SOLID STATE 1000 CHANNEL SKHz STEP DIGITAL PHASE LOCKED SYNTHESIZER 2m FM TRANSCEIVER MODEL:FM-2016A/E OPERATOR’S INSTRUCTIONS KDK KYOKUTO DENSHI CO.,LTD. 2-25, 6-CHOME, HONCHO, NAKANO-KU, TOKYO PHONE: TOKYO (38212881CAUTION -- MEMORY BACK UP BATTERY The memory back up battery has been installed at the factory. If the transceiver is to be stored without use for an extended peri- od, remove the battery and store in a cool location to prevent possible damage to the transceiver by corrosion.TABLE OF CONTENTS GENERAL FEATURES .. -a OPERATING CONTROLS AND FUNCTIONS a INSTALLATION AND OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS 20 ADJUSTWENTS ose. eeee “7 INTERNAL VIEWS 0) BLOCK DIAGRAM .. “oo CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION . +20) SPECIFICATIONS . a5)1, GENERAL FEATURES YOUR KDK FM-2016A, (OR £), IS A TWO METER FM TRANSCEIVER USING THE MOST UP TO DATE CMOS IC DIGTTAL PLL CIRCUITRY FOR MOBILE AND BASE STATION USE. IT HAS BEEN COMPACTLY DESTGNED WITH EMPHASIS ON MAINTENANCE OF HIGH QUALITY AND YET BEING EASY TO USE AND INCLUDES THE MANY FEATURES DESCRIBED IN THE FOLLOWING. (A) FREQUENCY COVERAGE AND CHANNELS 144,000 - 148.995Mi12, transmit and receive (PM-2016A) 144.000 - 149.995mH2, receive, 144.000 - 145.995MHz transmit (FH-20165) Above in 10Kiz steps plus 5kil2 up capability for a total of 1,000 channels. (N-20162 ~ 400 channels, transmit) (8) DIGrIAL FREQUENCY DISPLAY Direct readout of operating frequencies using large size LED displays. Full solid state. (c) AIRPLANE TYPE CO-ANIAL FREQUENCY CONTROLS, operating frequencies selected by 10KHz, 100KHz, IMiz and SUP switches. Most frequently used 100Kiz.and 10Klz switches mounted coaxially on one shaft. These guitches will not go below 0 or above 9 positions to facilitate frequency chang- ing by feel only. Permits "eyes-on-the-road” at all times for mobile operation safety and is also useful for hams with impaired sight. (2) BLECTRONTC MEMORY An electronic menory using CMOS RAMS (Random access memory ICs) is provided any 4 out of the 1,000 channel capacity may be written in (stored) the memory at any time. A back up NICAD batcery provided to retain memory contents while trans= ceiver disconnected from any power source. Current drain only 25ni and inter- nal autonatic charging circuit keeps battery fully charged at all times. (5) TRANSMITTER OFFSET FOR REPEATOR USE +.6 and ~.6Milz positions of the mode switch provide the normal + and ~ 600KiIz shift in the transmitter frequency. Positions 17-2R and 314k are provided for utilizing the 4 channels of electronic memory to provide 2 pairs of non-standard shifts. In these positions the operating frequency is switched between monory chanel# 1-2 and 3-4 autonatically s0 that in position 17-28 the set transmits on the frequency set up in memory channel 1 and receives on the frequency set up in memory channel 2 and Likewise in the 3-4R position. This feature provides for operating on non-standard shifts, and is also convenient when using the £-2016 4n conjunction with an up-converter, etc., for operation on 430Miz and other bands. () scanrve A scanning system has been included to increase the utility of the transceiver. The four menory channels are scanned in one of two possible modes as selected by the SCAN switch. In scanning for a closed channel, the scanner will stop at the first channel in use encountered, and in the open scanning mode, it will stop at the first channel encountered which is not in use. A scan-hold feature is Provided to permit immediate transmission after locating a channel by scanning.(6) RECEIVER secoton Dual-gate MOS-FETS are used for the RF amplifier and first mixer and provides a superior inter- and cross-nodulation characteristic as well as sensitivity. These characteristics are maintained constant across the wide frequency range covered by the use of an all electronic automatic tuning circuit using varicap Giodes in the RP section. The combination of a monolithic crystal in the first IF and a commerical quality 15 pole ceramic filter in the 2nd IF results in ex- tremely sharp selectivity. The 2nd IF amplifier is built up with discrete com ponents rather than using an IC to keep input-output coupling to a minimum. & ceramic discriminator has been adopted for improved temperature stability as well as holding alignment over a long life period. An RIP (receiver increnen= tal tuning control) and discriminator meter is useful when contacting off-fre- quency stations and an RF attenuator provides approximately 10d of attenuation when using the transceiver under extreme inter- and cross-modulation situations. (8) TRansurrrer secrron Single conversion type using a balancedmixer. 