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 18.2 Process in desiqn 411
selection

Translate design requirements

idenw function,technical& quality
@nstraints,objectivesand frce variables

Screen using constraints

eliminateprccessesthat
cannotdo theiob

Rank using obiective

find thescreenedprocesss
thatdo thejob mostffinomically

Seek documentation
researchthe effectof processing
on detecEandDrcperties

Final process choice

Figure18.1 The selectionstrategyappli*d to processes.

As for materials,the four stepsare
tra n s l a ti o ns, c re e ni ng,ranki ngand supporti ngdocumentati on.A l l can be
imnlementedin software.

path, shown in Figure 18.1. It usesconstraints on process attributes to screen,

together with an appropriate objective to rank, culminating as before with a
search for information documenting the details of the top-ranked candidates.
Translation
As we saw in earlier chapters, the fwnction of a component dictates the initial
choice of material and shape. This choice exerts constraints on the choice of
processes. It is helpful to think of rwo types of constraint: technical-can the
process do the job at all? And quality-can it do so sufficiently well? One tech-
nical constraint applies across all process families: it is the compatibility of
material and process.Shape,too, is a general constraint, although its influence
on the choice of shaping, joining and finishing processes differs. Quality
includes precision and surface finish, together with avoidance of defects and
achieving the target for material properties. The usual obiectiue in processingis
to minimize cost. The free uariables are largely limited to choosing the process
itself and its operating parameters (such as temperatures,flow rates and so on).
Table 18.1 summarizes the outcome of the translation stage. The case studies
of Section 18.9 illustrate its use for each processfamily.

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 *
4

tlfh
mel * ri ai i nrnpatrL:l l l ty 4S 3
::.i i r1:Lrteg.

dt r $ ro
r rt]{.e55e i{r'lb u ir: :-;: :'
1:'-:'3':; t li i ij i i it}'
$m # ":'
- "-r'::-l
T h e m a i n g o a l i n d e fi ni ngprocessattri butesi stoi denti fythecharacteri sti cs
their selection by screening'
that discriminate between processes,to enable
and surface treatment-
Each of ;h; ;h;.. process families-shaping, ioining.
h a s i to w n s e to fc h a r acteri zi ngattri butes,descri bedhereandi nthenextthree
physical limits to these for a given
sections.It is also of interest to explore the
p ro c e s s ' a n d to e x a m i nehow theproperti esofthemateri al bei ngprocessed
iimit the rate of the processitself'
with
orr. p*.rs art;bute applies to all three families-compatibility
material'-so we examine this first'

Materi al-P ro cess comPatib ilitY

matrix. Shaping processes
Figure 1g) shows a material-process compatibility
with compatible combinations marked by dots the color of
are atrh.1;,
screeningis straightforward-
which identifies the material family. Its use for
immediately eliminated (or the
specify the material and some processes-are
re v e rs e ' a s a s c re e n i ngstepi nmateri al sel ecti on).Thedi agonal spreadofthe
class-metals, polymers, etc'-has
dots in the matrix revealsthat each material
largely reflects the underlying process
its own set of process routes. This
softening the material, and the
physics. Shaping is usually easedby meltiirg-o,
of ih. classes are quite distinct (Figure 13'6)'
melting;;;;;r.,
-"t"ii"l
T h e re a re s o me o v e rl aps-pow dermethodsarecompati bl e-w i thbothmetal s
(when used
*irt uotr, polymers.and glasses.Machining
""d.J;;;;;-otai,rg all families. processes using
fo, ,h"pfii is comp"atible with ul-or, Joining
a d h e s i v e s a n d fa stener,u..u.,yversati l eandcanbeusedw i thmostmateri al s'
* h ...u ,* .l d i n g me thodsaremateri al speci fi c.Fi ni shi ngprocessesarepri ma-
are__molded to
rily used for thJarder materials, partic;larlymetals-polymers 'We see
for decorative purposes. will
,t up. ulra ,"r.ry ,r."r.a further ."..p,
whY later.

