Documentos de Académico
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Documentos de Cultura
o 1. Electric Current
Example: Problem 1
o 2. The resistivity of materials
Example: Problem 2
Example: Problem 3
o 3. Resistance in combination
Example: Problem 4
Example: Problem 5
1. Electric Current
All electrons within a distance dx from the point P will therefore pass this point during the time
interval dt. Suppose the density of electrons in the conductor is n electrons/m3. The number of
electrons dN that will pass P during the time interval dt is then equal to
dN = n A vd dt ….. ….. ….. (5)
Since each electron carries a charge e, the total charge dQ that will pass point P in a time interval
dt is equal to
dq = e dN = e n A vd dt …. ….. (6)
dq
I= = e n A vd ……. ……. ……. (7)
dt
Equation (7) shows that the current in the conductor is proportional to the cross-sectional area of
the conductor and proportional to the drift velocity. The above equation can be re-written as
I
= n e vd
A
or, Current density j = n e v d …… ……. …… (8)
Since the drift velocity is proportional to the electric field E the following relation holds for the
current in the conductor:
2 Ohm's Law
“The current through a conductor at a constant temperature is proportional to the voltage applied
across its terminal”
I ∝ ∆V
∆V
Or, I= …….. ……… ……..
R
Here R is the resistance of the conductor.
the constant ρ is property of the material of the conductor and called its specific resistance or
resistivity.
The resistivity ρ has as units ohm-meter (Ω . m). The resistivity of most conductors is between
10-8 Ω . m and 10-7 Ω . m. The resistivity of a conductor depends not only on the type of the
material but also on its temperature. The resistivity of an insulator varies between 1011 Ω . m and
1017 Ω . m. whereas the semiconductor has resistivity 10-4 to 103 Ω . m In conductors the resistivity
decreases with decreasing temperature. In some materials, such as lead, zinc, tin and niobium,
the resistivity vanishes as the temperature approaches absolute zero. At these low temperatures,
these materials exhibit superconductivity.
Example: Problem 1
An aluminum wire has a resistance of 0.10 Ω. If you draw this wire through a die, making it
thinner and twice as long, what will be its new resistance ?
The initial resistance Ri of the aluminum wire with length L and cross-sectional area A is equal to
L
Ri = ρ ……. ….. …. (13)
A
The initial volume of the wire is L . A. After passing the wire through the die, it s length has
changed to L' and its cross-sectional area is equal A'. Its final volume is therefore equal to L' A'.
Since the density of the aluminum does not change, the volume of the wire does not change, and
therefore the initial and final dimensions of the wire are related:
L` A` = L A …… …… …… (14)
LA
or A′ = ….. ….. ….. (15)
L′
The problem states that the length of the wire is doubled (L' = 2 L). The final cross-sectional area
A' is therefore related to the initial cross-sectional area A in the following manner:
A
A′ = ….. ….. ….. (16)
2
L′ 2L L
Rf = ρ = ρ = 4 ρ = 4 Ri
A′ A A ….. ….. ….. (17)
2
The resistance of the wire has increased by a factor of four and is now 0.40 Ω.
Example: Problem 2
The air conditioner in a home draws a current of 12 A. Suppose that the pair of wires connecting
the air conditioner to the fuse box are No. 10 copper wires with a diameter of 0.259 cm and a
length of 25 m each.
a) What is the potential drop along each wire ? Suppose that the voltage delivered to the home is
exactly 110 V at the fuse box. What is the voltage delivered to the air conditioner ?
b) Some older homes are wired with No. 12 copper wire with a diameter of 0.205 cm. Repeat the
calculation of part (a) for this wire.
L L
ρ Cu = ρ Cu
RCu = A π 2 ….. ….. ….. (18)
d
4
where L is the length of the wire and d is its diameter. A current I is flowing through the wires and I
= 12 A. The voltage drop [Delta]V across each wire is equal to
L
∆V = I RCu = 4 I ρCu …. …. ….. (19)
π d2
Figure 3 shows schematically a wiring diagram of the air conditioner circuit. The voltage across
the air-conditioner unit is equal to 110 - 2 . [Delta]V, where [Delta]V is given by eq.(19). The length
of each copper cable is 25 m, and its diameter is equal to 0.259 cm. The voltage drop across
each wire is thus equal to
25
∆V = 4 x 12 x 1.7 x 10-8 x = 0.95 V ….. ….. (20)
π ( 0.00259 )
2
The voltage across the AC unit is therefore equal to 108.1 V.
b) A No. 12 wire has a diameter equal to 0.205 cm. The voltage drop across this wire is equal to
25
∆V = 4 x 12 x 1.7 x 10-8 x = 1.55 V ….. ….. (21)
π ( 0.00205)
2
Example: Problem 3
A high voltage transmission line has an aluminum cable of diameter 3.0 cm, 200 km long. What is
the resistance of this cable ?