5 stages of electronic tuning si- nilar to that of the receiver together with a 4 stage low pass filter in the transmitter output results ina clean, spur-free signal. A latest typo silicon transistor is used as the final amplifier and will hold up even under the ex- treme conditions of an infinite VSWR load. HIGH (15 wates) and LOW (Ivatt) is available with the front panel power switch, and is useful for reducing power for use in conjunction with 2 linear, True direct frequency modulation of the vco results in a very distortion free modulation characteristic. (2) uum An internal tone generator system has boen provided for accessing repeators. two modes are selected by an internal switch (burst or continuous) and sub-audi- ble or tone burst froquencies can be generated by changing capacitors. (FM-2016A precset at factory to 100H2 and FM-20168 pre-set to 1,750H2.) -URPOSE TONE OSCILLATOR (a) accessory conuscToR 4 5 pin "DIN" eype connector is provided on the rear panel for connection of a KOK SC-12A SEL-CALL (tone encoder/decoder) unit. Also useful for connection of phone-patch, touch-tone, remote headset-microphone combinations and similar type -(2)-«) Dual-gate MOS-FETS are used for the RF amplifier and first mixer and provides a superior inter- and cross-nodulation characteristic as well as sensitivity. ‘These characteristics are maintained constant across the wide frequency range covered by the use of an all electronic automatic tuning circuit using varicap Giodes in the RF section. The combination of a monolithic crystal in the first IF and a commerical quality 15 pole ceramic filter in the 2nd IF results in ex- tremely sharp selectivity. The 2nd IF amplifier is built up with discrete com ponents rather than using an IC to keep input-output coupling to a minimum. & ceramic discriminator has been adopted for improved temperature stability as well as holding alignment over a long life period. An RIT (receiver increnen= tal tuning control) and discriminator meter is useful when contacting off-fre- quency stations and an RF attenuator provides approximately 10d of attenuation when using the transceiver under extreme inter- and cross-modulation situations. RECEIVER SECTION (#) TRansurrrer secrron Single conversion type using a balancedmixor. 5 stages of electronic tuning si- nilar to that of the receiver together with a 4 stage low pass filter in the transmitter output results ina clean, spur-free signal. A latest typo silicon transistor is used as the final amplifier and will hold up even under the ex- treme conditions of an infinite VSWR load. HIGH (15 wates) and LOW (Iwatt) is available with the front panel power switch, and is useful for reducing power for use in conjunction with 2 linear, rue direct frequency modulation of the vco results in a very distortion free modulation characteristic. (z) uum An internal tone generator system has boen provided for accessing repeators. wo modes are selected by an internal switch (burst or continuous) and sub-audi- ble or tone burst froquencies can be generated by changing capacitors. (FM-2016A precset at factory to 100H2 and FM-20168 pre-set to 1,750H2.) -URPOSE TONE OSCILLATOR (a) Accessory conuscToR A 5 pin "DIN" eype connector is provided on the rear panel for connection of 2 DK SC-12A SEL-CALL (tone encoder/decoder) unit. Also useful for connection of ‘phone-patch, touch-tone, remote headset-microphone combinations and similar type -(2)-3. INSTALLATION AND OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS (a) Noatns rnspaLsanron 1. Install mobile mounting bracket furnished with transceiver to any convenient lunder-dash or other Iocation using self-tapping sheet metal screws (4 x 12nm) and washers provided. nm holes shouldbe prevdrilied for tho dem self tapping screws. 2. The transceiver should be secured to the bracket using the 2 wingod screws provided. The bracket is designed 20 the transceiver can be slid forward or back- tarde in the grooves as well as varying the angle. 