Coupling of material selection and process sglytlon

linked. The compatibility matrix
Th..t oi?. of material and of processare clearly
shows that the choice of isolatesa sub-domain of processes'The process
-ut.riul aluminwm alloys were chosen in
choice feeds back to material selection. If, say,
initial processselection stage'
the initial material selection stage and casting the
in
are castable can be used' If the com-
th.r, orrty,t. ,oUr., of aluminrim alloys thai
proc€ss), matefl^;hoice is
por.rrii, ih.r, ,o be age hard.ened(a heat-treatment,
alloys' So we must continuallY
further fi-ir.J to heatlteatable aluminum cdsting
and material, checking that inconsistent combinations
it"rut. ;;;;;..cess
nor process choice can be car-
are avoided. The key point is that neitler material
Once past initial screening' it is
,l.a ,."rl"t'*irno"i giuing thought to the other.
essentiallya co-selectionprocedure'

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 t
" 1t,

::'.::,:i+li.
t;tiil'Jr.rie::t{i triCiil:, 4T S \

Sand
^ .ci i n ^

o Die casting
c
-o Investment Casting
6 Low-pressure casting
c
Forging
E
b Extrusion
Sheet forming
Powder methods
--=
60
o> i
Electro-machining
Conventional machining
OA :,
z Injection molding
i Blow molding
.9
o Y,i Compression molding
>=: Rotatlonal molding
^e< !
L@i ThermoJorming
i Polymer casting
o- i Resin-transfer moldin g
'6 P l*.
Filament winding
ooI
c6l Lay-up methods
d'1 Vacuum bag

10-3 10 2 0.1 1 10 102 103 104

Mass (kg)
. metal a ceramic @polymer. composite

Fiq*l* 'nff.3 J"n* pr*ress--r'fla,q$ r{inq* ner ci";*ri"f*i' l;i:;*n!r:g$Jr${q!$*5.ignnr*" *r fir:;i

r,;,1$inrl.ih* hr:xe:; th*y rtf*r i* r;l,re sfu{lies t* et:ry:r.The icicrr r*f*r t* th*
rriule!'ifii,ar in f igr.trt 18.7. t'rit:llip!t e.r:l*rsindlcete r*r*6;*tlhiliiy l,irith m*i.* l..i;an
*r":* i*rr:ilir,,

whatever they are made of. Most processesspan a mass range of about a factor
of 1000 or so. Note that this attribute is most discriminating at the exrremes;
the vast majority of components are in the 0.1-10 kg range, for which virtually
any processwill work.
It is worth noting what the ranges represent.Each bar spansthe size range of
which the process is capable without undue technical difficulry. All can be
stretched to smaller or larger extremes but at the penalty of extra cost because
the equipment is no longer standard. During screening,therefore,it is important
to recognize'near misses'-processeswhich narrowly failed, but which could, if
needed, be reconsideredand used.
Figure 18.4 shows a secondbar chart: that for the ranges of section thickness
of which each shaping processis capable. It is the lower end of the ranges-the
minimum section thickness-where the physics of the process imposes limits.
Their origins are the subject of the next sub-section.

Physical limits to size and section thickness

Castingand molding both rely on material flow in the liquid or semi-liauid
state.Lower limits on secrionthicknessare imposedby the physicsof flow.

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 F{|]!,j'Wl!h&,qioP'ouJ!l

l.

si

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 altrbutesandorigns 417
I8.4 Shapng processes

Fiqure 18.6 (a)Difierentialshrinkage.ausesinternalstress, andcavitation

distortion in thi(k
as
sectionsor at chanqesof section.(b) Gooddesignkeepssectlonthickne'ss
uniformas possible.
avoiding the problem