The resistivity of aluminum is 2.8 x 10-8 m. the length of the cable is 200 km or 2 x 105 m. The
diameter of the cable is 3 cm and its cross-sectional area is equal to [pi] (d/2) 2 or 7.1 x 10-4 m2.
Substituting these values into eq.(11) the resistance of the cable can be determined
2 ×10 5
−8
R = 2.8 × 10 × = 7.9 Ω ….. ….. ….. (22)
7.1×10 −4
4. Resistance in combination
A device that is specifically designed to have a high resistance is called a resistor. The symbol of
a resistor in a circuit diagram is a zigzag line (see Figure 4).
Equation (25) shows that two resistors connected in series act like one resistor with a resistance
equal to the sum of the resistance of resistor 1 and the resistance of resistor 2
∆V
I2 = …. …. …. (28)
R2
The total current flowing through the circuit is equal to the sum of the currents through each
resistor
∆V ∆V 1 1
I = I1 + I 2 = + = + ∆V
R1 R2 R
1 R 2
….. ….. (29)
The resistor network shown in Figure 6 is therefore equivalent to a single resistor R where R can
be obtained from the following relation
1 1 1
= + ….. …. ….. (30)
R R1 R2
Equation (30) shows that the resistance of a parallel combination of resistors is always less than
the resistance of each of the individual resistors.
Example: Problem 5
What is the resistance of the combination of four resistors shown in Figure 7. Each of the
resistors has a value of R.
Figure 7. Problem 5.
To find the net resistance of the circuit shown in Figure 7, we start calculating the net resistance
R34 of the parallel circuit of resistors R3 and R4:
1 1 1
= + ……. …….. ……. (37)
R34 R3 R4
R3 R4
or R34 = …….. ……… ……. (38)
R3 + R4
The circuit shown in Figure 7 is therefore equivalent with the circuit shown in Figure 8. Resistors
R2 and R34 form a series network and can be replaced by a single resistor with a resistance R234
where
The circuit shown in Figure 28.8 can now be replaced by an equivalent circuit shown in Figure
28.9. The resistance Rtot of this circuit can be obtained from the following relation
1 1 1
= + ……. …….. ……. (40)
Rtot R R234
R R234
or Rtot = ……. …….. ……..(41)
R + R234
DC CIRCUITS
1. Electromotive Force
4. Energy in circuits
To keep a current flowing in a circuit, work must be done on the circulating charges. If a
charge dq passes through a battery with emf [E], the work done dW will be equal to
dW = E dq
dW dq
=E = Ei
dt dt
The rate of work is called the power P, and the unit of power is the Watt (W, 1 W = 1 VA).
The moving charges dissipate some of their energy when passing through resistors.
Suppose the potential drop across a resistor is ∆V. For an electron moving through the
resistor the loss of potential energy is equal to e . ∆V. The energy lost is converted into
heat, and the rate at which energy is dissipated is equal to
or,
the conversion of electric energy into thermal energy is called Joule heating.
Problem
1 The current density in a cylindrical wire of radius R = 2.0mm is uniform across a
cross section of the wire and is given by J = 2.0 × 10 5 A/m2. What is the current through
the outer portion of the wire between radial distances R/2 and R?
R
R/2
2. For the above figure, suppose that the current density through a cross section
varies with radial distance r as J = ar2 , in which a = 3.0 × 1011 A / m 4 and r is in
meters. What now is the current through the outer portion of the wire between
radial distances R/2 and R?
3. One end of an aluminum wire whose diameter is 2.5 mm is welded to one
end of a cooper wire whose diameter is 1.8 mm. the composite wire carries a
steady current I of 17 mA. (a) What is the current density in each wire? (b)
What is the drift speed of the conduction electrons in the copper wire?
[ given that n = 8.47 × 10 28 electrons / m 3 ].
4. A strip of silicon has a rectangular cross section with width w = 3.2 mm and
height h = 250 µm , and through which there is a uniform current I of 5.2 mA.
[Consider n = 1.5 × 10 23 m −3 . (a) What is the current density in the strip? (b)
What is the drift speed?
5. A wire of length L = 2.35 m and diameter d = 1.63 mm carries a current I of
1.24 A. The wire dissipates electrical energy at the rate P of 48.5 mW. Of
what is the wire made?