3. Connect antenna coax to the connector on the rear panel. 4. Connect power cable to power source. Red tead (+) and black lead (-). The cable should be connected to power at a low inpedance point, preferably dizectly fm the battery terminals or the main fuse block, otherwise extraneous noises may be induced during transmission at high power. 5. Connect microphone to receptacle on lower right corner of front panel. (0) Howe seasrow use 1, Shall rubber Foot have boon provides on the transceiver to Lift ite bottom oft the surface Delowand perait audio from the speaker to De heard. However, for easier accoss to the controls it is froquently helpful to tilt tho control panel facing slightly upwards. A mobile mounting bracket used underneath the Crans~ ceiver is useful for this and brackets are available optionally from your KOK deal~ 2. Connect antenna coax to the connector on the rear panel. 3. Connect power cable to a suitable supply such as a regulated power supply or battery. A good solid supply OF 5k oF moze capacity is recommended. 4, connect microphone to receptacle on lower right corner of front panel. (C) opeRArING rsmeucrroNs 1, ERBPARADTON: ~~ Set switches and controls as follows: 2) POWER swzncH Low of HIGH a2 destzed >) RE arr switch ove 2) ScaW mode switch ore 4) Vowuno control Approximate conter position @)SQueleh control Complete counter-clockwise position 5) NODE swstoh ‘SINP 9) MEWORY switch ore By tts awieon Desired frequency 4) 100KHe switch 5) 0Kiiz switch By Sup switch . . 1) WRINE switch ore mn oRIT Center, click-stopped position 1) S.PWR/DISC awiten ‘S.P4R position (pushed in} 2. RECEIVING: ~- During the above preparation the meter lamp WiII Light up, the Froguoney display LED! and the RCV LED will be 1it up and either random receiver noises or an inconing signal will be heard from the loudspeaker. a) If no incoming signal 1s heard, vary the frequency using the front panel con trols and locate an incoming signal. As soon as the signal 15 recelved, the motor will deflect upwards and indicate the relative strength of the signal~ 2) Squoich+ =~ During novsignal conditions, the randon noisos hoard from the speaker can be annoying. Turn the SQuolch control in a clockwise direction until these noises are just axtinguished. This sets the squelch threshold and only in~ coning signais wilt now be heard from the speaker. Turning the control up farther zmay result in loosing Weak signals and intermittent reception of intermediate sig~ -05)-nals. Hoavy squoich can be used to advantage in crowded city locations to squelch out’ weak inteferring signals. ©) RID and prscriminator Noter: ~- Reception nay be Impaired if the incoming sig~ bal is off frequency, partiovlarly with weak signals. In such instances pull out the RIT knob to switch the moter to the DISC position and adjust RET knob to center the neodl: 4) Monory BRINE Procedure: -~ This transceiver has 1,000 channels, and any 4 may be written in to the monory, such az froquently used frequencies. for example, if de Is dosired to store the frequency of 146.520Mi2 in memory channel 1 1. Use Frequency controls and set up 146.520Miz as road out on the DISPLAY. 21 Set wewoRY switch to 1. (Lf nothing had boon stored in this channel pre~ viously, LSD disptay will go black at this point.) 3. Switch Wurre Seitch to WRITE position and then return to OFF. As soon as Switch is set to WRITE position, the LED display will show 146.520Mi2 Sn dicating that the Frequency has’ been weiteen in to tho memory channel. 4, Other Sequences of writing in frequencies are oqually satiefactory and wil not damage the transceiver. 5. Mone: Inadvertent operation of WRITE switch even with MEMORY switch dn OFF position will result in selected frequency being written in to momcry Channel No. 4. This feature can bo used to advantage for temporary stor lage of frequencies, retaining the other chansels for storage? repeatedly used frequencies. fe) Seanning: 1, Sot MENORY switch to SCH position next to memory channel 4. 