temperature, with a step increasein viscosity, but for allovs this happensover a
ranie of ternperature,known as the 'mushy zone', in which the allov is part liq-
uid. oart solid. The width of this zone can vary from a {ew degreescentigrade
to several hundred-so metal flow in castings dependson alloy composition'
In general,higler pressuredie-castingand molding methodsenablethinner
seciionsto be made, but the equipment costs nore and the {aster,more nrbu-
Ient flow can entrapmore porosit'1and causedamageto the molds.
UDDerlimits to sizeand sectionin castingand molding are set bv problems
of shrinkaee. The outer layer of a casting or molding cools and solidifies first'
eninq it a rieid 'kin. Whenthe inler;orsubsequenrl) rhechrngern
'olidifie.'
iolume candi.ron the produ.tor crackrhe"kin. or cdu\einrernalcavitarion'
Problemso{ this sort are most severewherethereare changesof section,since
the constaint introduces tensile stressesthat calse hot tearinS -.lacki'ng
causedby constrained thermal contraction. Different compositions have differ-
ent susceptibilities to hot tearing-another ex.mple of coupling betweenmate-
rial, processand designdetail.
Much of the documentation for casting and molding processesconcerns
guidance on designing both the component shape and the mold geometry to
achievethe desired cross-sectionswhile avoiding defects Even when the com
oonent sh:pei' 6xed,thereis freedomlo choo.ewhererhemarerialrnletqare
't'"it.,"to,L.
{rhe runner.)and wherethe arr and exce" marenalwill
escape (the 'risers').Figure18.5 showsan exampleof good practicein design-
-old
ing the cross sectional shapeof a polymer molding.
Powder methods for metals and ceramicstoo dependon flow. FillirE a mold
-,- with powder uses free flow under gravity plus vibration to bed the powder
downand achieveuniform 6lling. This may be followed bv compression ('cold
compaction').Oncetullofpowder, the mold is heatedto allow densificationby
Ls sintering or, if the pressureis maintained, by hot isostatic pressing (HIPing) -
Metal shapingby de{ormation-hot or cold rolling, {orging or extrusion-also
ibs involves flow. Solid metals flow by plasdc deformation or bv creep--{hapter 13
H describedhow the flow rate dependson stressand temperature Much forming

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 processes:
18.4 Shaplng and origins 419
attributes

both (b) and (c). A positive aspectof the high contact pressuresin {orgins is the
reoeatabiliw wi*r which the metal can be forced to take up small features
machiaedon the face o{ the tootins, exploit€d h making coins.

Yery small or uery tbin obiects-p sbing the limits

Sohow do you makevery smallthings?The obviousway to do it is to ctlt them
out of bigger ones.That meansmachining turning, shaping,drillins and millins.
The upper limit on sizeis set by the budget available to buy the machineand the
electricity bill for its use Lol.rer limits-now we 3r€ thinking of nilligams and
fractions of a millimeter-are set by the stiffnessof the machineand the material
itself.
One continuousshapingprocess'rolling, is able to producesectionsas thin
as 10 um-the thicknessof aluminum knchen foil. The foil onlv vields and
thins just as it entersand leavesthe roll bit+in between,the hugeaspectratio
and frictional constraintmeanthat the high pressureactuallyflaftensthe steel
rolls elastically.The processis helpedby'pack rolling'-feeding two sheets
through together,with lubricant in between so that they can be peeledapart as
they exit the rolls. This is why kitchen foil is shiny on one side(wherecontact
was with the roll) and matt on the other.
Supposeyou want to go still smaller'Flow \ton't work, and the sectionsare
so thin that they simply bend if you try to machine them Now you needchem-
istry. Conventional chemistry---+tching, chemical milling, electro discharge
milling allow featureson the samescaleas that of precision machining. To get
really small, we needthe screening,printing and etching techniquesusedto fab
ricateelectronicdevices. Theseareusedto makeMEMS (micro-elecfto'mechan
ical systems)- tiny sensors,actuato$' gearsand evenengines.At presentthe
rangeof materialsis lirnitedby this siliconbasedtechnolognbut somecommer-
cial devices,such as the ineniai triggers lor airbags, are made in this wav.
-re
dtF Shape
trt5- A key attribute of a processis the families o{ shapesit can make. It is also one
* of the most difficult to characterize.A classificationschemeis illustratedin
Figure 18.8, wi$ threegenericclassesoI shape,eachsub divided in two. The
merit o{ this approachis that processes map onto specifrcshapes.Figure18.9
nlk showsthe matrix oI viablecombinations.
ade The prismatic shapesshown on the left of Figure 18.8, made by rolling'
.de extrusionor drawing, have a specialfeature:they can be made in continuous
lengths. The other shapes cannot-they are discrete, and the processesthat
ldE
-€I makethem are calledbatchprocesses. The distinctionbetweencontinuousand
{de discrete(or batch)processes is a usefulone,bearingon the costofmanufaciure.
Fr4 Batch processesrequire repeatedcycles of setting-up,which can be time-
Er- consumingand costlp Onthe otherhand,they areoften net-shapeor nearlyso,
m€aning that little further machining is needed to finish the component.
lso Castingand molding,processes are nearnet-shape. Forging,on the otherhand'
hir is limited by the strains and shapechangesby solid-stateplasticitv,starting

