to

The Auditory/ Verbal Learning Style

You learn best when information is presented auditory in an oral language format. In a
classroom setting, you benefit from listening to lecture and participating in group
discussions. You also benefit from obtaining information from audio tape. When trying
to remember something, you can often "hear" the way someone told you the
information, or the way you previously repeated it out loud. You learn best when
interacting with others in a listening/speaking exchange

Field -dependent L2 learner: Global learner, socially oriented, extrincically motivated,

more successful in inductive lessons.

Field –independent L2 learner: analytic learner, tends to work independently, more

successful in deductive lessons.

Field Dependent Learner

• Experiences in a global fashion, adheres to structures

• Learns material with social content best
• Attends best to material relevant to own experience
• Requires externally defined goals and reinforcements
• Needs organization provided
• More affected by criticism
• Uses observational approach for concept attainment [learns best by using examples]

Field Dependent Teaching Styles

• Prefers teaching situations that allow interaction and discussion with students
• Uses questions to check on student learning following instruction
• Uses student-centered activities
• Viewed by students as teaching facts
• Provides less feedback, positive feedback
• Strong in establishing a warm and personal learning environment

Field Independent Learners

• Perceives analytically
• Makes specific concept distinctions; little overlap
• Impersonal orientation
• May need explicit training in social skills
• Interested in new concepts for their own sake
• Has self-defined goals and reinforcement
• Can self-structure situations
• Less affected by criticism
• Uses hypothesis-testing approach to attain concepts

Field Independent Teaching Styles

• Prefers engaging students by establishing routines in order to work through ideas

• Uses questions to introduce topics and probe student answers
• Uses teacher-organized learning situations
• Viewed by students as encouraging to apply principles
• Gives corrective feedback using error analysis
• Strong in organizing and guiding student learning
 Modality Descriptors Learn Best Through the Use of ...

Visual Learners • Learn by observation • Charts, graphs, diagrams, and flow

(input) • Can recall what they have seen
charts
• Sight words
• Can follow written or drawn
instructions • Flashcards
• Like to read • Visual similarities and differences
• Use written notes • Pictures and graphics
• Maps
• Benefit by visualizing, • Silent reading
watching TV/video/films
• Written instructions

• Computer assisted learning

Auditory • Prefer listening and taking notes • Discussion, dialog, debate

Learners (input) • Listen for patterns • Memorization
Verbal-Linguistic
• Consult peers to ascertain that • Phonics
Intelligence they have the correct details
• Oral reading
• Can recall what they have heard
• Hearing anecdotes or stories
• Can follow oral directions
• Listening to tapes or CDs
• Repeat words aloud for
memorization • Cooperartive learning groups

• Use oral language effectively

Kinesthetic • Are often physically adept • Playing games

Learners (input) • Learn through experience and • Role playing
physical activity
• Read body language/gestures
• Benefit from demonstration
• Mime
• Drama
• Learn from teaching others
what they know
• Learn or memorize while moving
(pacing, stationary bike, finger or whole
body games)

Tactile Learners • Learn by touching and • Learning by doing

(input) manipulating objects
• "Hands-on"
• Often learn inductively rather
than deductively • Creating maps
• Tend toward psychomotor over • Building models
abstract thinking
• Art projects
• Prefer personal connections to
topics • Using manipulatives
• Follow directions they have • Drawing, designing things
written themselves / that they
have rehearsed
• Writing / tracing

• Benefit from demonstrations

Active • Can be impulsive • Prefer "doing, discussin, explaining" vs

listening and watching
• Risk-takers
• Prefer active experimentation
• Do not prefer lectures
• Like acting and role playing
• Prefer group work