21 Operate ScaN switch to CLOSE or OPEN as desired. ‘The receiver wil] imme- @iacely stare scanning each memory channel consecutively and the DISPLAY IDs will show the frequencies in each of the monory channels as they are Scanned. If the CLOS# mode was selected, scanning will coase at the first channel found with an incoming signal. As soon as this signal dis~ appears, scanning Will resume until another signal i received. In the ‘OPEN mode scanning will cease at the firse vacant channel encountered. Use cose mode for continuous monitoring of up to 4 channels, and the OPEN mode for quickly locating a vacant channel - 3. TE 16 1s desired co transmit using a channel located by scanning, return ‘the Scam switch to the center OFF position. Transceiver will stay on the Frequency (monory channel) located by scanning until MEMORY switch Se mov ‘ed off the SCN position. 1) RF ArTemator sviteh: — switching to the RF ATT position reduces sensitivity Of the Fecalver by approximately 1048's. This is vsofel when encountering inter~ oF cross modulation problems due to an extremely strong zignal. This is also useful for squelching out weak interfering signals aswellas in plotting a radiation pat~ tern of @ directional beam antenna. meansurraznc a) Select MIGH power (15 watts) or LOW power (1 watt) 22 desired. 2) Dopress the prass-to-talk (P/7) switen on the micropione and talk into the mi- erophone in a normal voice. Recommend that the mike be held approximately 2inchos (5 on) fron the mouth. A meter reading of approximately @ indicates 15 watts, po Wer into # 50 ohm load. The ANP LED will Light up as soon as the F/T switch is do pressed indicating the transceiver is on transmit sede and will go cut as soon as the switch is roloased indicating the transceiver haz returned t9 the receive mode. ©) Mobs suitch: -- simplex operations are conducted with the MODE siitch in the ‘Stwwlex position (Transmit and receive on sano frequency). Select 1.6 of 6 as appropriate for working repeators with standard 600Kii2 offsots. Tf a non-standard Tepeator split is requirod, store the correct transmit and receive frequencies in ‘the appropriate memory channels in accordance with the stepe outlined in d) above and then switch the MODE seitch to positions 17-28 or #4R as desired. -(6)-4. ADJUSTMENTS ALL KOK TRANSCEIVERS WAVE BEEN CAREFULLY ALIGNED AND INSPECTED PRIOR TO SuIPHENT [AND WE. DO NOT RECOMMEND ATTEMPTING FURTHER ADJUSTMENT WITHOUT THE PROPER TOOLS AND ‘TEST EQUIPMENT. HOWEVER, AGING OF PARTS MAY RESULT IN DRLFTING OF SOME CONTROLS PERIOD OF USE ‘AND THE FOLLOWING DESCRIBED ADJUSTMENTS MAY BE MADE IN THE FIELD. ANY OTMER ALIGNMENT OR TUNE-UP SHOULD NOT BE ATTEXPTED WITHOUT THE PROPER TESTING DPQUIPMENT AND WE RECOSOEND RETURN TO THE AUTHORIZED DEALOR OR NATIONAL DISTRIBUTOR. a) RECEIVE “s" NeTER SENSITIVITY conmmOL, Adjusted to road full scale with a 20d5m input. Adjust control VRI of Main unit in clock-wise direction to increase sensitivity. >) DISC. METER zeR0 mALANCE ADJUSTMENT Adjust by varying control VRS of Main Unie. Short gate torninal of Q12 to ground. o) RIM ALTGunewn set control to conter click-stop position, pull out on krob and switch meter to DISC position. Apply correct frequency input to antenna receptacle and adjust 19 Of Main Unit to center needle on zero. (Apply hot soldering iron tip to proximity OF tuning slug of this coll to mele sealing wax on slug. CAUTION: Overheating may damage coil.) 4) MICROPHONE aNPLTPrER cat Aajuse using control YRT of Nain Unit. Turning in clock-wiso direction incroases Gain. this control is best left untouched unless @ severe change of gain 1s noted a2 for instance when changing to a different type microphone. Over incrossingwill Fesult in constant clipping and distortion of transmitted eignal 2) TRANsMrTnsR DEVIATION cowrROL Adjusted for sSiz at factory. Turning control YR# of main unit in a clockwise Gizection will increase deviation. £) TRANSMITTER LOW POWER Continuously adjustable Detween 1 watt and maximum power using contro! VAY of ain Unit. (Bo not set below 1 watt). Clock-wise rotation increases power output. 