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Iable 18.2 Typi.allevels andsuiiableprocesses

offinirhrequiredn diffefentapplication5,

RoughneeS('m)Typicalapp'ication

L
-l

E
;

Figure 18.10 Asectlonthrougha surface,showingits irregularsurface(anisti(allyexaggerat€d

in the vertiraldirection).Theirregularityis measuredby the RMSroughness,
R.

rclls produce sheets.Shapedrolls make more complex prodles-rail track is

one of these.Extrusion is a partrcularlyversatilecontinuousprocess,since
complex prismatic proliles that include internal channelsand longitudinal tea-
turessrch as ribs and stiffenerscan be manufacturedin one step.
Tolennce and ro4hnzss
we think of the precision and sur{ace6nish o{ a component as aspectsof its
qualitl. They are measlred by the tolerance, T, all'd the surfare roughness,R.
\0hen the dimensions of a component are specifed the surface quality is specr
f,ed aswell, though not necessarilyover the entire surface.Surfrce quality is crit-
ical in contacting surfacessuch as the faceso{ flangesthat must mate to form a
seal or sliders running in grooves. It is also important for resistanceto fatigue
crack initiation and for aestheticreasons.The tolerance T on a dimension v is
specifredas y: 1O0l0.1nrm, or as y = 501$$l1mm,indicatingthat there is
more {reedomto oversizethan to undersize.Sur{aceroughness,R, is speci6edas
an upper limit, e.g.R < 100pm. The typical su acefinish requiredin various
products is shown in Table 18.2. The table also indicates typical processesthat
can achievetheselevels of finish.
Surfaceroughnessis a measureof the iregularities of the surface(Figure18.10).
It is definedasthe root'mean-square(RMS) amplitude of dre surfacepro6le:
4!"s
,L
.';:- pz : 1 f u:1r16" (18.1)
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 l8 5 .loinrng andorigins
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Plocesses:

,-, -::rv
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Fible
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Figure 18.14 standardmodesof loading ioints
lE, but
requte ponable equrpment'
On-site joining operations conrlucted out of doors weldingof
rrils of *i r' p"it"ur" p"*"' *fpri'"' * '**pte iithr hot-plate ihdets
".""iiiri ne r;'pait* i'ortabilirv' means
on theotherhand'.effectivetv
ksa- iv"6lia
t dick- nolimitonthesizeofthe"""Jiv-S;ag"''l'ipOurLdbgandaircrahmakethis
sel{-evident.
fEans_ tequirement for econornicdis-
An inqeasingly imponant consideration is the fas'
lotoins p'od""tiu" to t""ilit't" ""v'ling andreuserhreaded
i dlck ^"";ild;;?t'i
t"."., ft" aisa"*tifed and adhesives can be loosenedwith solventsor heat'
tsI In "i"
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for exarnpre -oper-
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to the joint area to produce a bond in the
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 i 8 7 Estrr.;iinqcost{or shaprnoprocesses 427

hiE* surface treatments can p.ovide. Someprorect, some enhanceper{ormance, still

Lrd. others are primarily aesthetic.All surfacetreatmentsadd cost but the addedvalue
ks. can be large. Protecting a component sur{aceextendsproduct life and hcreases
FE-5 the interval betweenmaintenancerycles. Coatings on curing tools enablefaster
cutting speedsand greater produaivity. And surface hardening processesma]
tsFr.' €nablethe srbstate alloy to be replacedwith a cheapermaterial-for example,
bE. tsing a piain carbon steel with a hard carburized sudace or a coatins of hard
fqa- titaniumnitride (TiN), insteadof usinga moreexpensive alloy steel.
F-s Secondaryconqatibilities
5F Material comparibilir./and designfunctionarethe 6rst considerations in select
boen ing a finishingprocess.But thereafe othe$. Somesurfacetreatmentsleavethe
L r.-, dimensions,precisionand roughnessof the surfaceuchanged. Depositedcoatings
Hd-- obviouslychangethe dimensionsa linle, but may still leavea perlectlysmooth
li-u surface.Othersbuild up a relativelythick layerwith a rough surface,requiring
lryEi rennishing. Component geometry also inJluencesthe choice. 'Line-o{-sig}rC
fcae. depositionprocesses coat only the sur{aceat which they are directed,leaving
inaccessible areasuncoated;others,with what is calledthrowing power', coat
a flat, curvedand re-entrantsurfacesequallywell. Many surface-treatmentprocesses
a requireheat.Thesecan only be usedon materialsthat can toleratethe rise in
ft,: temperature.Somepaints are appliedcold, but many requirea bake at up ro
150'C. Heat treatrnentslike carburizingor nitriding to give a hard suriace
i layer require prolongedheating at temperaturesup to 800"C. This thermrl
exposure o{ the substratecan changethe underlying microstructure, not neces-
id',.c
sarily Ior the better.Thereare someinnovativedevelopmentsto matchthe thermal
treatmentsrequiredin both substrateand surface,achieving*vo treatmentsrn
I one go. An exampleis the paint-bakecyclefor heat-treatable aluninum alloy
automotivepanels,whichcuresand hardensthe paint while simultaneously ase
Fe oi hardeningthe sheetitself.
Physicdl hrnits to surface treatneflk
t For thermalprocesses, the surfaceheatingintensityand absorptivity,and the
thermalpropertiesof the substrate,dictatethe rise time in temperature.For .
stationaryheat sourceof given power density,the temperaturerises$ith the
square root of time Jt. This in turn determinesthe depth of surfacelayer thar
reachesthe temperatureat which the desiredmicrostructural changetakes place.
Sincediflusionof matter and heat{ollow the samemathematicalequations,the
depth of treatmentin diffusion processessuch as carburizinghas the same
dependence on time. For a spmy-coatingprocessdeliveringa givenvolumeftic
flow rate, the coating thickness incrases linearly with time.

co)t Iorshap;rgprocesses
| t'. / L5t,mating
Estimating process costs accurately-at the precision needed for competitive
contract bidding, for example-is a specializedjob. It is commonly based on

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 - 3 , Esi,iiatingcos1for shapng processes 429

into C.u,as we shatldo here.Finally,rheleis the cost of information,meaning

that o{ researchand development,royalty or license{ees;this, too' we view as
a costper unit time and lump it into the overhead
Considernow rhe rnanufaaureof a component(the 'unit of output') weigh'
ing fl kg, and madeof a materialcostingC- $/kg The tust contributionto the
unit cost is that of the material zrC-. Processesrarely use exactlv the right
amount of materialbut generatea scrap{raction/, which endsup in runners,
risers,machiningswarf and reiects.Someis recycled,but the materialcost per
unit needsto be magniied by the factor 1/(1 - /) to accountfor the iraction
that is lost. Hencethe materialcontributionper untt ls:
(_r8.2)
,
"1 (1 J )