9) TRANSHZDRER WG POWER Continuously aajustable between 1 watt and maximum power using control Ved of Nain Unit. Burning in clock-wise direction increases power. (Do not sot below 1 watt.) nh) SRANSMIOTER POWER METER Adjusted at factory to give reading of 8 for a power output of 15 watts into Sohn @unay oad. Setting can be changed by varying control VR2 of sain Unit. 4) Muver—puRPOse TONE oscrusamoR ‘The tone oscillator is 10-4 located on the min unit. It le designed to provide ai~ thor a burst or continuous tone as selected by the internal switch. Its froquency can be set by changing capacitors and adjusting the trin-pot according t0 the fol ‘lowing table: 124 Proguency Range Romarks -osanca | .03snca | appr. 60 - 13012 FN-20168 set at 100H2 wose* | nit "90 ~ 2102 . wooa7* | nit "1300 = 29002 FN-2016E set at 175082 “)-5. INTERNAL VIEWS ofan ae6. BLOCK DIAGRAM (Zz -0)-7. CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION PLEASE REFER TO BLOCK DIAGRAM OW PAGE 12 AND THE SCHEMATIC Wtsw READING THIS SECTION. (a) Generar The receiver first local oscillator is the VCO controlled by the PLL to provide the correct injection frequency to the mixer. the receiver is of the double con= version superheterodyne type witha Ist IF of 16.9Milz and a 2nd IF of d5sKi2. The transmitter is a single conversion type mixing the output from a 16.9Kil2 osci- ator with the output from the VCO, with modulation being applied directly to the VCO. (3) wary unre This printed circuit hoard contains the receiver circuits, the transnitter exciter stages, the tone oscillator, the powor supply circuits and the APC circuits. 1) Receiver Circuitry: -~ Input from the coax receptacle on the rear panel is fed 0 the input terminal of the receiver through the low pass filter and diode switching clrcuits on the SW FCB. This signal is amplified by 01, a dual-gate NOS- FET. The local oscillator signal, (127.1 ~ 132.095biz) ia applied to gate 2 of 02) the First mixor, with the output fromthe RF amplifier being applied to gate 1. The Signals are mixodand results ina 16.9Milz Ist IP Signal. This signal passes through the monolithic crystal filter AF with a bandwidth of #10Ki2/34B, is amplified by a EET, 93, and is applied to the base of the 2nd mixer, 05. The base of Q5 13 also fed the 2nd local oscillator signal of 17.955Miz which 42 generated by Q4. 05 con verts the 1st IF to the second IF of 455kiiz. Varicap D4 ia in the osesilator eit cuit of O¢ and a voltage controlled by the RIT control VR is applied to Df via pin 12. The RIP control varies the oscillator frequency by approximately *5KH2. The output of mixer 05 is passed through the 15 pole ceramic filter CF which has a band= width of +8KH2/6aB. 06, 7, 8, 9 & 10 are the 2nd IF amplifier and limiter stages from which the signal is fed to the ceramic discriminator CD and diodes B10 and 1 Output from the discriminator passes through the de-onphasis circuit R43 and C50, the audio amplifier 911, and {s fed to the volume control via pin 19. The audio ré- turns from the volume control via pin 25 and is then amplified by Tc-1, the power amplifier. rt is then outputed to the speaker via pin 16. 2) _ Rf Attenuator: -- This circuit functions by lowering the bias voltage on gate 2 of the RF anplifier by operation of the sweich via pin 5 and results in again re= Guction of approximately 10d8's. It is effective in minimizing the effects ot inter ference from strong local signals as well a5 squelching out weak interference, ste. 3) "8" Meter Circuit: ~~ the IF signal is picked off the collector of Q?, the 2nd IP anplifier and is rectified ina voltage doubling circuit DS and D6 and then applied to the mater t0 give indications of relative signal strength. VRI adjusts meter sensitivity and normally ie set for a 20dim signal input togive @ full seale read= ing. (Note that neter sensitivity is not Linear.) 4) Squetch Circuit: ~~ Noise present at the discriminator is picked up through the series and parallel tuned circuits C48-L13 and C49-L14 and is then sent to the front panel squoich control through VRS and pin 17. The signal ig returned to the receiver via pin 23 and is then fed to 10-2 for noise amplification. Tho amplified signal is rectified in a voltage doubler circuit D12 and 013 and is then fed to the base of the squelch switching transistor Ql4, During no input conditions to the receiver, receiver noises are rectified, which results in increasing the potential of 014, ‘connecting the enitter through to the collector. This results in shorting out the base of O11 and thus grounding both the bine and the signal at this tren sistor which ceases to amplify and effectively cute out the receiver noises from Being passed to the final amplifier. as soon as an inconing signal i received and the receiver is quieted, the voltage on the hase of Qld drops, the connection between its emitter and collector is broken, normal bias i applied to the base of Ql1 and =(20)-audio output fron the discriminator is amplified and normal reception through the ‘speaker takes place. 