The cost C. of a setof tooling-dies, molds,ixtures and jigs-is what is called

a dedicated cosr one that must be wholty assignedto the production run of this
single€omponent.It is written off againsithe numericalsizet of the produc-
- Ir r s
Rd de tion run. However,toolingwearsout at a ratewhich dependsonthe numberof
itemsprocessed. We definerhe tool li{e 4 as the numberof units that a set of
JneJ roolingcan male belorerr I'.r' ro be replr.ed We hr\e ro u.e one rooling'et
eveni{ the productionrun is only oneuait. But eachtirnethe toolingis replaced
thereis a stepup ir the totalcostto be spreadoverthe whole batch.To capture
this with a smooth function, we multiply the cost of a tooling set q bv
a& of (1 + z/2.). Thus, the tooling costper unit takesthe form:

rable c, :9[r*ll (18.3)

E.q
rxed
5:.'' The .apnal cost of equipment, Ce, by cor'.trast, is rarely dedicated. A given
E-IT pieceof equipment-a powderpress,for example---<an be usedto makemanv
ig by installing different die-sets or tooling. It is usual to
-ct different components
FFec convert the capital cost ot non'detlicated eqtipment and the cost of bolrowing
the capital itself into an overhead by dividing it by a caqital urite'off tine, t.,,'
(5 years,say)overwhich itis to be recovered. The quantity CJtwois then a cost
per hour-provided the equipmentis usedcontinuouslnThat is rarelythe case,
so the term is modified by diid\ryitby a load fa.tol, I-the ftaction of time
for which the equipment is productive. This gives an efI€ctive hourly cost of
the equipment, like a rcntal charge, even though it is your own pieceof kit. The
capitalcontribution to the cost per unit is then this hourly cost dividedby the
production ratdhour ti at which units are produced:

(18.4)
'=;l#l
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hbot 104
ts.
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i.c.. ,:
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0 .f.i
Numberol componenG
F8-6
processes
bv th reecompeting
component
a smallalumlnum
Figure 18.16 Thecostofcasting

T s4d ms'ha I
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qil Fobron€ mordina
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--fcr rot ro+ rot
[
Economicbalchsrza(unrts)
. netat @ceartlc . patnet t camposite

colorcodedbv
processe!
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Fiqure 18.17 Thepfocels-economic
material.

islikelvto bethemostcompeli'n"tff"['Jr[n::*:;
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:li;::.:'j:?::*:,',',",'$:?
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;#"'J;;;,i"';J color coding as the earrier charts'
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cld* or mem-
orocess choi.ero rhoseablero handlea .h'*en mrterialfamil)'
F i.. ,i... ir,.,..tt,.*'r. ln the cenreri' J 'rmple querl inleriacetor reen-
q'
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,F ins on one or.or. pro..* adribure':the detireduPpef
.,re enteredand rhe 'earch ensineretecr' a{r proce+e'
:;il;:i;;;;";til;.:
F
! $irh arrriburevalues rhat do nor lie tithrn rhe limi'' On the nqhr r\ a Dar
I .[.i- bv rhe'okware.tor anl numericadriburelhere'e'onomrc
;:i;,;;;.-^,-*.a i;;..;;;;g., .erecrionbo:. i"upenmpo*d on.rhebar 'han
i' !ilue\ ol the rnrrDure'
riLh upoerand loweredge'rharlie iL rhecon'lt'ined
I wirh rharpenerraLe rhe bo:" retecrine tho*
ir.l' t,...G "aluet
'iii"-,i.
outsideit.
"'ir.'" lie
that A
the batch-processcost model describedin the text
l!
..i*r*"i.4'a*
pa'meter' L'
tsd_ d.i;;;;;,il";; ,'.r ro edirdeiaurrvarue'or rheu'er detued
l-- ;."."4:. .;:. i h;
'i. rhen rer.e'e' approximarevaruesror rhe economit
';;*,re ba'i whererherare'rored a' "anee'rt
Fsr J.1,.*-llirt,,i' i, c, t rromrhedara
u. in I nurnber of tal' tuoofwhichare'hotntn
G Iir.*',i.d,"
tieurerl8.lq and l8.20
'.
nro.essrhere.inie.rionmoldingr.
The
";.enred 6rsr i' a plot of co*t.agaLn+ b"(:I *'':i
i.tTql:
in rhemdnneror ffe errrrerrrgurerd ro r rrr
h*
F^
[.;;;fi";;;,;;;.,''
;{,h.;:;k. amrbure":
,re li'id on ir. r]e bandwidrhderive' rrom rhe range'
a 'rmple'hape'requrring onlv 'impledre('lie' neir
liet nerr rneupper
rheloweredeera more"omplu one.requinngmuli-Pafl dre<-'
r't;tgeor co*r rcr
feI*' edee.!rsure-|8.20 shou' an alrernrrirepre'enrationHerethe
a componenr bl a number or alrer-
F: #ii";'"*.;.;;*"h 'te rhere.r0ooiiror u'er-defled p:rarnerenare agatn
tq ot.".d a' I bar chan The
",i'"-'-..t*' rhj' one ral in,Iisure
FF3 i'.,.a. 6*.' ..r..,11,' 'rage' can be appliedin parrllellvirh
"
marenal.'hape'etc'cau'ing'omeol LneDafiro
Flhe l8.l8r appl)ingcon.urinrson
drop ori. Tie iffe.' i' rank the 'urvit ing processe'bv cosr'
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Fioure 18.19 Theoutput of the costmodelasimplementedin the CEssoftware'
F lo* , nit .ost .tt"nqet *ith batchsize The range the rangesin th€
15'9' 'eflects
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 18.9casestudies435

Figure 18.21 A sectionthrough a sparkplug.The insulatork cylindri.albut not prismatic,

makingil3-D hollowin the shapeclassification.

Table 18.5 Tranrlation a sparkpluginsulator

{orshaping andpotentialprocess'sensitive
defects

100000. Table 18.5 lists the constraints.The lower part of the table flagsup
key process-sensitiveoutcomes which cannot be checked by screening, but
should be investigated by a documentation search for the processesthat suc
cessfully passthe screeningsteps.
Part The constraints are plofted on the compatibllity matrices and bar charts of
dte Figures18.2-18.4, 18.11 and 18.12. The material compatibilitychan shows
only three processgroups for ceramics, and all three can handle the required
shape.A1l ttuee can cope with the massand the section thickness.All three can
also meet the quality constraints on roughnessand tolerance, althougl powder

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 189 casestudes 437

I
I Table 18.8 Shortl;stof processes
{or
a polymercD case
I shaping

I
II
2gxo.25

-w 410,25

a18.0+ 0-O2

rod.Theprecision
Figure 18.22 A steelconnecting requiredfor the boresandborefacingis
muchhigherthan{orthe restofthe bodv,requifingsubsequentmachining

Refer again to the compatibility matrices and bar charts. Screeningon the
materiallthermoplastic),shape,massand minimum sectionleadsto threepos-
FI€ sible processes: machining, injection molding and compression molding.
Compression molding is itlst beyondits normal massmnge.All threeProcesses
cof meet the targets for tolerance and roughness.The final bar chart shows that
lF- rnachining is not economic for tle given batch size, but the other two are
acceptable. Table18.8 summarizes the survivingprocesses.
{ltr. Good die design to include the protruding ridges and tabs on a CD case
hs requiresexpert input. Thesere-entrantfeaturesexcludecompressionmolding
using uniaxial loading and open dies. Following up the avoidance o{ defects,a
i documentation search is principally a matter of good die design with correct
location of the runners and risers.
l.r.i
iriog Shapi.ngd steel connzcting rod
F-- Figue 18.22 shows a schematic connecamgmd ('con-rod') to be made of a
E-€- medium carbon steel.The minimum sectionis around 8 mm, and an estimateo{
F Is the volume glvesa massaround 0.35kg. Dimensional precision is important to
ensureclearancesat both the tittle and the big end. The con-rod carries cvclic
l-. loadswith the consequentrisk of fatigue crack initiation, so a low suJ{acerough-
h'-"- nessoverall is necessary(the bores will be fnished by a subsequentmachidttg
I operation). A modest barch size of 10000 is required. Control of properties

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 es 439
189 CasestLrd

modelinputdsiai.' :'..e shapins

Table18.1'l Processcost con-rod
makethe
methodsto
D i e casti ng

I
lo0
5
0.5
17500
50 000
50
* Costsnormali2edto mC,,/(1 f).