5) RCV LBD Cireuits ~~ the base voltage of audio amplifier 14 is amplified by ‘bro stagos of direct coupled transistors, 013 and 912, and drives the RCV LED via pin 24, This LED provides an indication when an incoming signal is being received ‘even if the volune control is turned completely off, or when using the transceiver ‘in conjunction with a KDK SC-12A or SC=10 SEL-CALL init. 6) Discriminator Neter Circuit: ~~ DC output from the discriminator 18 amplified dy the differential d-c amplifier 015 and Q16 and is applied to the RIT VR through pins 21 and 22, Tt then drives the discrininator meter to providean indication of the incoming signal's Frequency. VR6 is the "zero balancer” for the differential amplifier and should be adjusted so that the meter reads zero after first ground= ‘ing the gate of Fst, 15. 7) Bransnitter Circuitry: —- the transmitter is a single conversion, narrow band FM transmitter using direct modulation of theVCO (127.1 ~ 132.095Miiz) which in turn is controlled by the Phi. 3) Wicrophone amplifier: —- Audio from the microphone enters the transmitter through pins 8and 9 and Is thon fed to tho amplifier, IC~3 through the gain control a7. C213 and the input impodance of IC-3 combine to provide pre-emphasis. Output from the anplifier/liniter is passed through a 3titz low pass filter, C120, 127 and C121 t0 remove harmonics created by clipping and is then fed to the modulator vari~ cap in the Voo circuit via pins 10 and 11. 9) Mulei-purpose Tone Oscil1ator: -- 10-3 and Q27 is the tone oscillator. 2 KOR gates of 1-4 make upa ultivibrator. Tes oscillating frequency is determined by 124, C125, R104 and VRI0. (See values tabulated versus frequency in 4. i). Output from the oscillator is fed via pin 11 toa low pass Filter R103, C123 to ronove har- monies created by the mitivibrator. this filtered output is buffered by 027 and then fed to the low pass filter of the microphone amplifier through the Level con trol, VR. ‘The cizcuit can provide elther a sub-audible tone or a higher frequency tone burst. Ie can further be switched to provide either a continuous tone for the duration of the transnission ora short burst at the beginning of each transmission by operation of the internal switch mounted on the sain unit ACB. ‘Tho oscillator is controlled by the voltage applied by the TONE/RF ATT svitch through pin 46. For tho tono burst, C128, 108 and 2 NOR Gates of IC-4 make upa “one shot multivibrator" with a period of approximately .5 seconds. ‘the PN-2016A transcoivers aro set at the factory for a sub-audible tone of 100H2 and the FM-20168 transceivers are sat for a 1750i2 tone burst. 10) ABC Circuit (output Control): ~- RF power is sampled by the diode D2 in tho power booster module and is fed to the d-c amplifier 924 and 025 via pin 37. the Signal is then applied to the bese of a buffer, 021 and by varying the base voltage controls the output. VR3 sets the low power output and VRd sets the high power out- (pat through the main power siitch and pins 14, 15 and 27. The unlock signal from the sunthosizer unit is applied to tho APC through pin 27. 11) Transmitter Exciter: ~~ Transistor 917 and crystal x2 combine to generate a 16.9Hlz signal which is anplified by 01@ and is fed to the balanced mixer 919 and (020 through tuned circuits 15 and LI6. The 1% local oscillator signal. from the synthesizer unit is also applied to the mixer through pins 6 and 7. (127-1 ~ 192.0958). ‘The mixer converts these Inpute to the desined signal frequency (144.0 - 148.995) « This output is passed through 4 successive stages of electronic tuned circuits, Anductors 118, 119, £20, £21 and varicaps 014, DIS, DI6 and DI7 which are peaked at the operating frequency to minimize spurs. “This circuit is similar to the cir~ cuits employed in the receiver and are effective in attenuating a1] but the desired Frequency. ‘The output 13 amplified by a dual gate MOS-FEP, O21 and passes through =a