E 103 . Die
\.zcasling ' Powder

E ro,

810

E -
;;;;";
l] = 10000
102 103 104
$le 18.9 Numberoi @mponenis

Figure1B-23 Thecostmodel{orthree possibleoro.essesto manufaciLrre

the steelcon-rod
(onstantvaluesfor the modelparan]eters.
usingrepfesentative Forthe targ€t
batchsizeoJ 10000,the (heap€st
option indi(ai€di5{orging.
tu€rhods

machining is not difficult for carbon steel.The final choic€will be deternined by

'fnishing detailed cost considerations and achieving the requir€d fatigue strengd. The
tci6€d- properties wiI be sensitive to the composition of the steel and its heat treat
hcB sur ment-something illustrated further in the next chapter.
li€ and Cost is consideredturther by applying the model of Section18.7 Table
lfng are 18.11 lists valuesfor the parametersin the cost model {or threeprocesses: die
casting, forging and powder methods. Assuming the same amount of material
is used in each process,the costs are all normalized to the material cost Figure
18.23showsthe computedrclativecostpet part againstbatchsizefor the three
&ing b"

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 18 9 Casestld es 441

{orjoin ng a steelradlatorandoutcome(potential
Table 18.12 Translation process
sensitive
defectsand properties
. Domesticradiator

d closely

Fr pari

€en forg- Table18.13 Shortlistof processes

forjoining a steelradiator

rry only
6lon and

tctiq at

diEicult.
changethe shortJist furthel The processespassingthe screeningstag€are listed
tthis can in Table18.13.
[slation. Quality and economic cdteria are difficult to apply as screening steps in
'It stores selectingjoining processes.At this point we seek documentation{or the
processes. This revealsthat explosiveweldingrequiresspecialfacilitiesand per-
mits (hardly a surprise).Electron beam and laserwelding require expensive
equipment, so use of a shared facility would be necessaryto make them eco
b lisr to nomic. Resistancespot welding is screenedout becauseit failed the require
rating- ment to be watertight. This is ody n€cessaryfor the edge seams,so internal
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 ' :i j ! 5!ir r;r,,/anci.crr.lusron5443

for turfaceha
Table'18.14 Translaticn !!ar ng ra.eandpotentlalpro.est
sensrtive
ciefect5

Function . Ball'bearingrac€
Objective
Constraints . Material:alloysteel
. Functiono{ treatmentihardening
for {atigueand wear resistance
. Curv€dsurfacecov€rage:good Technicalconstraints
. Pr€cision and surfacefinishnol

. Choiceofsurfacetreatmentprocess
and proc€ss
op€ratingconditions

Defects . Cracks Influencingsurface

failed, so . Residualstress toughnessand {atigue
t Could a

of pro(esses
Table'18.15 sho!-1-llrt for hardenng
discussed an alloysteelbalira(e
. Both are Carburizingand carbonitriding
gn, tncur Nitriding
Inductionandflamehardening
Lasersurfacehardeningand melting
vapor metallizing
d tatigue

i.14 sum-

es.Many 18"'!05 r m m a ray n dco n clu slo fs

to erght. Selecting a processfollowsa strategymuchlike that lor materials:*ansktion oI
requirements,soeeningof the options, /drAi"g o{ the processes that survive
r.r-list of screening,ending with a seatchol documentation for the most promisnrg ca[di
dates.For processes, translationis straightforward the requirements convert
direcrlyinto the attributesofthe processto be usedin the screeningstep.Process
attributescapnre their technicalcapabilitiesand aspectsofproduct quality.All
processfamiliesrequirescreeningfor compatibilitywith materialto which they
are to be applied,but a{terthis the attdbrtes and constraintsare specificto the
family.For shaping,componentgeometry,precisionandfinisharemost discrim-
inating.For joininstoit is joint shapeand modeofloading. For surfacetreatments
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